THE LEXICAL ITEM DOWN AND SOME OF ITS VARIANTS PRESENT IN THREETEXTS ON THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC CRISIS: A CRHONOLOGICAL STUDYOF FORMS AND GRAMMATICALIZATION

7/29/2019 THE LEXICAL ITEM DOWN AND SOME OF ITS VARIANTS PRESENT IN THREETEXTS ON THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC C

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THE LEXICAL ITEM DOWN AND SOME OF ITS VARIANTS PRESENT IN THREE

TEXTS ON THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC CRISIS: A CRHONOLOGICAL STUDY

OF FORMS AND GRAMMATICALIZATION

Franklin de la Cruz.

Universidad de ChileFacultad de Filosofa y Humanidades

Departamento de LingsticaMagster en Lingstica mencin Lengua Inglesa

English Grammar Course 2012Professor Carlos Zenteno

Abstract:

From all the different variations of the lexical itemgrade, it is the adverbform that is present in all the

instances of compound forms. All of them originated in Modern English. Four out of seven compounds,

came from ablatives and derived into nouns. Only in one instance, downgrade, derived from a noun into

verb, making thus, a clear instance of grammaticalization. There is a strong tendency towards the fusion of

the element adjacent to the right towards the adv. form.


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1 Objectives

1.1 General objective

1.1.1 To track the change process of the lexical item 'down' and seven of its lexical

compounded forms found in a 15,220 word long corpus, in order to detect instances of

grammaticalization.

1.2 Specific objectives

1.2.1 To track the form of the items diachronically by means of their etymology.

1.2.2 To quantify the occurrence of the items present in the texts and contrast the

numbers.

1.2.3 To seek for instances of grammaticalization.

2 Introduction

The aim of the present study is to identify whether the changes present in the

lexical item down are in fact instances of grammaticalization or just any other kind of

linguistic transformation.

In words of Hopper and Traugott (2001) grammaticalization

refers to the change whereby lexical terms and constructions come in certain linguistic

contexts to serve grammatical functions, and, once grammaticalized, continue to develop

new grammatical functions. Thus nouns and verbs may change over time into grammatical

elements such as case markers, sentence connectives , and auxiliaries. (Hopper and

Trauggott. 2001: preface)

A clear example of that is the transformation of will, from PIE root *wel- (be

pleasing) up to Mod. Eng.ll (auxiliary modal verb sufix of will). Here, we are going to

provide a descriptive / etimological study on the lexical item down and 7 different forms


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found in three texts: downturn, downgrade (n.), downgrade (v.), downside, slowdown,

downward and meltdown.

3 Grammaticalization.

3.1 Grammaticalization

The term was used for the first time by Meillet (1912) in order to name the process

by means of which grammatical forms come into existence or change. Today, it is

believed that there are at least three mechanisms that take place in order to modify the

grammatical status of words: they are analogy, reanalysis and grammaticalization.

Examples of these processes are appreciated in cases such as the plural noun mark suffix s

(book/ books) for the first one, the fusion attested in cannot for the second, and the

contraction from 'because' to 'coz' for the latter. Even though there are clear cut differences

among them, the main characteristics of the overall process is meaning loss, it usually

takes place at word boundary (phonological vowel and consonant reduction mainly),

semantic bleaching, the event is umpredictable and takes place in a very long time.

Nonetheless, the clines may be traced diachronically. Here, we follow the definition

provided by Lehemann (2002), in which grammaticalization is:

"a process which may not only change a lexical into a grammatical item, but may also shift

an item 'from a less to a more grammatical status', in Kurylowickz's words. Since adjectives

derived in al are commonly non-relative (they have no polar antonyms and do not take part

in comparison; cf. maternal), one might take the position that the property of being

grammatical, of belonging to the grammar, is a bynary property and not a matter of degree."

(Leheman, 2002)

Finally, according to Harrys (1997), 'Meillet's sense of grammaticalization includes the

process by which a word becomes a clitic, a clitic an affix, and an affix a synchronically


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unanalyzable part of another morpheme. This change in the grammatical forms would be

a result of 'two competing forces, the tendency towards easy of articulation, and the

tendency towards distinctinctness' (Leheman, 2002.) As it is going to be explained

below, the changes that the item down attests today, are not instances of a

grammaticalization change mechanism as such, but that of reanalysis (fusion) and

nominalization. A comprehensive view on the history of the study of grammatical forms,

and a miriad of proposals relative to the appropriate term(s) to refer to these procesess of

language change are found in Lehemann (2002: Ch 1 and 2) and in Traugott (1993: Chps.

1 to 3.)

3.2 Grammaticalization mechanisms

3.2.1 Analogy

Hopper and Traugott (1993:56) claim that analogy is a mechanism that takes

place in the paradigmatic axis of the items by means of a generalization and latter

extension of it into other items simmilar in nature:

stone : stones = shoe : X

X = shoes

Its main characteristics are that the analogical extension is made once a nucleus

of forms has already emerged to which new forms can be assimilated (Hopper and

Traugott, 1993:21), it is peripheral (it does not affect the system as a whole) and it is

ruled out as a primary source of new grammatical forms.

3.2.2 Reanalysis

In the context of functional linguistics, Langaker (reference back to Hopper and

Traugott, 1993:40) refers to reanalysis as a change in the structure of an expression or

class of expressions that does not involve any immediate or intrinsic modification of its


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surface manifestation and it is the result of abduction1. One of the processes is called

fusion, and it consists in the merger of two or more forms across word or morphological

boundaries (Hopper and Traugott 1993:41):

cil-hod ='condition of a child childhood

As such, reanalysis is a mechanism that may lead to grammaticalization and all

grammaticalized items have passed through a process of reanalysis. It involves a shift

from grammatical to lexical structure. (Hopper and Traugott 1993:49)

3.2.3 Grammaticalization (mechanism)

Meillet asserts that it consists in the attribution of grammatical character to

autonomous words or to ways of grouping words (reference back to Meillet, 1912:132 in

Hopper and Traugott 1993:22) and it tends to be a process of replacing older categories

with newer ones having the same approximate value (Hopper and Traugott 1993:22).

PIE root *wel- /*wol- >P.Gmc. welljan > O.E. willan, wyllan > M.E. will/ 'll : modal aux v.

'be pleasing' 'to wish, 14th c sheele (she will)

desire, want' 15th c she'll

Chronology ofwill2

The main characteristic is that the change is on the paradigmatic axis and thus, it

can change the overall system of the language. The example above clearly unveils the

meaning loss, the reanalysis of the form willan, and its contraction ll, as a previous state

before a hypothetical clitic l ( shel*: she will)3.

3 Sample: down

3.1 Methodology


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First of all, the item was detected out from three texts on the same theme: todays

European economic crisis. The first text was written by a specialist on the subject, the

second by an expert journalist and the third one (seven one-paragraph-long texts) from

the opinions written by ordinary users on the second text. All of them were taken out

randomly from the internet within the first three choices given from the search engine

tool from google. Then, the texts were copied into Microsoft Word 2003. After that, all

the words were counted up automatically, by means of the counting words tool

incorporated in the software. Then, the texts were converted into PDF (Portable

Document Software.) There, the worddown was automatically detected by the searching

tool of the reading software PDF:

PDF word search tool

Then, the variations of the source worddown were detected manually from the previous

list given by the search engine and grouped together according to its forms. After that, the

source word and the variations were fully traced back diachronically from the


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information present in the Online Etimology Dictionary. Based upon that information, the

next chart was drawn in order to track the changes of the words (See appendix B):

Etymology chart

Finally, the items were selected from the first two lines, the word change and the form:

O.E. ofdune dat > dune dat >M.E. prep > Mod. Eng. 1560 [prep > v >adv >adj ]

Synthesis:

dat > adv [prep > v >adj]

Derivation ofdown adv.

The synthesis is read as given the dative item (down) it became and adverb to coexist

with down v, down prep, and down adj.

4. Analysis and data.

4.1 Texts

4.1.1 Text 1

The longest, with 13,547 words, comes from an annual paper published by the

United Nations on economy affairs called World Economic Situationand Prospects 2012.

It has no authorship, but due to the source, it is believed it was written by at least one

specialist on the field.

4.1.2 Text 2

It is the editorial from the USA Today News. It is called How the European

financial crisis affects you, and it was written by the European Commission.


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4.1.3 Text 3

Actually, the third text corresponds to seven opinions written by ordinary people

about the information present in Text 2. All of the texts consisted only in one paragraph

made up by 77 words on average. Only for methodological reasons, all the comments

were grouped together as one 7 paragraphs long text.

4.2 Numbers:

The total amount of words present in the texts is 14,614, distributed as follows:

Text 1:13,547 wds.

Text 2:526 wds.

Text 3:541 wds. (77 words on average out from seven one-paragraph-long texts)

Total: 14,614 words.

4.2.1 Text 1

52 instances (out of 13, 547 words) of the item down and its variants were found:

downturn n.: 16 (30% of the overall)

down adv.: 14 down n. 1 down adj. 1

slowdown n.: 8

downward adj.:4

downside adj.: 3

meltdown n.: 3

downgrade n. 1 downgrade v. 1 (1,9% of the overall)

4.2.2 Text 2

7 instances (out of 526 words):

meltdown n: 2

downs n.: 1 down adj.:1


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downturn n.: 1

slowdown n.: 1

bringdown adv.:1

4.2.3 Text 3

Only one instance was found: down adv.

4.3 Comment.

It is very interesting the fact that, the longer the text, more instances of a

compound form of down seem to appear.

5 Etymologies and synthesis

5.1 down adv.

O.E. ofdune dat > dune dat >M.E. prep > Mod. Eng. 1560 [prep > v >adv >adj ]

Synthesis:

dat > adv [prep > v >adj]

5.2 down n.1

PIE root *dheu- v > O.N. dunn n > Mod. Eng. down n.

Synthesis:

v > n

5.3 down n.2

PIE root *dheue- v > P.Gmc *dunaz n >O.E. >dun n > Ger. Dune n >Mod. eng. down n.

Synthesis:

v > n


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5.4 downturn n.

(down adv) + (turn n)

dat > adv [prep > v >adj] + v > n [ v]

Synthesis:

dat > n

5.5 slowdown n. (1898)

(slow adj.) + (down adv)

adj > n + v > n

Synthesis:

adj > n

5.6 meltdown n.

root v- > [v / v+n] + dat > adv [prep > v > adj]

Synthesis:

root v- > n5.7 downside n.

(down adv) + side n

dat > adv [prep > v >adj] + root adj- > n

Synthesis:

dat > n

5.8 downward adj.

(down adv) + O.E. ward adv

dat > adv [prep > v >adj] + Root v- > [adj / adv]Synthesis

dat > adj


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5.9

5.10 downgrade v.

dat > adv [prep > v >adj] + v > n [v]

Synthesis:

dat > n [v]

6 Summary of items and synthesis

6.1 down adv. = dat > adv [prep > v >adj]

6.2 down n.2= v > n

6.3 downturn n. = dat > n

6.4 slowdown n. = adj > n

6.5 meltdown n. = root v- > n

6.6 downside n. = dat > n

6.7 downgrade n= dat > n [v]

6.8 downgrade v= dat > v [n]

7 Conclusions

7.1 With no exceptions, all the compound forms were instances of fusions made in

Mod.Engl., since the 18th c. onwards, between down (adv.) + some other element, like

this:

[adj, root v] + down adv + [n, adj, root v,]

n n / v


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It can be stated that according to this information, all the compound forms of down, have

a central element which is down (adv.).

7.2 With only one exeption (downgrade v), the fusions led to compound nouns.

According to the Online Etimology Dictictionary, the verb formdowngrade is attested

since 1930 onwards and comes from downgrade (n.) attested almost one hundred years

before, in 1858.

7.3 Downgrade (v.) stands as a clear instance of grammaticalization as a reanalysis of

the noun downgrade.

7.4 It is possible that the adv. item down plus noun may lead to reanalysis thus:

down adv + noun > compound noun > compound verb

7.5 It is believed that the instance down adv + noun > compound noun is a potential

for grammaticalization.

7.6 Downturn (n), was the item with the most occurrance with a 30% fromk the all

cases. Thus, according to n. 7.4, it is possible that in a near future instances of downgrade

(v.) may appear.

Notes

1 Abduction proceeds from an observed result, invokes a law, and infers that something

may be the case. E.g. given the fact that Socrates is dead, we may relate this fact to the


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general law that all men are mortal, and guess that Scrates was a man (reference back

to Andersen 1973:775. Hopper and Traugott 1993:41)

1 All the cline proposals come from the etymologies found in the Online Etymology

Dictionary at http://www.etymonline.com/abbr.php?allowed_in_frame=0

1shel* the diacritic in the end means a hypothetical form of the item in the future

Reference

Harrys, A. 1997. Remarks on Grammaticalization. Vanderbilt University.

Hopper Paul & Traugott Elizabeth. 1993. Grammaticalization. Cambridge University

Press.

Lehmann, C. 2002. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. 2ndedition. Lincom Europa.

Bibliography

Bybee, Joan. 2002.Cognitive Processess in Grammaticalization. University of New

Mexico

DeLancey, Scott. 1993. Grammaticalization and Linguistic Theory.University of Oregon.

Durkin, Philip. 2009. The Oxford Guide to Etimology. OxfordUniversity Press.

Harrys, Alice. 1997. Remarks on Grammaticalization. Vanderbilt University.

Hopper Paul & Traugott Elizabeth. 1993. Grammaticalization. Cambridge University

Press.

Kyparski, Paul.---. Grammaticalization as Optimization. University of Yale.

Lehmann, C. 2002. Thoughts on Grammaticalization. 2ndedition. Lincom Europa.

Vliz, Leonardo. Grammaticalization: the Development of some Modal English

Auxiliaries. Literatura y Lingstica. 2007.


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Webliography

European economic crisis 2012 comments:

http://www.usatoday.com/news/opinion/editorials/story/2012-06-10/euro-Europe-

financial-crisis/55502256/1

European economic crisis 2012 pdf:

http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/policy/wesp/wesp_current/2012wesp_prerel.pdf

Online Etymology Dictionary:

http://www.etymonline.com/abbr.php?allowed_in_frame=0


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APENDIX A

Abreviations

Anglo-Fr.Anglo-French, the French written in England from the Norman

Conquest (1066) through the Middle Ages; the administrative and legal language

of England 12c.-17c.

O.E. Old English, the English language as written and spoken c.450-c.1100.

M.E. Middle English, the English language as written and spoken c.1100-c.1500.

Mod.Eng. Modern English, language of Britain and British America since mid-16c.

O.N. Old Norse, the Norwegian language as written and spoken c.100 to 1500 C.E., the

relevant phase of it being "Viking Norse" (700-1100), the language spoken by the

invaders and colonizers of northern and eastern England c.875-950. This was before the

rapid divergence of West Norse (Norway and the colonies) and East Norse (Denmark and

Sweden), so the language of the vikings in England was essentially the same, whether

they came from Denmark or from Norway. Only a few of the loan words into English can

be distinguished as being from one or the other group.

P.Gmc. Proto-Germanic, hypothetical prehistoric ancestor of all Germanic

languages, including English.

PIE Proto-Indo-European, the hypothetical reconstructed ancestral language of the Indo-

European family. The time scale is much debated, but the most recent date proposed for it

is about 5,500 years ago.


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Apendix B: etymology chart of down


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1 Abduction proceeds from an observed result, invokes a law, and infers that something may be the case.E.g. given the fact that Socrates is dead, we may relate this fact to the general law that all men are mortal,and guess that Scrates was a man (reference back to Andersen 1973:775. Hopper and Traugott 1993:41)

2 All the cline proposals come from the etymologies found in the Online Etymology Dictionary athttp://www.etymonline.com/abbr.php?allowed_in_frame=03

shel* the diacritic in the end means a hypothetical form of the item in the future

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THE LEXICAL ITEM DOWN AND SOME OF ITS VARIANTS PRESENT IN THREETEXTS ON THE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC CRISIS: A CRHONOLOGICAL STUDYOF FORMS AND GRAMMATICALIZATION