The Eurocentric World1789-1917

From Modern Nationalism to the Collapse of the Eurocentric World

Defining Our Terms

A time of European modernization and change

Zenith of modern European History

Political Radicalization

Cultural exchange and modernization of European outposts

Marks of European Modernization and Change

French and Industrial Revolutions

Starts in France and GB

Moves west to east and north to south

Change was uneven

Process was inherently destabilizing

Changed power relationships

This Period Represents the Zenith of European Power and Influence

Economic Modernization caused

by Industrial Revolution

Political Modernization spurred by the FR

Social Modernization Creates Mass Culture

and Mass Society

Movement of Ideas and Revolution

Geo

graphic

West to East and North to South

Uneven Change

We see this Within Countries and between Countries

Develop

me

nt Gap

Between GB in the West and Russia in the East, and urban and rural areas

The Winners Were Those Who Adapted

Great Britain

France

Germany

Political Modernization Spreads from FR and Napoleonic Era

Defined and spread ideolgies

The –isms and -acies

LiberalismSocialism

Modern conservatismNationalism

Democracy and Meritocracy

Revolution Legitimized

Radical change in government driven by the masses socially accepted

Effects of the Industrial Revolution: Business Structures

Increased Productivity

New Technologies

New Forms of Enterprise

Transportation and Communication

Effects of the Industrial Revolution:Social Structures

Urbanization

New relationships among Classes, Genders, and States

Expanded Education

Effects of Industrial Revolution:Economics

Imperialism

Expansion of World Economies

Creation of International Classes

Period from 1789 to 1917 Can Be Divided into Four Distinct Periods

FR in 1789 to Revolutions in 1848

Repression of 1848 Revolutions to the Unification of Germany 1870-71

Domestic Developments Between 1871 and 1914

Failed European Diplomacy that led to WWI

Key Concepts from the Revolutionary Period1789-1848

Introduction Legitimized Revolution

Napoleon Spreads Revolution by Force

Rise of Nationalism

Spread of Industrial Revolution: France and Belgium by 1830, western and central Europe by 1840

Metternich Era

Repression of Revolution and New Conservatism: 1848-1871

Urban populations grow because of the Industrial Revolution

German and Italian Unification

German/Prussian Dominance in Central Europe

Russia defeated in the Crimean War

Major Domestic Developments between 1871 and 1914

Second Industrial Revolution

Spread of more exclusive Nationalism

Rapid Urbanization

Industrial and Social Capitalism

Decline of liberalism

Domestic Growth Continued

Mass Society

Growth of Feminism

Cultural Determinism as an outgrowth of modern science

Beginning of a Leisure Oriented World

Causes and Implications of Failed Diplomacy1914-1917

The Age of Bismarck and the isolation of France 1871-1890

The Age of Imperialism

Collapse of the Bismarckian Alliance System

Rise of Germany and diminishment of Russia sets stage for World Conflict

Militarism and culture of violence lead to large scale war

Russian Revolution

Legacies: Europe on the Brink of Modern History

Most States were sovereign, territorial, and nascent nationalist.

Governments were largely centralized

Considerable wealth was being generated by expanding international commerce

Economic expansion created a growing commercial class

Enlightenment ideas permeated social thought, particularly in England and France

Early Modern European History: The Ancien Regime

Economic structure primarily agrarian

Social structure still traditional Chain of Being

Political structure still traditional-divine monarchs, subjects rather than citizens, centralized but not nationalistic

Population was largely illiterate, isolated, superstitious, and hierarchical

Renaissance Represents First Turning Point

Classical Learning

Textual Criticism

Secularism

Individualism

Humanism

Protestant Reformation is the Second Turning Point

Destroyed the medieval power of the Catholic Church

Enhanced power of secular princes

Initiated the idea of revolution/right to challenge authority

Gave power to the commercial class

Scientific Revolution is the Third Turning Point

The Age of Reason

Empowered educated elites

Modern scientific methodology further erodes ecclesiastical power

Makes the future more relevant than the past

Creation of Wealth is the Fourth Turning Point

International empires create fluid wealth

Commercial capitalism dominated by merchant capitalists

Concepts of how wealth is created changes

Markets largely driven by luxury items like wool, sugar, tobacco, cotton

Effects of Merchant Capitalism on a National Scale

Growth of Middle Class

Enlightened Despots understand the growing economy changes the role of the monarchy from one of self to plurality.

Where merchant capitalism is fostered economic development grows. Commercial structures for goods and services grow. Countries where this is slow to develop will remain slow.

Effects of Merchant Capitalism on an International Scale

Competition between countries for raw materials and trade routes.

States become more centralized and efficient- bureaucracies

Inevitable conflict among power players

First Industrial and Agrarian Revolution is the Fifth Turning Point

1760-1780

Mainly GB and Low Countries

Creates surplus food supplies

Drives urban growth

Changes social structures for the poor

The Power Houses

Great Britain

France

Prussia

Austria

Russia

Relationships

GB first world power

France first continental power

Austrian Empire ruled by Hapsburgs controlled the HRE- which was comparatively meaningless.

Hapsburgs were the counterweight to the French in the west and the Ottoman Empire in the West- a buffer but did not have the power of their neighbors

Prussia

Product of the Thirty Year’s War

Led by Frederick the Great who was a Hohenzollern

Gained significant power between 1740-1748

Russian

Modernizes military and state infrastructure under Peter the Great

Does not modernize economy

Does not foster growth of commercial/middle class

Joins European Power Club upon entering the War of Austrian Succession 1740-1786

Hegemony

Domination of a World Power

Balance of Power Wars

Commercial Control

Enlightenment is the Sixth Turning Point

Primarily in France but spreads

Mostly an Aristocratic, clergy, or middle class exercise.

Redefined the purpose of government

Results

Governments existed for the governed

Governments should be efficient

Governments should be tolerant

Religion should be separate from the state

The governed have a right to Revolution

Changing Political Landscape Creates New Political Philosophies

liberalism

democracy

Early form of socialism

Conservatism

Feminism

nationalism

Liberalism

Promulgated constitutions

Basic civil rights

Limited male suffrage

Careers open to talent

Private property

Limited government

Democracy as Radicalism

Favored same agenda as liberalism

Favored universal male suffrage

More state action

Conservatism tied to Constitutional Monarchy

Reluctant to let go of Divine Right

Updated based on English Monarchy

Edmund Burke becomes the clarifying voice

Feminism

Women’s rights remain an argument

Progress from Enlightenment and early Revolution is limited

Radical era largely ignores women

Napoleonic Era codifies male dominance

The First Industrial Revolution Transformed Civilization

Harnessing energy Developing mass markets

Creating urbanized working class

French Revolution: Causation

Enlightenment

Outdated and rotting institutions

Complex forces that aligned at just the right time

Enlightenment

Spread through elite and popular culture

Permeated all classes

Encyclopedia catalogs thought

French Institutions Suffered from Neglect and Corruption- Rotten From Within

Taxation- Aristocrats and Clergy exempt

Corrupt- collected by tax farmers

Most went to pay debt

Population Explosion That Was Not Matched by Agrarian Yield

Agrarian Depression of 1770’s and 1780’s

Rise in urban unemployment

The Cost of Louis XIV Foreign Policy Legacy Contributes to Economic Instability in the Decade Leading Up to the FR

The War of Austrian

Succession1740-48

Seven Year’s War1756-1763

Loss economically

and in Prestige

The American Revolution Acted as a Satisfaction for the French Rather than a Tangible Gain.

American Independence Aided by French Money,

Weapons, and Manpower

American Victory Creates an Independent

Nation That is not a French Satellite

France Enjoys Revenge on the English but the

Cost Bankrupts the French Government

A Series of Unfortunate Social Events Undermine the Monarchy and Encourage Aristocratic Challenges to Absolutism.

Louis XV Was Deviant Louis XVI had Trouble Producing an Heir

Marie Antoinette was Hated

A Series of Unfortunate Economic Events Anger the Masses

Debt Caused Inflation

Bread Prices Rise

A Decade of Bad Harvests

Bread Prices Rise Again

War Caused Debt

Agrarian Disaster Creates Mass Suffering

Hail Storm of 1788

Two volcanic Eruptions

FloodingAntiquated Farming Practices

Drought

Pre-Revolution: Assembly of Notables called to Resolve Debt Represents the Aristocratic Reaction to the growing crisis and the first phase of the FR.

Deadlock

King asks for taxation on aristocrats and clergy.

Deadlock

In return for accepting taxation the aristocrats demanded shared authority

Loo

ming Ban

kru

ptcy

Louis calls first Estates General since 1614

Feeding a Family: Bread Prices

8 sous 15 sous 70-90% of Working Wage

Revolution Driven by a Series of Complex Forces

King is Weak

Class Conflict

Financial Instability

Church/State decisions

Growing urban and rural violence

Foreign Wars

Ideological friction

Calling the Estates General: 5 May 1789

King Just

Wants Revenue

Cahiers de

Doleances Reflect Demands from all

Three Estates

Growing tension between the middle classes and elite conservatives increased during the summer of 1789 because of dysfunction on the three estate system.

Lack of clarity concerning the function of the three estate system

Should the first two override the third

Some liberal aristocrats and clerics joined the third estate

The Catalyst is “What is the Third Estate”

•Abbe Sieyes Lights the Fuse of Revolution when he Asserts that the Masses Represent the Nation while the Aristocrats Represent Parasites.

At this point the revolution unfurled in four phases between 1789 and 1799, each driven by elite leadership and unique philosophy.

Moderate 1789-1792

Radical 1792-1794

The Directory 1795-1799

The Age of Napoleon 1800-1815

National Assembly 1789-1791

June: Tennis Court Oath

July: Bastille

Late July: Great Fear

Beginning of August: Nobles Renounce Feudal Rights

Jacobin Club Forms

National Assembly becomes More Radical

Late August: Declaration of the Rights of Man

Royal Family taken to Paris-Tuileries

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

Royal Family Flees and is Caught

Declaration of Pilllnitz August 1701

Constitution Created

Establishment of a Constitutional Monarchy: 1789-1791

Increasingly Powerful Legislature

Increasingly Weakened Monarchy

Initial and Violent Hallmarks

Tennis Court Oath

Storming of the Bastille

Great Fear

Radical Ideologies Realized

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

Confiscation of Church Property

Suppression of guilds and prohibition of workers’ organizations= support of capitalist economy

Certain Actions Represent A Point of No Return

Flight and Capture of Royal Family

Stripping Rights from non-juring clergy and émigré nobles

Declaring war against Austria

Key Events During the Constitutional Phase

April 1792- France Declares War On Austria- Angry About Pillnitz

August 1792- Mobs storm royal palace and Royal Family is imprisoned

Commune Seizes Assembly/ Legislative Assembly Falls

Danton purges “traitors”- Girondins lose/Jacobins win

1792-1795 National Convention is the Most Radical Phase

Universal Male Suffrage

Re-writes Constitution

Abolishes Monarchy

Declares France a Republic

Counter Revolution in the Vendee

Riots broke out when king was executed and levee des Hommes (en Masse) was enforced to fight Austrians

Civil Constitution of Clergy not accepted

Creates a Catholic and Royal Army and marches on Nantes

Beaten and vindictive reprisals result in a genocide

Committee of Public Safety Descends into Authoritarianism: April 1793

The Twelve Who Ruled

Initially an arm of the National Convention that was charged with reporting on the war

Members were supposed to be elected monthly but they never changed

Guillotined opponents

Law of Suspects and General Maximum

By December 1793 TCPS had published the Law of 14 Fimaire giving it de facto executive power

Reign of Terror Represents the Revolutionary Climb into Radicalism and the Freefall into Tyranny

Internal Civil War (Vendee)

Foreign Defeat

Severe Inflation

Food Shortages

The Committee of Public Safety and the Radical Play to keep Control

Universal Military Conscription

Wage and price controls

Revolutionary tribunals

State centralization

Thermidorean Reaction 28 July 1794

Robespierre Executed

Churches Reopened

New Constitution Written

Creation of the Directory

More Moderate Voices, Driven by the Commercial Class, Tire of Chaos and Assert Control of the Government.

Execution of Real and supposed enemies were on such a scale that sensible people tired of the violence.

Republican victories over foreign adversaries brings a feeling of nationalism.

Jacobin leadership and support executed.

Moderates led by the Commercial class take control

The Directory 1795-1799

Bi-Cameral: House of Ancients and Council of 500

Return to a moderate Constitutional Phase of the Revolution

Headed by a committee of five

Public protest repressed

Freedom of limited religion

Continued foreign conquest

Failure to Create Political Unity Creates an Opportunity for Napoleon to Overthrow the Directory and Become the First Consul.

Military used at home to maintain order

Girondists were more conservative and linked to monarchy

Unable to bring economic stability

Napoleon represents a coalescence of Enlightenment, Revolution, and Enlightened Despotism.

Educated during the Age of Enlightenment

Came of Age During the French Revolution

Maintained control as an enlightened despot

Napoleon Bonaparte defines and instills revolutionary ideology throughout Europe by conquest and effective social systems.

An “epoch man”

A Dichotomy

Historical legacy defines modern Europe

Power Comes From Opportunity

Starts as a Jacobin

Rises in the Army because of unusual military talent

Makes political connections because of his military success

Switches support to Thermidorians

Marries well- Josephine de Beauharmais

Joins Abbe Sieyes and helps overthrow the Directory

Personality is Everything: Napoleon was stubborn, ambitious, and popular which helped him gain power, seize control of the government, and achieve success where the Directory had failed.

Became Consul for life in 1802

Emperor in 1804

Success Comes to Those Who Create Stability

Implements a constitution with a strong executive branch

Careers open to talent- even to those who were ideologically different- even royalists

Powerful and effective prefects appointed in each Department (county)

Negotiates with the Pope to re-establish Catholic Church in France but does not give up state control

Continued….

Religious Toleration- maintains gains made by protestants and Jews during the Revolution

Stabilizes economy by creating a semi-private bank of France and stabilizes French currency

Property rights established during revolution maintained

Creates institutions to advance education, manage society, and run the military

Peace Brings Power

Manages to defeat all opponents- even the English sign the Peace of Amiens 1802

France has dominant position on Continent

Considerable border gains create buffers

Most of war costs paid for by the losers and a military that lived off the land

The First Phase of Napoleon is marked by monumental success followed by cataclysmic failure.

Napoleonic Code Promulgated

Relative prosperity- neighbors still paying for war

Military victories

Annexation of territory and the creation of satellite states

The Continental System of 1806

The Napoleonic Code represents the codification of the revolution and Napoleon’s legacy to modern western society.

Guarantees equality under the law for men

Subordination of women

Predominance of contracts and property rights

Meritocracy

Continued military success makes him loved at home and feared abroad

Victories in Austria, Russia, and Prussia

Peace of Tilsit signed with Russia in 1807 establishes French dominance over continental Europe

English beat him at Trafalgar and prevent invasion of England

Annexation of land and creation of satellite states bring in revenue and spread revolutionary ideology.

Confederation of the Rhine 1806

Abolition of the Meaningless HRE

Reducing German States- creation of the Bund (confederation)

After a while, everyone tires of war.

Peninsular war was mired in stalemate- Spanish used guerilla tactics and English funded

Germany reacts to French imperialism with nationalism

Prussia uses French reforms to prepare for upcoming conflict

The Continental System cannot be enforced and causes economic conflict

The Continental System represents the first large scale and coordinated economic tactic designed to defeat a political foe through market exclusion, commercial alliance, and boycott.

France failed at invading England

France could not compete with England by sea

Napoleon develops a maniacal hatred of the ‘little shopkeepers’

Napoleon designed the Continental System to make France a centralized world economy with satellite countries and allies feeding capital to Paris.

Berlin Decree 1806 prohibits importation of British goods to the continent even if brought on neutral ships

Milan Decree states that any neutral ship that stops in a British harbor or submits to a British sea search will be confiscated once entering a continental harbor.

Alliances with Russia and Prussia at Tilsit assured compliance but two neutral states will refuse which will lead to the bloody Peninsular War.

Denmark was a major port of entry and the English mistakenly try to take it before they join Napoleon.

English bombard Copenhagen, anger Danish who join Napoleon

Portugal had long been a satellite of England and refused. Napoleon invaded but still needed to control Spanish ports

Napoleon tricks Charles IV to abdicate the Spanish throne, imprisons Charles’ son Ferdinand in a Paris prison, and then Napoleon puts his brother on the throne.

Spanish see French as Godless thugs who deface churches

Spanish fought back with guerilla warfare

Brutal domestic atrocities- Third Day of May by Goya

Failure of the Continental System rests in nationalism, tastes for luxury items, economic failure, and Iberian resistance.

Ultimately the allied countries had their own interests and did not want to be subordinate to a French economy

Luxury items coming from the Americas like tobacco and sugar were demanded

Caused economic distress in continental ports instead of British

Talleyrand convinces Alexander to wait Napoleon out because France was overstretched- gentleman’s diplomacy

Overconfident, Overstretched, Overstayed, and Outnumbered

Napoleon gambles on Russia and loses big- starts with 600,000 soldiers and returns with 40,000

Britain, Prussia, Russia, and Austrians cooperate in order to beat France

Alliance of GB, Russia, Austria, and Prussia Creates the Numbers Needed to Defeat Napoleon

Battle Of Nations (Leipzig) October 1813

Allies enter Paris March 1814

Napoleon abdicates and exiled to Elba

The Terms Cause Rancor Among Some French

Negotiated with the French Prince Talleyrand

Non-punitive Treaty

Put Louis XVIII on throne

French borders returned to 1792 “natural borders”

Napoleon Makes a Dramatic Return in 1815 but 1814 Outcome Repeats

Defeated at Waterloo by the British

Sent back into exile at St. Helena-more difficult to return to France from- where he dies

End of era

The Congress of Vienna creates peace and a turning point in ideological warfare between conservatives and liberals that continues to this day.

Many Revolutionary changes maintained in France and countries that had been invaded by France

Constitutional and National ways of thinking could not be erased

Industrial forces driven by the industrial revolution in Britain would soon spread to the continent, bringing with them power for everyday people.

First Industrial Revolution is important to review here because England maintains independence and expands influence because of it.

•The First Industrial Revolution (1760-1850) reflects a process rather than a revolution, but the social transformation generated by its growth and expansion changes society on a global scale.

Industrialization made modernization possible by replacing tools with machines, increasing the standard of living, and creating nation-states

• These changes will redefine balance of power and define global power by shifting economic possibilities on micro and macroeconomic scales. Adaptively and creativity drive these changes, and those who are unable or unwilling to adjust will become increasingly marginalized on a global stage. England starts the engine, but the elements that generate the machine in 1750 continue to be the elements that start the machine today.

Unique Political, Economic, and Geographical Circumstances in England Make the Industrial Revolution Possible.

Stable and tolerant political systemWell developed

commercial and banking system

Fluid social structure

Expanded food supplyAmple natural

resources

Colonial and European markets protected by navy

Entrepreneurial spirit

New inventions

England represents a modern model for effective government because it favors policies conducive to economic expansion, fosters a high level of trust between government and its people, and develops a sense of national exceptionalism.

Government policies consider agrarian, commercial, and manufacturing interests

People accepted basic institutions and did not get caught up in revolutionary fervor

History of shared governance

Increased and sustained stability that improves the standard of living for all citizens creates a sense of national pride and superiority

Successful governance includes the establishment of a National Bank, acceptance of low-level and universal taxation, national debt guaranteed by elites, and well developed financial and banking structures.

National Bank of England 1694

Tax system that was accepted by everyone and relatively low- government relatively cheap to run- established and large middle class

Debt was guaranteed by upper classes and banking interest

Financial and banking structure was well developed

Britain’s success rests on commerce, colonies, and sea power.

Colonial preeminence

Markets and raw materials

Commercial preeminenceExcess capital and

knowledge for investment

Trade made money and gave social mobility which encouraged more people to

enter business

Strong navy protected commerce and eliminated need for a standing army-huge

expense

Agrarian revolution and government policies to encourage agricultural growth fueled greater productivity, liquid capital, and population growth.

Creation of larger farms through the enclosure movement

Increased yield through fertilizer, seed drills, steel plows, and use of cover crops

Excess yield sold abroad for monetary surplus

Ample raw materials and developed transportations systems fuel the machines.

Coal and iron ore are plentiful in England- even sea coal

Well developed river and canal systems

Steam engine generates miles of railroads

Steam engine applied to ships which capitalized on the colonial system

Revolutionary phase in Europe acts as a head start for English commercial growth because the chaos on the continent retards or arrests growth there while relative peace in England accelerates growth there.

In 1780 English trade is valued slightly ahead of France

In 1840 English trade is double France’s

Countries invaded by France during the Napoleonic period drop farther behind with the exception of the low countries

Although the Industrial Revolution increases the standard of living for most classes, the condition of the lowest level of society devolves into exploited misery.

Labor is considered a raw material and the population explosion fed the machine-including children

Elites became disengaged with workers because of urbanization. The medieval caretaker role of the lord was erased.

Plight of the working poor went unnoticed for decades and was not addressed until the 1830’s

Labor conditions change in the second quarter of the 19th century because labor organizes, religious and humanitarian organizations highlight abuse, and universal male suffrage influence government policy.

Unions are created

Educated elites like Charles Dickens and John Stuart Mill highlight abuses in literary works

Religion reminds those in charge of Christ’s charge

Working men get right to vote in 1867

Government passes a series of laws regulating conditions, and child labor

Meanwhile, on the continent, the era of Metternich replaces the Napoleonic Era. This describes the years between the Congress of Vienna and the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions.

Uneasy tension between advocates for order and advocates for change.

Marks the beginning of the push and pull between conservatives and liberals

More developed sense of international alliance to keep peace

Urban poor become the impetus for revolution

Creating peace in Europe after Napoleon was crafted by conservative aristocrats in the years following the Congress of Vienna.

Serves as a dividing line between revolution and restoration

Driven by a need for peace and nationalism.

Shifts the balance of power from France to Austria

The Major Players who Dominate European Affairs between 1815 and 1848

Prince Clemens

von Metternich of Austria

Count Robert Castereagh of

Britain

Prince Tallleyrand of

FranceAlexander I of

Russia

The goals during the Metternich Era focused on….

Restoration of the old order

Legitimizing authority

Compensation for Napoleonic Wars

Political balance of power to bring stability and peace

Preventing France from Napoleonic expansion

Prince Talleyrand manages to ingratiate France into the power structure which prevents punitive and retaliatory policy against the French government.

France remains a continental force

More liberal society becomes separated from the more conservative continent

Becomes allied with England because neither tolerate the repressive policies of the other countries

Compromise, division of war spoils, and the re-establishment of monarchs defines this period.

Creation of the Concert of Europe

Acceptance of the Holy Alliance

Creation of the Bund

The Legacy of the Concert of Europe, also known as the Congress System is the idea that world powers can orchestrate peace prophylactically through negotiation, alliance, and common cause.

League of Nations

United Nations

Council of Europe

Juxtaposing the powers that supported and the powers that dismissed the Holy Alliance illustrates the influence of Czar Alexander I and the fissures within the Congress system.

GB, Prussia, France, and Austria feared Russian hegemony

Prussia and Austria sign

GB, the Ottomans, and the Pope declined

Signed in Paris in 1815 at the conclusion of Napoleonic wars.

On the surface it is a affirmation of Christian ideals but in reality represents absolute and intolerant world view

The fissure within the Congress system is a window into power politics, shifting alliances, and power bids that will define Europe through WWI.

British unsympathetic with repression in Russia, Prussia, and Austria

Old Europe was like Humpty Dumpty- reconstruction was impossible

Repression could not hold back change

Nicholas I, the fierce, epitomizes the repression that retards growth in Russia, alienates England and France, and ferments revolution.

1825-1845

Domestic reign of terror through absolutist policies of censorship and police state

Boyars had complete control over serfs

The conservative return to the past generates friction within Russia, Austria, and Prussia because the ideology spread by Napoleon among the growing middle class demanded change.

liberals and democrats (radicals), and some socialists called for constitutional changes

Nationalists demanded a cultural unification, particularly among the Italians, Germans, and slavs

Middle class call for meritocracy

The poor bristled under repressive laws, food shortages, and serfdom

The continent experiences a series of riots and revolutions between 1815 and 1848 because the conservative and liberal world view were not only at odds but also at a stalemate.

Greece frees itself from the Ottomans

Belgium declared independence from Holland

Spain and Portugal lose American colonies to independence

England manages to adapt to the growing demands of the middle and working class and avoids violent revolution through common sense legislation.

The Reform Bill of 1832

To avoid revolution caused by unfair voting practices the parliament made voting practices uniform.

Did not go far enough but fostered trust among working class.

Introduction of new philosophy and a religious revival also mark this period.

Romantic poets: Wordsworth, Coleridge

Utopian socialists like Charles Fourier, Henri St. Simone, and Robert Owen

Transcendental idealism of Kant and Hegel allowed for the idea that there are things that we will never understand

The political philosophies of this time are the genesis for political movements today and include:

Classical liberalism

Radicalism

Republicanism

Socialism

feminism

Classical liberalism emphasized the rights and liberties that should be given to every man and believed in what was modern, enlightened, efficient, reasonable and fair.

Business and professional classes

Landowners who were entrepreneurial

Politicians who advocated a constitutional monarchy

Hallmarks of liberalism include

Self-government

Self-control

Parliamentary or representative government

Unbiased rule of law

Written constitutions

Rights of man and property

Until the end of the nineteenth and into the twentieth century, liberals opposed…

Universal male suffrage- fearing mob rule

Female suffrage except for a few like John Stuart Mill

Thus, they were not democrats

Liberal economics rested on laissez-faire capitalism, free markets, limited government, and resisted guilds and unions.

Lowering or abolishing tariffs

Freedom of trade

Eradication of the guild system wherever it still existed

Prevention of union

Liberals believed that the growth of wealth , production, and scientific progress would increase the standard of living and bring peace.

Disliked established churches and landed aristocracy as obstacles to advancement

Encouraged education and tolerance

Advocated change through law

Objected to military expenditures and abhorred revolution

Radicalism, particularly in England, represented the unrepresented in parliament.

Liberals who wanted to extend rights to a broader spectrum of society

Thomas Paine and Jeremy Bentham

Advocated a total reconstruction of laws, courts, prisons, poor relief, municipal organizations, and clergy

Radicalism opposed….

Church of England

peerage

Royalty- this would change with queen Victoria who was universally popular

In England the historical change over time regarding radicals pivots on the Reform Bill of 1832.

Industrial capitalist turn into liberals

Working class leaders will remain radical democrats

On the continent, radicalism is militant republicanism and is forever linked with the Reign of Terror.

Advocated political equality and universal male suffrage

Favored parliamentarian rule of law but not as concerned with parliamentarian function as liberals

Believed that revolution was the most effective way to advance political change

Militant Republicanism opposed any social structure that existed in the Ancien Regime including….

Catholic Church

aristocrats

Monarchies of any sort

Militant Republicans were considered by virtually all of society to be little better than anarchists but their legacy will be felt in the future through

Secret societies

Overthrow of regimes by force

terrorism

Socialism, although similar to Militant Republicanism in methodology, advocates redistribution of wealth.

Like the MRs, drawn from the intelligentsia, working class leaders, veterans and children of veterans of the French Revolutionary wars.

Questioned motives of private enterprise

Socialists tended to be French, but not always, and are associated with utopian societies.

John Stuart Mill

Created a utopian village for his workers.

Fair wages, hours, schools, but corrected social behavior like drunkenness.

Stymied politically because of radical religious beliefs

Utopians in America…Charles Fourier, Brook Farm, and Robert Owen

Charles Fourier advocated redesigning society into communes.

Each Commune consists of 1,620 people.

People do what they do best.

Never tried in France but the idea spread to America.

Utopia in America

Brook Farm in MA. Run By literary circle of transcendentalists. Failed.

Robert Owen and New Harmony in Indiana also failed.

Critics remarked that the movements did not address the issues of the industrial age but chose to remove themselves from society.

Communism grows out of the socialist movement among the working classes of France and finds a voice through Louis Blanc, Karl Marx, and Fredereich Engels.

Disaffected French workers comprised of revolutionary republicanism and socialism are the genesis of communism.

They find a voice through Louis Blanc, journalist and editor of Revue de Progress

Blanc advocates a system of ‘social workshops’ or state supported manufacturing centers

Communism was synonymous to socialism

Marx, Engels, and the birth of Communism

German revolutionaries in exile in France

Used communism to differentiate from socialism and the utopians

Consciously used the term in ‘Communist Manifesto’

Went out of general use after 1848 until the Russian Revolution

The conditions and political disappointment experienced by working class people drove discontent, disillusionment, and rage that would fuel social unrest.

Considered the Revolution interrupted

Discriminated against in courts

Forced to carry identity papers

Experiencing the exploitation common of workers during the industrial revolution

Grew to hate wealthy and property owning classes

The Revolutions of 1848 represents a turning point that forces conservative forces of the Congress of Vienna to recognize rights of everyday people and make lasting concessions to the masses.

Like most uprisings, this one is driven by severe agrarian depression.

The agrarian depression led to urban recession

Crisis ensues across the continent among the masses and the hungry demand change

Nationalist and democratic movements capitalize on the unrest by agitating the masses and demanding change from the establishment elites.

Italian, German, and ethnic minorities in Austria (Serbs and Croats) demand freedom based on cultural determination.

Urban middle class demand meritocracy

Peasants in central Europe want freedom from serfdom

This Revolution unfurls in three phases: immediate results, reactionary repression, reorganization

Phase I surprises ruling class

Terrified monarchs quickly give concessions

Phase II sees swift and repressive response

from leadership

Prague bombarded, socialists suppressed, Milan and Lombardy reoccupied

Phase III organizes peace

Revolution here netted little change but illustrates the power and will of the masses and sets the stage for world conflict.

Peasants in Russia emancipated

Moderate Constitutions in Prussia and Piedmont placated the intelligentsia

Most monarchs and the pope saw their autonomy undermined

Ethnic tensions increased because of suppression

Ruling class experiences more of a shuffle than a revolution except in France where a Constitutional question about terms served.

King Victor Emmanuel I replaces King Charles Albert in Piedmont

Emperor Franz Josef replaces Franz Ferdinand in Austria

Louis Napoleon declares himself president and then Emperor-for –Life in France

The end of the 1848 Revolutions ends the Romantic and utopian Era and ushers in a period of realism and representations in art of things falling apart.

Failure of the revolutions undermined idealistic views of exacting change through enlightened thought

Class tensions increased in the middle class and proletariat

Socioeconomic aims in urban areas were limited

Although limited, socioeconomic gains, particularly in the east and in the countryside, mark modern progress.

Emancipation of serfs in Eastern Europe

State attention to government as a force for growth enhances the spread of capitalism

Spread of the Industrial Revolution

Constitutional reform

The state, or ruling elite, now understood the power of the masses and moved to address situations that caused unrest.

Expanding military

Increasing police

Using the government as a paternalistic power

Harnessing nationalism

The era of Realpolitik, led by Bismarck, Napoleon III, and Count Cavour, ushers in national antagonisms, growing class tension, and the Second Industrial Revolution.

Break down of the Concert of Europe

Rise of Prussia and Bismarck

Political philosophy changes to relentless pursuit of nationalistic policies

Rapid Industrialization, particularly in Prussia

Realistic movements in art, literature, and science reflect the nationalist fervor.

Courbet, Millet and the Barbizon school

The age of Wagner and the polonaise

Balzac and Dostoyevsky

Social Darwinism and the rise of racism

Marx and Communism

Volkesgeist, secret societies, Hegelian philosophy, and List economics defines nationalists thought in western Europe.

Concentrates on culture

Concentrates on national politics

Develops a sense of a world view

Creates and economic plan that asserts that free trade was inherently English and detrimental to Continental Europe

Volkesgeist

National spirit that concentrated on cultural markers like language, history, world view

Political nationalism asserts that all people with these traits should be governed as a whole

Challenges traditional monarchial structure of the HRE by language and lack of centralization

Secret Societies: Carbonari, Masons, Veri Italiani

Persecuted under conservative governments as fermenters of revolution

Direct outgrowth of FR and often counted veterans of Napoleonic wars as members

Circulated banned literature and fermented revolution

Not dangerous in countries that were well run

Italy’s Mazzini , a Carbonari member, most famous

Hegel’s philosophy of Universal spirit defines nationalistic rhetoric and gives rise to Marx and communism.

Study of history important to understand current social situation (enlightened assertion)

Change across time important to see trends

Each era seen as a necessary step forward to a society of freedom and equality- defined by each culture

Nationalism In Eastern Europe centered on Slavic revival and Russian Slavophilism.

Adopted the Hegel historical study and demanded preservation of native language- elites spoke French or German

Published national stories and local histories

Created national theaters that produced local works in the local language

Urged elites to give up foreign ways

Russian Slavophilism asserted the innate goodness of the Russian peasant and the cultural corruption of western Europe.

Peasants seen as pure because, through isolation, remained untainted by encounters with the West

Back to Russian Orthodox values

Advocates freedom of serfs, curtailment of bureaucracy, civil liberties

At odds with czar on this point, despite norodnost

Nationalism, therefore, creates the modern European state by adopting rhetoric, imagery, and ceremony that had previously been associated with religion.

Personal sacrifice, including shedding blood, for the homeland became sanctimonious

Used to protect domestic industry through List Economics

Legitimize imperial expansion

Rejects Jews, foreigners, and socialists

Nationalism creates a political culture that

Aggrandizes aggressive military action

Increasing xenophobia

Increasing racism

Chauvinistic and misogynistic behavior

Nationalism will bind homogenous communities together first with a desire to unify, second with the will to unify by war, and last by forming bonds between the government and citizen.

Identifying groups by language and culture

Consolidating preexisting smaller states by force

Establishing a government that represented national interests through education and institution building

The Second Industrial Revolution is marked by the development of national industry which drives national economies, imperialism, and military complex.

Protective Tariffs

Colonial Conquests

Military Procurements

Leadership in Britain continues to be the model for continental Europe but the established systems of government, banking, and research and development make GB commercially superior.

The Chrystal Palace and Great Exhibition of 1851

Banks

Government financial awards to inventors

French industrialization moved at a much slower pace than England’s and concentrated on infrastructure.

canals

railroads

Trade agreements

Government sponsorship of industry in Prussia helps unify Germany and creates a rapidly expanded industrial system and military complex.

g

Zollverein-German Customs Organization the created free trade within German States

Government investment in transportation network

Adoption of mechanization

List’s National System

Eastern Europe, despite social reforms that freed the work force, continues to be plagued by

Lack of resources

Lack of adequate transportation

Lack of governmental incentives

Lack of middle class/capital

Mechanization and the factory system represent the most efficient systems by 1914.

Bessemer Process

Mass production

Electricity

chemicals

Developments in transportation and Communications move goods, ideas, and money quickly and globally.

telegraph

steamships

Streetcars

Telephones

Internal combustion engine

Airplane

radio

This period is marked by volatile business cycles driven by globalization and investor risk that led corporations and governments to manage markets through

monopolies

Banking practices that controlled liquidity

tariffs

Economic changes led to new class consciousness, gender identity, and definitions of childhood.

Proletariat versus bourgeoisie

Cult of Domesticity

Governments define roles of children

Defining family represents the dichotomy between old and new society. On one hand, progress is illustrated by

Birth Control becomes increasingly common

Universal schooling for children

Smaller families

Working class women increased as wage-laborers

On the other hand, tradition persists

Social inequality among classes

Women criticized for abandoning families

Continued dislocation of migrants, both from countryside to city and emigration

Anti-Semitism

Although poverty and dislocation persists into the twentieth century, the last part of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth century are marked by

Availability of consumer goods

Improved sanitary conditions

Improved medical care

Increased life expectancy

Decreased infant mortality

Increased sanitation and advances in medicine improves the lives of urban populations, increases life expectancy, and decreases infant mortality.

Sewage systems

Water systems

Louis Pasteur’s germ theory

Anesthesia and antiseptics

Quinine

Public Health projects

Government social reforms driven by nationalistic goals of patrimony and social organization demands represent the modern bureaucratic state.

Public lighting

Public housing

Public transportation

Parks

Urban redesign

Examples of the reform movements that creates modern social definitions about deserving poor, government intervention, and global awareness are…

The Sunday School Movement

The Temperance Movement

British Abolitionist Movement

Josephine Butler

Specific class markers define bourgeois and proletariat classes through

Trade unions

Benevolent societies

Sports clubs

Speech, dress, values, and customs

Leisure activities are fostered by government and private development of

Public parks

Sport arenas

Public beaches

Department stores

Museums

Opera houses

Mass marketing encourages consumerism and leisure activities.

advertising

Department stores

catalogs

Consumer demand for time saving and leisure items include

Ready made clothing

Processed food

Vacuums, washing machines, lawn mowers

International vacations and luxury steam ships

Nationalism encourages citizens by providing consumer goods through industrialization and by

Romantic idealism

Liberal reform

Political unification

Anti-Semitism

Chauvinism

Aggrandizing government action

A new breed of conservatives emerge at this time who will co-opt nationalist movements as a way to centralize state power and dominate world politics.

Napoleon III

Cavour

Bismarck

Napoleon III

Gained entrée through the revolution of

1848

Used Propaganda to gain popular

support

Placed Bonapartists in key positions

Rolled back rights of those

who would challenge him

Napoleon’s domestic policy reflects the conservative nationalists through support of industry, infrastructure, and welfare which will guarantee popular support.

Industry

Supported inventors

Railroads

Institutions of credit

Infrastructure

Public works

Boulevard System

Parks

Welfare: The Deserving Poor

Guaranteed low bread prices

Construction of hygienic houses for workers

Created arbitration between labor and

management

Louis Napoleon’s foreign policy reflects the continental conservatism and nationalistic policies of nationalistic fervor balanced with international alliance.

Believed that public opinion drives success.

Angered at the terms of the Congress of Vienna so allies with GB.

Colonial policy in Indochina to expand markets and absorb raw material.

Cavour and Italian unification

Anti-Semitism in Russia, France, Germany, and Austria will drive the Zionist movement and lead to the creation of a Jewish state at the end of WWII.

Dreyfus Affair

Christian Socialist Party

Pogroms and the Pale

Karl Lueger, Mayor of Vienna

Theodor Herzl create the World Zionist Organization in response to historical descriminiation and nationalist fervor.

Advocates for a Jewish state

Organizes the first Zionist Congress

Tirelessly organizes, writes, agitates

A series of wars between 1854 and 1871 seriously weakened Austria and Russia and largely established the political geography of today’s Europe.

Crimean War 1854

Italian War 1859

Danish War 1864

Austro-Prussian War 1866

Franco-Prussian War 1870

The significance of the Crimean War rests in the desire of Austria and Russia to maintain the peace of 1815, prevent national movements and the ultimate weakening of both empires.

Russian

Hegemony

German

Complicity

• Mediation • Common dislike of the Ottomans

Angl

o-

Fr

ench

Alli

ance

The Crimean War illustrates the decline of the Ottoman Empire, shatters the Concert of Europe, and creates a pathway for the unification of Germany and Italy.

Russia Wants Danube Region

Russia tries to capitalize on nationalistic fervor by pitting Christians against Muslims.

France and England want sanctions: Germany calls for mediation.

Ottomans cannot beat Russia alone and ally with F and GB.

Russians forced to retreat but never lost the geopolitical port of Sebastopol on the Black Sea

The Crimean War, in many ways, represents the first modern war and provides a preview to WWI.

International alliance

Public hysteria

Trench warfare

Modern weapons

Media coverage

Examples of modern weaponry include…

Minnie ball

Breech-loading rifle

Machine Gun

The Crimean War in popular culture….

War Journalism

Florence Nightingale

The Charge of the Light Brigade