The Age of Exploration The Creation of the Atlantic System and the Eurocentric World 1433-1650

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of ExplorationThe Creation of the Atlantic System The Creation of the Atlantic System

and the Eurocentric Worldand the Eurocentric World

1433-16501433-1650

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration

Three broad issues 1433-1650:Three broad issues 1433-1650: I. Expansion and impact on EuropeI. Expansion and impact on Europe II. Impact on non-European II. Impact on non-European

civilizations Europe bumps intocivilizations Europe bumps into III. Impact on world as a whole and III. Impact on world as a whole and

worldwide system worldwide system


In the 200 years between the 1430’s In the 200 years between the 1430’s and the 1630’s Europeans learned and the 1630’s Europeans learned that all seas are one; that seamen, that all seas are one; that seamen, given adequate ships and supplies, given adequate ships and supplies, skill and courage, could in time reach skill and courage, could in time reach any country in the world which had an any country in the world which had an ocean coast, and—what was more ocean coast, and—what was more important—return home. important—return home.

No other period in Western history No other period in Western history equals this time in significance or equals this time in significance or dramatic interest.dramatic interest.


Unfortunately, few actual accounts of Unfortunately, few actual accounts of early voyages exist because most early voyages exist because most expedition leaders were men who saw expedition leaders were men who saw no reason to write and potentially give no reason to write and potentially give away valuable information (except to away valuable information (except to their employers).their employers).

The employers wanted to monopolize The employers wanted to monopolize the profits of the new-found lands.the profits of the new-found lands.


Travel before this period was nothing Travel before this period was nothing new…what new…what waswas new was once rulers new was once rulers and financiers understood that more and financiers understood that more efficient ships, more accurate efficient ships, more accurate instruments and better methods of instruments and better methods of cartography and navigation had cartography and navigation had made long ocean voyages possible, made long ocean voyages possible, they invested in exploring.they invested in exploring.


Their object was not discovery for its Their object was not discovery for its own sake—that was incidental—but own sake—that was incidental—but the opening of ocean routes to the opening of ocean routes to distant India, China, and Japan, distant India, China, and Japan, countries known to exist and countries known to exist and believed to be of commercial believed to be of commercial importance.importance.


The men who did the work were The men who did the work were tough professionals, willing to serve tough professionals, willing to serve any ruler who would employ them, any ruler who would employ them, ready to go anywhere and ready to go anywhere and investigate anything if they were investigate anything if they were suitably rewarded.suitably rewarded.

Skillful, imaginative and bold, and Skillful, imaginative and bold, and often ruthless, they drew the map of often ruthless, they drew the map of the world we know.the world we know.

By the end of the 15th Century, trade By the end of the 15th Century, trade relationships with the rest of the relationships with the rest of the world were starting to be dominated world were starting to be dominated by Europe (China had withdrawn).by Europe (China had withdrawn).

Europe had traded with Asia for Europe had traded with Asia for centuries through the long and centuries through the long and dangerous overland routes (the Silk dangerous overland routes (the Silk Road) or through the Middle East.Road) or through the Middle East.



The Silk Road.The Silk Road.


The Middle East (the Ottomans) put The Middle East (the Ottomans) put taxes/duties on goods bound for taxes/duties on goods bound for Europe, making the Middle East Europe, making the Middle East wealthy and angering the Europeans. wealthy and angering the Europeans.

Europe looked for way to “cut-out” Europe looked for way to “cut-out” the Middle Eastern “middlemen.”the Middle Eastern “middlemen.”


Even though the medieval European’s Even though the medieval European’s knowledge of Asia and Africa was knowledge of Asia and Africa was vague, they were fascinated by these vague, they were fascinated by these continents.continents.

The Bible had made Asia, home of the The Bible had made Asia, home of the three Magi, and Africa, legendary three Magi, and Africa, legendary source of King Solomon’s wealth part of source of King Solomon’s wealth part of the background of every Christian.the background of every Christian.


Medieval storytellers made Asia and Medieval storytellers made Asia and Africa “Lands of Marvels.” For instance, Africa “Lands of Marvels.” For instance, it was believed that somewhere in Africa it was believed that somewhere in Africa there was a river of gold that emptied there was a river of gold that emptied into a seething tropical sea no man into a seething tropical sea no man could reach and still live.could reach and still live.

Somewhere in Africa (or in Asia?) was a Somewhere in Africa (or in Asia?) was a land filled with treasure guarded by land filled with treasure guarded by dragons and hovered over by legless dragons and hovered over by legless birds who spent their whole lives in the birds who spent their whole lives in the air.air.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Somewhere there were Somewhere there were

sheep the size of oxen; sheep the size of oxen; giants who could wade giants who could wade into the ocean and grab into the ocean and grab a ship with one hand; a ship with one hand; women whose eyes women whose eyes were made of precious were made of precious stones that could slay a stones that could slay a man with one glance; man with one glance; and headless men and headless men whose faces were in whose faces were in their chests.their chests.


Starting in the Starting in the 1430’s, Portugal 1430’s, Portugal started exploring started exploring the West coast of the West coast of Africa, initially Africa, initially searching for a searching for a faster route to faster route to China, India, and China, India, and “Spice” Islands.“Spice” Islands.


The Portuguese wanted easier access The Portuguese wanted easier access to the luxury fabrics (cotton/linen/silk) to the luxury fabrics (cotton/linen/silk) and spices of Asia.and spices of Asia.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Financed by Financed by Prince Henry (the Prince Henry (the

Navigator)Navigator), Portugal pressed further , Portugal pressed further and further southward along the and further southward along the African coast.African coast.


Henry had set two goals: to trace the Henry had set two goals: to trace the source of the trade in gold, ivory, source of the trade in gold, ivory, slaves and pepper, and to get in slaves and pepper, and to get in touch with Prester John, with whom touch with Prester John, with whom he hoped to plan a crusade that he hoped to plan a crusade that would clear the Muslims from North would clear the Muslims from North Africa and the Holy Lands once and Africa and the Holy Lands once and for all. for all.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration To accomplish these goals, Henry To accomplish these goals, Henry

established a community of scholars established a community of scholars dedicated to geographical studies.dedicated to geographical studies.

The knowledge they accumulated was The knowledge they accumulated was to be used by the captains of his to be used by the captains of his expeditions.expeditions.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of ExplorationThe fabled Christian The fabled Christian kingdom of a priest turned kingdom of a priest turned king, king, Prester JohnPrester John..


This kingdom (believed to be This kingdom (believed to be somewhere in eastern Africa or Asia) somewhere in eastern Africa or Asia) was supposedly lost among the was supposedly lost among the Muslims and “pagans” of the East.Muslims and “pagans” of the East.

Europeans believed it had wealth Europeans believed it had wealth beyond measure, monsters and beyond measure, monsters and magical plants, living jewels and magical plants, living jewels and extraordinary beasts.extraordinary beasts.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration The exploration of the west coast of The exploration of the west coast of

Africa didn’t present physical Africa didn’t present physical difficulties for Portuguese seamen, it difficulties for Portuguese seamen, it caused psychological ones.caused psychological ones.

It was widely believed that life was It was widely believed that life was unsupportable near the Equator and unsupportable near the Equator and that monsters lurked beneath the that monsters lurked beneath the seas.seas.


Cape Nun, on the northwestern coast Cape Nun, on the northwestern coast of Africa was so named because of of Africa was so named because of the legend that none of the seamen the legend that none of the seamen that ventured past it returned; that ventured past it returned; beyond Cape Nun, it was rumored, beyond Cape Nun, it was rumored, the boiling sea destroyed all who the boiling sea destroyed all who were not already burned black by the were not already burned black by the vertical sun.vertical sun.


Further down the coast lay the Further down the coast lay the Antipodes, where according to the Antipodes, where according to the Church, only monsters lived.Church, only monsters lived.

A final deterrent was that many A final deterrent was that many believed that Africa could not be believed that Africa could not be circumnavigated. circumnavigated.

But with Henry’s urging and support, But with Henry’s urging and support, Portuguese seamen slowly began Portuguese seamen slowly began moving down the west coast of moving down the west coast of Africa. Africa.


Cape Nun was passed in 1434. In Cape Nun was passed in 1434. In 1441, an expedition returned from 1441, an expedition returned from the Rio de Ouro region with a cargo the Rio de Ouro region with a cargo of slaves, beginning the European of slaves, beginning the European slave trade.slave trade.

By 1473 the Equator had been By 1473 the Equator had been crossed without anyone bursting into crossed without anyone bursting into flames or turning black.flames or turning black.


The Portuguese (and other Europeans) The Portuguese (and other Europeans) sailed in small, maneuverable ships sailed in small, maneuverable ships called called caravelscaravels..

A technological advantage was that A technological advantage was that they were fast and used triangular they were fast and used triangular lateen sails lateen sails (an idea borrowed from (an idea borrowed from Arab sailors). Arab sailors).

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Caravels were round hulled and Caravels were round hulled and

deep-drafted (they sat lower in the deep-drafted (they sat lower in the water so they could carry more water so they could carry more cargo/provisions + weapons).cargo/provisions + weapons).

The compass and astrolabe improved The compass and astrolabe improved navigation and allowed for better navigation and allowed for better map making.map making.


But the main difference was made But the main difference was made with with gunpowder weaponry gunpowder weaponry (like (like cannons).cannons).


Conditions on board ships was appalling, Conditions on board ships was appalling, even by the standards of their time: all even by the standards of their time: all ships leaked and even with pumps, water ships leaked and even with pumps, water was always sloshing around below decks was always sloshing around below decks which was polluted by the casual sanitary which was polluted by the casual sanitary habits of the age.habits of the age.

Roaches and rats swarmed everywhere.Roaches and rats swarmed everywhere. No specific sleeping quarters were provided No specific sleeping quarters were provided

except for the captain and pilot of the ship.except for the captain and pilot of the ship.


Ordinary seamen slept on or below deck Ordinary seamen slept on or below deck wherever they could find room.wherever they could find room.

Food not only ran short, but quickly went Food not only ran short, but quickly went bad. Shipboard menus consisted of dried bad. Shipboard menus consisted of dried and salted meat, salted fish, biscuit, rice, and salted meat, salted fish, biscuit, rice, dried peas, cheese, garlic, onions, oil, dried peas, cheese, garlic, onions, oil, vinegar, water, beer, and wine. vinegar, water, beer, and wine.

After a few days, the salted foods often After a few days, the salted foods often turned to a slimy, mealy mess.turned to a slimy, mealy mess.


““We ate only old biscuit reduced to We ate only old biscuit reduced to powder, and full of grubs, and stinking powder, and full of grubs, and stinking from the dirt which the rats had made from the dirt which the rats had made on it when eating the good biscuit, and on it when eating the good biscuit, and we drank water that was yellow and we drank water that was yellow and stinking. We also ate the ox-hides stinking. We also ate the ox-hides (leather)…also the sawdust of wood, (leather)…also the sawdust of wood, and rats.”and rats.”

• From the chronicle of Magellan’s Pacific From the chronicle of Magellan’s Pacific crossing.crossing.


Disease was very common on long Disease was very common on long voyages, especially since sailors ate voyages, especially since sailors ate few fresh fruits or vegetables, slept in few fresh fruits or vegetables, slept in cramped quarters infested with fleas cramped quarters infested with fleas and lice, and were often drenched for and lice, and were often drenched for days on end.days on end.

Fevers and the plague were common, Fevers and the plague were common, but the worst was scurvy. A voyage but the worst was scurvy. A voyage was considered successful if 20% or was considered successful if 20% or less died of scurvy along the way.less died of scurvy along the way.


Scurvy (vitamin Scurvy (vitamin C deficiency) C deficiency) rotted away a rotted away a sailors gums sailors gums causing teeth to causing teeth to fall out or fall out or abscess.abscess.

Blood poisoning Blood poisoning followed, then followed, then usually death.usually death.


On long voyages it was common to lose 3-4 sailors a day to scurvy…they were usually just thrown overboard into the sea.

When a Scottish doctor discovered in 1747 that citrus cured scurvy, the British Royal Navy ordered sailors to eat limes…this is why Americans began calling the British “limeys.”


Under the best of circumstances it was hard to predict the length of a voyage…Columbus on his fourth voyage took 21 days to go 3,000 miles (and he had good weather). Magellan crossed the Pacific going west in 98 days. The eastward crossing could take over six months. The average trip from Lisbon to India took seven months.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration A ship’s speed was calculated by

tossing a wood chip off the bow (front) and timing it to the stern (back).

Then the wood chip was tied to a knotted line and thrown over.

Relating the knots that slipped through his fingers to elapsed time gave the sailor the ship’s speed—in knots. 1 knot = approx 1.15 mph

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration It took over 50 years It took over 50 years

for the Portuguese to for the Portuguese to reach the tip of Africa reach the tip of Africa (the Cape of Good (the Cape of Good Hope in 1487).Hope in 1487).

Rather than round the Rather than round the Cape, the weary sailors Cape, the weary sailors forced their expedition forced their expedition back up the coast of back up the coast of Africa towards home. Africa towards home.


It would take It would take another ten years another ten years before Vasco da before Vasco da Gama would be Gama would be appointed by the appointed by the Portuguese king to Portuguese king to open the sea route open the sea route to India.to India.


Da Gama and his fleet left Lisbon on Da Gama and his fleet left Lisbon on July 8, 1497.July 8, 1497.

After three months and a voyage of After three months and a voyage of nearly 4,000 miles, da Gama’s four nearly 4,000 miles, da Gama’s four ships circumnavigated the Cape of ships circumnavigated the Cape of Good Hope and Mossel Bay and Good Hope and Mossel Bay and became the first Europeans to sail became the first Europeans to sail into the Indian Ocean. into the Indian Ocean.


As the Portuguese moved northward along the east coast of Africa (the Swahili Coast), they found a community of Hindus living in Malindi (modern Kenya).

Da Gama was convinced they were Christians—a sign that the elusive Prester John was not far away.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Da Gama’s four small ships made their Da Gama’s four small ships made their

way to India (1498) with the help of a way to India (1498) with the help of a Hindu pilot they picked up in Malindi.Hindu pilot they picked up in Malindi.

As the Portuguese approached the west As the Portuguese approached the west coast of India (known as the Malabar coast of India (known as the Malabar Coast), they mistakenly thought the Coast), they mistakenly thought the Hindus were Christians because they Hindus were Christians because they thought Hindu temples were churches.thought Hindu temples were churches.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration When they dropped anchor, the When they dropped anchor, the

Portuguese had landed at the famous Portuguese had landed at the famous trading city of Calicut.trading city of Calicut.


To the Arabs and Persians who To the Arabs and Persians who dominated the trade between India and dominated the trade between India and Africa, the Portuguese represented a Africa, the Portuguese represented a threat. threat.

Unfortunately for da Gama, no one Unfortunately for da Gama, no one wanted what the Portuguese brought to wanted what the Portuguese brought to sell…they only had crude items like sell…they only had crude items like iron pots. iron pots.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Fortunately, they also had some gold so Fortunately, they also had some gold so

they were able to purchase spices and they were able to purchase spices and Chinese porcelains.Chinese porcelains.

After an unsuccessful attempt on his After an unsuccessful attempt on his life, da Gama decided it was time to life, da Gama decided it was time to return to Portugal.return to Portugal.

The stretch across the Indian Ocean to The stretch across the Indian Ocean to Africa took three months, and so many Africa took three months, and so many men died of scurvy that da Gama had men died of scurvy that da Gama had to destroy one of his ships because to destroy one of his ships because there weren’t enough men to sail it.there weren’t enough men to sail it.


When da Gama When da Gama sailed into Lisbon sailed into Lisbon harbor in September harbor in September 1499, he had been 1499, he had been away for more than away for more than two years and had two years and had sailed over 24,000 sailed over 24,000 nautical miles.nautical miles.


Of the 170 men who sailed with da Of the 170 men who sailed with da Gama, only 44 returned.Gama, only 44 returned.

He brought back a few place settings He brought back a few place settings of Chinese porcelain which set off the of Chinese porcelain which set off the craze for “china” and he made an craze for “china” and he made an incredible profit. incredible profit.

He was given the title He was given the title Admiral of the Admiral of the Ocean Seas Ocean Seas by the king of Portugal.by the king of Portugal.


As the Portuguese As the Portuguese made more trips to made more trips to India (about once a India (about once a year), they year), they substituted violence substituted violence for their lack of for their lack of attractive goods to attractive goods to trade.trade.


Da Gama used guns and cannons to Da Gama used guns and cannons to intimidate, and his sailors killed or intimidate, and his sailors killed or tortured many Indian merchants to set tortured many Indian merchants to set an example.an example.

By 1514, the Portuguese had reached By 1514, the Portuguese had reached the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and China.the Spice Islands (Indonesia) and China.

By 1517, Portugal had forts throughout By 1517, Portugal had forts throughout eastern Africa and India.eastern Africa and India.

By 1542, they had reached Japan.By 1542, they had reached Japan.


Portugal dominated parts of Africa Portugal dominated parts of Africa (starting in 1433) and the Indian (starting in 1433) and the Indian Ocean (starting in 1498) while Spain Ocean (starting in 1498) while Spain dominated the Americas (starting in dominated the Americas (starting in 1492).1492).

Increasing tension between Portugal Increasing tension between Portugal and Spain over land rights caused and Spain over land rights caused the Pope to intervene and create the the Pope to intervene and create the Treaty of TordesillasTreaty of Tordesillas (1494). (1494).

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration The The Treaty of TordesillasTreaty of Tordesillas divided the divided the

Atlantic world between the two Atlantic world between the two monarchies. monarchies.

Portugal got Brazil (decided in 1500), Portugal got Brazil (decided in 1500), West Africa, and the eastern trade West Africa, and the eastern trade routes to India while Spain got the routes to India while Spain got the oceans and lands to the west (meaning oceans and lands to the west (meaning North and South America, over to Asia).North and South America, over to Asia).

A miscalculation of the location of A miscalculation of the location of South America allowed Portugal to South America allowed Portugal to claim Brazil.claim Brazil.


The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration In 1512 another sailor from Portugal (but In 1512 another sailor from Portugal (but

sailing for Spain), Ferdinand Magellan sailing for Spain), Ferdinand Magellan (Magalhaes), set sail looking for a shorter (Magalhaes), set sail looking for a shorter route to Asia and the Spice Islands.route to Asia and the Spice Islands.

He convinced the king of Spain(Charles I) He convinced the king of Spain(Charles I) that if Spanish ships could slip under the that if Spanish ships could slip under the southernmost point of the American southernmost point of the American barrier, they could have as easy access barrier, they could have as easy access as the Portuguese found rounding Africa.as the Portuguese found rounding Africa.


Unfortunately, Magellan received only Unfortunately, Magellan received only half-hearted support when it came to half-hearted support when it came to outfitting the expedition…five aged outfitting the expedition…five aged ships manned by old and ragged ships manned by old and ragged sailors.sailors.

Even if Magellan reached the Spice Even if Magellan reached the Spice Islands there was no guarantee that Islands there was no guarantee that Spain could claim them because no Spain could claim them because no was sure if they were in the Spanish was sure if they were in the Spanish zone.zone.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Magellan’s five ships left Spain in late Magellan’s five ships left Spain in late

September, 1519 sailing west across September, 1519 sailing west across the Atlantic. When he reached Brazil the Atlantic. When he reached Brazil they sailed south reaching Patagonia they sailed south reaching Patagonia as winter was setting in.as winter was setting in.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Magellan and his crews spent the Magellan and his crews spent the

next five months in a Patagonian next five months in a Patagonian bay.bay.

During that time, he lost one ship to During that time, he lost one ship to a shipwreck, another by desertion, a shipwreck, another by desertion, and was almost forced to turn back and was almost forced to turn back because of a mutiny.because of a mutiny.


Magellan did not set sail again until Magellan did not set sail again until the summer of 1520. When he the summer of 1520. When he reached 52 degrees 30 minutes south reached 52 degrees 30 minutes south he found the strait that would bear he found the strait that would bear his name.his name.

In a masterly piece of seamanship, he In a masterly piece of seamanship, he guided his ships through a rock-guided his ships through a rock-strewn and stormy passageway filled strewn and stormy passageway filled with cliffs and zigzag turns.with cliffs and zigzag turns.



The 320 mile-long strait took 38 days The 320 mile-long strait took 38 days but when they emerged, his theory but when they emerged, his theory was confirmed…there was a was confirmed…there was a southwest passage to the Pacific. southwest passage to the Pacific.

America did have a southern tip and America did have a southern tip and did not, as many cartographers did not, as many cartographers believed, form a part of the still believed, form a part of the still unexplored Antarctic continent of unexplored Antarctic continent of Terra Australis Incognita.Terra Australis Incognita.



Magellan’s ships were now the first Magellan’s ships were now the first European ships to sail into the Pacific European ships to sail into the Pacific Ocean (and named it Ocean (and named it Mar PacificoMar Pacifico).).

Magellan turned north and followed Magellan turned north and followed the coast for 1,000 miles enabling the coast for 1,000 miles enabling chart-makers to gauge the width and chart-makers to gauge the width and shape of South America.shape of South America.


Desperately short of provisions, and Desperately short of provisions, and with no idea how far he would have to with no idea how far he would have to sail before reaching his goal, he sail before reaching his goal, he forbade his men, under pain of death, forbade his men, under pain of death, to discuss the uncertainties that lay to discuss the uncertainties that lay ahead.ahead.

Unfortunately his course was all open Unfortunately his course was all open sea, and the only group of islands sea, and the only group of islands they encountered was so barren, he they encountered was so barren, he named them the Unfortunate Isles.named them the Unfortunate Isles.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Magellan finally reached Guam in Magellan finally reached Guam in

early March 1521 after his men early March 1521 after his men suffered through three months of suffered through three months of disease and near starvation.disease and near starvation.

After replenishing their food and After replenishing their food and water, they continued, landing in the water, they continued, landing in the Philippines 10 days later.Philippines 10 days later.

Seeing natives with gold ornaments Seeing natives with gold ornaments caused Magellan to believe that he caused Magellan to believe that he was near his goal and that wealth was near his goal and that wealth was within his grasp. was within his grasp.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Magellan got involved Magellan got involved

in a local skirmish in a local skirmish between tribes and between tribes and was killed by natives was killed by natives in the Philippines.in the Philippines.

For the remaining For the remaining members of the members of the expedition, the expedition, the nightmare wasn’t nightmare wasn’t over.over.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration So few men were left to operate the three So few men were left to operate the three

remaining ships that one ship was burned remaining ships that one ship was burned and her crew split between the other two.and her crew split between the other two.

One ship was in such bad shape her One ship was in such bad shape her captain was afraid it wouldn’t make it captain was afraid it wouldn’t make it around the Cape of Good Hope so he around the Cape of Good Hope so he sailed east towards South America only sailed east towards South America only to be turned around by unfavorable to be turned around by unfavorable winds and land in the Moluccas (modern winds and land in the Moluccas (modern day Indonesia). day Indonesia).

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration This ship was captured and the crew This ship was captured and the crew

imprisoned by the Portuguese (who imprisoned by the Portuguese (who had controlled the area since 1512).had controlled the area since 1512).

The remaining ship picked up a cargo The remaining ship picked up a cargo of cloves and spices and limped back of cloves and spices and limped back to Spain, arriving in September to Spain, arriving in September 1522…three years after setting sail.1522…three years after setting sail.

Of his five ships and over 280 sailors, Of his five ships and over 280 sailors, only one ship and 31 men made it only one ship and 31 men made it back to Spain alive.back to Spain alive.


By the middle of the 16th century, By the middle of the 16th century, the fabulous wealth Spain and the fabulous wealth Spain and Portugal generated caused other Portugal generated caused other nations to get into the game (Britain, nations to get into the game (Britain, France, Netherlands)…France, Netherlands)…

Britain in India and North America. Britain in India and North America. France in Canada (Quebec) and other France in Canada (Quebec) and other

parts of NA;parts of NA; Netherlands in South Africa and Netherlands in South Africa and

Indonesia (Malacca & Spice Islands)Indonesia (Malacca & Spice Islands)


The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration The traditional story of Columbus The traditional story of Columbus

(known as the Columbian Era (known as the Columbian Era 1492-1800):1492-1800):

Spanish and Portuguese were few Spanish and Portuguese were few but successful in conquering the but successful in conquering the savagessavages..

British, French, and Dutch soldiers British, French, and Dutch soldiers and settlers did the same.and settlers did the same.

History focused on the struggle History focused on the struggle between Europeans to dominate between Europeans to dominate the land.the land.


Natives were seen as unimportantNatives were seen as unimportant—only enemies in the fight over —only enemies in the fight over their lands.their lands.

History written (mostly in 19th History written (mostly in 19th century) showed rampant century) showed rampant nationalism, elitism, and racism.nationalism, elitism, and racism.

History ignored women, non-History ignored women, non-Christians, and non-whites; it Christians, and non-whites; it reinforced European reinforced European ethnocentrismethnocentrism..


No one knew in 1405 that the huge No one knew in 1405 that the huge armada under Zheng He’s command armada under Zheng He’s command would be recalled in 1433, never to would be recalled in 1433, never to sail again.sail again.

No one knew in 1492 that Columbus’ No one knew in 1492 that Columbus’ tiny fleet of three ships would utterly tiny fleet of three ships would utterly transform the world, bringing the transform the world, bringing the peoples of two “old worlds” and two peoples of two “old worlds” and two hemispheres permanently together.hemispheres permanently together.


The consequences set in motion by The consequences set in motion by those three small ships included the those three small ships included the Atlantic slave trade, the decimation Atlantic slave trade, the decimation of the native population of the of the native population of the Americas, the massive growth of Americas, the massive growth of world population, the Industrial world population, the Industrial Revolution, and the growing Revolution, and the growing prominence of Europeans on the prominence of Europeans on the world stage.world stage.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration As the Portuguese charted the African As the Portuguese charted the African

coast, to the west, there were only coast, to the west, there were only myths and some fragmentary reports myths and some fragmentary reports concerning a few islands in the Atlantic.concerning a few islands in the Atlantic.

Several 15Several 15thth Century maps showed a Century maps showed a large, legendary island called Antillia far large, legendary island called Antillia far west of Portugal at the same latitude as west of Portugal at the same latitude as Lisbon.Lisbon.

Other maps showed a more northerly Other maps showed a more northerly island called Vinlanda.island called Vinlanda.


Only the Madeiras and the Azores, Only the Madeiras and the Azores, discovered in the 14discovered in the 14thth Century and the Century and the Canaries, discovered in 1402 were Canaries, discovered in 1402 were known during Columbus’ time.known during Columbus’ time.

It was believed that somewhere further It was believed that somewhere further out was the legendary land of Atlantis, out was the legendary land of Atlantis, seat of a vanished civilization seat of a vanished civilization mentioned by Plato and kept alive by mentioned by Plato and kept alive by medieval geographers (actually believed medieval geographers (actually believed to have been “found” in southern Spain to have been “found” in southern Spain in 2011).in 2011).


The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Columbus, an experienced mariner, Columbus, an experienced mariner,

believed he could improve on the believed he could improve on the laborious Portuguese efforts to work laborious Portuguese efforts to work down the African coast in search of the down the African coast in search of the way around to “the Indies” –a term way around to “the Indies” –a term that included all of eastern Asia.that included all of eastern Asia.

Columbus was convinced that he could Columbus was convinced that he could reach “the Indies” first by going reach “the Indies” first by going directly west over the open sea. directly west over the open sea.


Columbus had studied Columbus had studied The Travels of The Travels of Marco Polo Marco Polo and theand the maps of Ibn al maps of Ibn al Idrisi and the ancient geographer Idrisi and the ancient geographer Ptolemy. Ptolemy.

Based on his calculations, the Based on his calculations, the distance between Europe and Asia distance between Europe and Asia was a mere 5,000 nautical miles (the was a mere 5,000 nautical miles (the real distance is nearly 12,000 miles).real distance is nearly 12,000 miles).


He first made his case to the king of He first made his case to the king of Portugal, who after careful Portugal, who after careful consideration, turned him down.consideration, turned him down.

Columbus then appealed to Ferdinand Columbus then appealed to Ferdinand and Isabella who agreed only after and Isabella who agreed only after years of debate (they were tired of years of debate (they were tired of Portugal’s success along the coast of Portugal’s success along the coast of Africa).Africa).


Columbus set sail Columbus set sail going West (instead going West (instead of East) on August 4, of East) on August 4, 1492.1492.

He had two 70 ft. He had two 70 ft. caravels (the caravels (the NinaNina and the and the PintaPinta) and his ) and his flagship, the flagship, the Santa Santa MariaMaria, was slightly , was slightly larger.larger.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration After 33 days, he landed in the After 33 days, he landed in the

Bahamas (on the island of GuanahaniBahamas (on the island of Guanahani—which he renamed San Salvador).—which he renamed San Salvador).

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration To give you a sense of scale, To give you a sense of scale,

Columbus captained three ships with Columbus captained three ships with a crew of about 90.a crew of about 90.

da Gama captained four ships with a da Gama captained four ships with a crew of about 170.crew of about 170.

Zheng He’s fleet had hundreds of Zheng He’s fleet had hundreds of ships and a crew of about 30,000.ships and a crew of about 30,000.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration According to recent scholarship,According to recent scholarship,

““All the ships of Columbus and da All the ships of Columbus and da Gama combined could have been Gama combined could have been stored on a single deck of a single stored on a single deck of a single vessel in the fleet that set sail vessel in the fleet that set sail

under Zheng He.” under Zheng He.”


As he sailed, Columbus kept two As he sailed, Columbus kept two records of the distance covered…one records of the distance covered…one which he kept to himself, and the other which he kept to himself, and the other which was a deliberate underestimate which was a deliberate underestimate he announced to the crew (hoping to he announced to the crew (hoping to prevent panic from being so far into the prevent panic from being so far into the unknown).unknown).

After the men had been at sea longer After the men had been at sea longer than their previous experiences, they than their previous experiences, they were seized with one fear after were seized with one fear after another.another.


After 30 days of sailing on the Santa After 30 days of sailing on the Santa Maria, the crew demanded that Maria, the crew demanded that Columbus turn back, and he Columbus turn back, and he promised to do so if they didn’t see promised to do so if they didn’t see land within two or three days. land within two or three days.

Two days later, October 12 at 2 a.m., Two days later, October 12 at 2 a.m., under a full moon, land was sighted under a full moon, land was sighted by the by the Pinta Pinta (which was in the lead).(which was in the lead).

The next day, Columbus and a small The next day, Columbus and a small party went ashore.party went ashore.


The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Because of the small Because of the small

gold ornaments the gold ornaments the natives wore in their natives wore in their noses, Columbus noses, Columbus thought he landed in thought he landed in the Indies (why he the Indies (why he named the named the indigenous peoples indigenous peoples “Indians”) and he “Indians”) and he was surprised that was surprised that the natives didn’t the natives didn’t speak Arabic.speak Arabic.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration When Columbus first encountered the When Columbus first encountered the

inhabitants of San Salvador, the gentle Arawak inhabitants of San Salvador, the gentle Arawak Taino Indians, he noted in his journal how they Taino Indians, he noted in his journal how they greeted the Europeans with friendly courtesy greeted the Europeans with friendly courtesy and they eagerly exchanged gifts with the and they eagerly exchanged gifts with the crew.crew.


Writing in his journal the day he Writing in his journal the day he landed in the ‘New World,’ Columbus landed in the ‘New World,’ Columbus was certain that once he sailed was certain that once he sailed through the outer islands of the through the outer islands of the Indies, he would reach the vast Indies, he would reach the vast riches of China and Japan. riches of China and Japan.

He believed it was a short journey of He believed it was a short journey of less than an additional 1000 miles.less than an additional 1000 miles.


Columbus was convinced that once he Columbus was convinced that once he reached China, he would be reached China, he would be welcomed by the Great Khan, an welcomed by the Great Khan, an emperor of incredible wealth who emperor of incredible wealth who spoke Arabic and ruled over lands of spoke Arabic and ruled over lands of gold, silver, gems, silks, spices, and gold, silver, gems, silks, spices, and valuable medicines.valuable medicines.

But Columbus never found India or But Columbus never found India or China, and never found vast wealth in China, and never found vast wealth in the ‘New World.’ the ‘New World.’


So after a few days, He wrote in his So after a few days, He wrote in his journal: “I intend to go and see if I journal: “I intend to go and see if I can now find the Island of Japan.”can now find the Island of Japan.”

So he left San Salvador, sailing for 15 So he left San Salvador, sailing for 15 days until he “discovered” Cuba…days until he “discovered” Cuba…certain he had found Marco Polo’s certain he had found Marco Polo’s Cipangu (Japan).Cipangu (Japan).


But there were no silk-clad sages or But there were no silk-clad sages or palaces tiled with solid gold.palaces tiled with solid gold.

He sent an expedition into the interior He sent an expedition into the interior looking for an imperial city.looking for an imperial city.

The only thing of interest they found was The only thing of interest they found was some Indians smoking cigars, making some Indians smoking cigars, making this the first European encounter with this the first European encounter with tobacco.tobacco.


Columbus calculated that he wasn’t in Columbus calculated that he wasn’t in Japan after all; by his estimate he had Japan after all; by his estimate he had sailed too far from Europe for that.sailed too far from Europe for that.

No, this must be China.No, this must be China. For three months his tiny fleet sailed For three months his tiny fleet sailed

through the uncharted and often through the uncharted and often dangerous waters of the Bahamas, dangerous waters of the Bahamas, Cuba, and Hispaniola. Cuba, and Hispaniola.


On Hispaniola, Columbus was elated by On Hispaniola, Columbus was elated by the gold ornaments worn by the natives the gold ornaments worn by the natives and by a hammered gold mask he and by a hammered gold mask he received as a gift.received as a gift.

In a classic case of miscommunication, In a classic case of miscommunication, Columbus ordered his sailors to dance Columbus ordered his sailors to dance to the rhythm of a drum in order to to the rhythm of a drum in order to attract some Indians who were lying attract some Indians who were lying some way off the ship in a canoe. The some way off the ship in a canoe. The Indians thought it was a war dance and Indians thought it was a war dance and started shooting arrows.started shooting arrows.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Then he lost his flagship (the Santa Then he lost his flagship (the Santa

Maria) when she ran aground late one Maria) when she ran aground late one night.night.

Her timbers were salvaged to make the Her timbers were salvaged to make the first European settlement in the ‘New first European settlement in the ‘New World’, a fort which Columbus World’, a fort which Columbus garrisoned with 40 men.garrisoned with 40 men.


He then decided it was time to sail He then decided it was time to sail home to give Ferdinand and Isabella home to give Ferdinand and Isabella the great news that their venture had the great news that their venture had been no mere vision, that contact had been no mere vision, that contact had been made with Cathay (India).been made with Cathay (India).

After three months of bad weather, his After three months of bad weather, his two ships limped into Lisbon harbor.two ships limped into Lisbon harbor.

He immediately dispatched a letter to He immediately dispatched a letter to Ferdinand and Isabella talking about Ferdinand and Isabella talking about his exploits.his exploits.


Describing the mountains of Describing the mountains of Hispaniola, Columbus wrote Hispaniola, Columbus wrote

“All are most beautiful, of a thousand “All are most beautiful, of a thousand shapes, and all accessible, and filled with shapes, and all accessible, and filled with

trees of a thousand kinds and tall, and theytrees of a thousand kinds and tall, and theyseem to touch the sky…And there were seem to touch the sky…And there were

singing the nightingale and other little singing the nightingale and other little birds of a thousand kinds in the month of birds of a thousand kinds in the month of November.”November.”

Like most things Columbus said, this Like most things Columbus said, this was a wild exaggeration.was a wild exaggeration.


When Columbus arrived at the court When Columbus arrived at the court of Ferdinand and Isabella in of Ferdinand and Isabella in Barcelona (April 1493), he was Barcelona (April 1493), he was addressed as “Don Cristobal Colon…addressed as “Don Cristobal Colon…Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy Admiral of the Ocean Sea, Viceroy and Governor of the Islands he hath and Governor of the Islands he hath discovered in the Indies.”discovered in the Indies.”



After Columbus’ first trans-Atlantic After Columbus’ first trans-Atlantic voyage in 1492, a return expedition the voyage in 1492, a return expedition the next year established a colony on the next year established a colony on the island of Santo Domingo (Hispaniola). island of Santo Domingo (Hispaniola).

Hispaniola became the Spanish base of Hispaniola became the Spanish base of operations for further discoveries in the operations for further discoveries in the ‘New World’ (so named for the first time ‘New World’ (so named for the first time in 1494).in 1494).

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Columbus then went on the “first Columbus then went on the “first

West Indies cruise.” His sailors saw West Indies cruise.” His sailors saw their first hammock and ate their first their first hammock and ate their first yams.yams.

Columbus’ doctor wrote with Columbus’ doctor wrote with amazement about amazement about “trees bearing wool, “trees bearing wool, cotton trees as large as peach trees,cotton trees as large as peach trees,trees producing wax as good as bees-wax, trees producing wax as good as bees-wax, and wild fruits, some of which caused great and wild fruits, some of which caused great heat and pain, driving the men mad.” heat and pain, driving the men mad.”


Columbus “discovered” Jamaica and Columbus “discovered” Jamaica and stopped, certain he had found the stopped, certain he had found the base of the Malay Peninsula.base of the Malay Peninsula.

He was convinced that he would He was convinced that he would meet the Great Khan on another trip.meet the Great Khan on another trip.

When he returned to Spain, the When he returned to Spain, the colonists Columbus left behind from colonists Columbus left behind from his second voyage were massacred his second voyage were massacred by the natives.by the natives.


His third voyage was in the spring of His third voyage was in the spring of 1496.1496.

He first landed in Trinidad, and then a He first landed in Trinidad, and then a few days later his crew landed on a few days later his crew landed on a beach near the delta of the Orinoco beach near the delta of the Orinoco River.River.

At first he thought he had reached an At first he thought he had reached an unknown continent (actually South unknown continent (actually South America), then he believed he was on America), then he believed he was on the threshold of Earthly Paradise—that the threshold of Earthly Paradise—that blessed domain.blessed domain.


He wanted to enter but his sailors He wanted to enter but his sailors threatened mutiny so he set sail for threatened mutiny so he set sail for Spain, so the exploration of south Spain, so the exploration of south America was left to other men.America was left to other men.

On this voyage, Columbus, who had On this voyage, Columbus, who had been made governor of Hispaniola, been made governor of Hispaniola, was sent back to Spain in chains was sent back to Spain in chains because he was a cruel and because he was a cruel and ineffective administrator.ineffective administrator.


Columbus’s own sailors slandered him Columbus’s own sailors slandered him on their return to Spain, saying he on their return to Spain, saying he withheld gold from the king.withheld gold from the king.

King Ferdinand began to realize he King Ferdinand began to realize he didn’t need Columbus to conduct his didn’t need Columbus to conduct his explorations.explorations.


Columbus emphasized to Ferdinand Columbus emphasized to Ferdinand and Isabella that Cathay (India) was and Isabella that Cathay (India) was within their grasp and how easy it within their grasp and how easy it would be to make the “savages” –would be to make the “savages” –who had been seen eating spiders who had been seen eating spiders and worms—into pious and noble and worms—into pious and noble Christians.Christians.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Returning to Spain he faced charges of Returning to Spain he faced charges of

illegally executing Spaniards and illegally executing Spaniards and brutalizing natives.brutalizing natives.

But by May 1502, Columbus (who was But by May 1502, Columbus (who was cleared of the charges against him) set cleared of the charges against him) set sail on his fourth, and final voyage to the sail on his fourth, and final voyage to the New World.New World.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration He had four ships and his mission was He had four ships and his mission was

to explore uncharted areas to the west to explore uncharted areas to the west of the Caribbean, hopefully finding a of the Caribbean, hopefully finding a passage west to the Orient.passage west to the Orient.

In the summer of 1502, Columbus In the summer of 1502, Columbus “discovered” Central America, first “discovered” Central America, first reaching Honduras and then Panama.reaching Honduras and then Panama.

By now, Vasco da Gama had reached By now, Vasco da Gama had reached India, putting Portugal far ahead of India, putting Portugal far ahead of Spain in the race to the Orient.Spain in the race to the Orient.


So it was crucial that Columbus find So it was crucial that Columbus find the passage way that would give the passage way that would give Spain equal access.Spain equal access.

But his ships were damaged by a But his ships were damaged by a hurricane and termites, and they fell hurricane and termites, and they fell apart while he was exploring. apart while he was exploring.

Columbus and his men were Columbus and his men were stranded on Jamaica for about a year stranded on Jamaica for about a year before being rescued.before being rescued.


They returned to They returned to Spain in late 1504.Spain in late 1504.

Unsuccessful in his Unsuccessful in his previous missions, previous missions, Columbus, the Columbus, the Admiral of the Admiral of the Ocean SeaOcean Sea, died at , died at 55, an exhausted, 55, an exhausted, broken man in broken man in political obscurity.political obscurity.


The conquest of the New World was The conquest of the New World was not a unified movement…but rather a not a unified movement…but rather a series of individual initiatives that series of individual initiatives that usually operated with government usually operated with government (Spanish or Portuguese) approval.(Spanish or Portuguese) approval.

The conquest of the Americas was The conquest of the Americas was two pronged: one directed towards two pronged: one directed towards Mexico and the other one aimed at Mexico and the other one aimed at South America. South America.

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec In 1519 Hernando Cortes In 1519 Hernando Cortes

led an expedition of 11 led an expedition of 11 ships, 553 men, and 16 ships, 553 men, and 16 horses from the Spanish horses from the Spanish colony of Cuba to the colony of Cuba to the coast of Mexico.coast of Mexico.

Cortes once remarked Cortes once remarked “We Spaniards suffer “We Spaniards suffer from a disease that only from a disease that only gold can cure.”gold can cure.”

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec

In 1519 In 1519 Moctezuma II Moctezuma II was nearly 40 was nearly 40 years old and years old and had skillfully had skillfully ruled for 17 ruled for 17 yearsyears. .


But recently his personality had But recently his personality had changed; gone was his ability in war changed; gone was his ability in war and diplomacy, replaced with and diplomacy, replaced with uncertainty accompanied with spells uncertainty accompanied with spells of brooding.of brooding.

He secluded himself in his palace and He secluded himself in his palace and was rarely seen in public, consulting was rarely seen in public, consulting with priests and soothsayers, or with priests and soothsayers, or meditating alone. meditating alone.

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec Aztec legend talked Aztec legend talked

of a famous ruler of a famous ruler who was associated who was associated with the god with the god Quetzalcoatl (god of Quetzalcoatl (god of wind and father to wind and father to humans), who was humans), who was forced into exile in forced into exile in the east, “the land of the east, “the land of the rising sun.” the rising sun.”

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec Moctezuma II was particularly Moctezuma II was particularly

concerned about the exiled god concerned about the exiled god Quetzalcoatl and his promise to Quetzalcoatl and his promise to return.return.

That had been more than 500 years That had been more than 500 years earlier, and the year the god said earlier, and the year the god said he’d return was almost at hand.he’d return was almost at hand.

Then news came of strange men Then news came of strange men riding in white-winged ships on the riding in white-winged ships on the eastern sea.eastern sea.


Along the coast before arriving at Along the coast before arriving at Veracruz, Cortes acquired an invaluable Veracruz, Cortes acquired an invaluable asset: an extremely intelligent native girl asset: an extremely intelligent native girl who not only knew the local dialects but who not only knew the local dialects but also the Aztec language.also the Aztec language.

She learned Spanish so easily and quickly She learned Spanish so easily and quickly that she became Cortes’ interpreter, that she became Cortes’ interpreter, closest adviser (and mistress). She was closest adviser (and mistress). She was totally loyal to Cortes.totally loyal to Cortes.

She also converted to Christianity.She also converted to Christianity.


Cortes named her Cortes named her Dona Marina (or Dona Marina (or MalincheMalinche). ).

When the Spaniards When the Spaniards arrived, Moctezuma arrived, Moctezuma controlled an area controlled an area nearly twice the size nearly twice the size of Pennsylvania with of Pennsylvania with over 11 million over 11 million people.people.


After hearing After hearing rumors of a rumors of a great kingdom great kingdom in the interior, in the interior, the Spanish set the Spanish set off, fighting off, fighting Aztec allied Aztec allied towns along the towns along the way.way.


When word reached Moctezuma of the When word reached Moctezuma of the light skinned Europeans, he seems to light skinned Europeans, he seems to have been uncertain whether to have been uncertain whether to welcome them with reverence as welcome them with reverence as gods, or with violence, as invaders.gods, or with violence, as invaders.

Cortes, hearing from Malinche that Cortes, hearing from Malinche that Moctezuma considered him a god, Moctezuma considered him a god, dispatched a message asking dispatched a message asking permission to visit the capital.permission to visit the capital.

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec A week later, Aztec nobles arrived in A week later, Aztec nobles arrived in

Cortes’ camp with magnificent Cortes’ camp with magnificent offerings including large discs of gold offerings including large discs of gold and silver (representing the sun and and silver (representing the sun and moon) and 20 golden ducks, golden moon) and 20 golden ducks, golden monkeys, and pumas.monkeys, and pumas.

Some of the food he sent had been Some of the food he sent had been ceremonially doused with the blood of ceremonially doused with the blood of a sacrificial victim as was the Aztec a sacrificial victim as was the Aztec custom.custom.


The Aztec nobles then politely asked The Aztec nobles then politely asked Cortes to leave Mexico.Cortes to leave Mexico.

When Moctezuma heard that Cortes When Moctezuma heard that Cortes rejected the Aztec envoys (and their rejected the Aztec envoys (and their food), he changed his mind about the food), he changed his mind about the Spaniards intentions and had Spaniards intentions and had sorcerers cast spells on the Spanish sorcerers cast spells on the Spanish to keep them away.to keep them away.


However, the Spanish proved However, the Spanish proved resistant to Aztec magic and Cortes resistant to Aztec magic and Cortes moved his troops towards the Aztec moved his troops towards the Aztec capital.capital.

As they pushed further into the As they pushed further into the interior, the Spanish allied interior, the Spanish allied themselves with Aztec enemies and themselves with Aztec enemies and as they moved closer to Tenochtitlan.as they moved closer to Tenochtitlan.

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec From a cold mountain pass between From a cold mountain pass between

the awe-inspiring snow-capped peaks the awe-inspiring snow-capped peaks of Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl, the of Popocatepetl and Ixtaccihuatl, the nervous Spanish looked down on a nervous Spanish looked down on a remarkable series of interconnected remarkable series of interconnected lakes in the Valley, with well-ordered lakes in the Valley, with well-ordered towns and raised fields on the shores, towns and raised fields on the shores, and a great city built on islands and and a great city built on islands and causeways towards the western edge causeways towards the western edge of the largest of the lakes. of the largest of the lakes.


Cortes, with Indian allies who hated the Cortes, with Indian allies who hated the Aztec, eventually reached the island Aztec, eventually reached the island capital city of Tenochtitlan (tay-nawch-capital city of Tenochtitlan (tay-nawch-tee-Tlan).tee-Tlan).


According to Aztec legend, they built According to Aztec legend, they built their main city, Tenochtitlan (their main city, Tenochtitlan (tay tay nawch tee Tlannawch tee Tlan – “Place of the Prickly – “Place of the Prickly Pear Cactus”) in a place identified by Pear Cactus”) in a place identified by an eagle perched on a pear cactus an eagle perched on a pear cactus with a snake in its mouth.with a snake in its mouth.

It is believed that the city had It is believed that the city had 300,000 people (double the largest 300,000 people (double the largest city in Europe at the time—Paris).city in Europe at the time—Paris).

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec As the Spaniards marched down on to As the Spaniards marched down on to

the plain and neared the city, they the plain and neared the city, they went across one (of the three) went across one (of the three) causeways linking the island causeways linking the island metropolis to the mainland and were metropolis to the mainland and were astounded by Tenochtitlan’s size and astounded by Tenochtitlan’s size and beauty.beauty.

The great temples and palaces rose The great temples and palaces rose from the water like a vision.from the water like a vision.


One member of the Spanish force One member of the Spanish force later likened it to a city from a later likened it to a city from a fairytale, a vision of enchantment.fairytale, a vision of enchantment.

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec When the Spanish force and its allies When the Spanish force and its allies

came into Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma came into Tenochtitlan, Moctezuma met Cortes on the causeway atop a met Cortes on the causeway atop a palanquin carried by four nobles and palanquin carried by four nobles and greeted him with the utmost respect.greeted him with the utmost respect.


A conquistador said of Moctezuma II: A conquistador said of Moctezuma II: “many great lords walked before the “many great lords walked before the great Moctezuma sweeping the great Moctezuma sweeping the ground on which he was to tread and ground on which he was to tread and laying down cloaks so that his feet laying down cloaks so that his feet should not touch the earth. Not one should not touch the earth. Not one of these great chieftains dared look of these great chieftains dared look him in the face” him in the face”

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec Cortes and his men were greeted as Cortes and his men were greeted as

gods (the Aztec had never seen gods (the Aztec had never seen horses and thought they were gods horses and thought they were gods too).too).

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec The emperor was tall and thin and had The emperor was tall and thin and had

a sparse black beard, and on his head a sparse black beard, and on his head he wore a plume of long green feathers he wore a plume of long green feathers that floated down his back.that floated down his back.


Moctezuma gave Moctezuma gave Cortes a necklace of Cortes a necklace of snail shells and snail shells and shrimps fashioned shrimps fashioned from solid gold and a from solid gold and a quetzal feather quetzal feather headdress, and in headdress, and in return was presented return was presented a string of Venetian a string of Venetian glass beads.glass beads.


Then in a fateful Then in a fateful moment, Moctezuma moment, Moctezuma invited the Spanish invited the Spanish into his capital.into his capital.

The Spanish were The Spanish were quartered in the quartered in the palace of Axayacatl palace of Axayacatl (named after (named after Moctezuma II’s Moctezuma II’s father) near the father) near the heart of the city.heart of the city.


Once the Spanish were settled, Once the Spanish were settled, Moctezuma came and visited Cortes.Moctezuma came and visited Cortes.

Through Dona Marina, the two men Through Dona Marina, the two men discussed their respective countries, discussed their respective countries, and Cortes tried (but failed) to convert and Cortes tried (but failed) to convert the Emperor to Christianity.the Emperor to Christianity.

An uneasy friendship developed.An uneasy friendship developed.


Cortes was invited to the emperor’s Cortes was invited to the emperor’s palace where he saw hordes of palace where he saw hordes of courtiers and over a thousand wives courtiers and over a thousand wives and concubines.and concubines.

Cortes and his men were then given Cortes and his men were then given a tour of Tenochtitlan, where they a tour of Tenochtitlan, where they saw the grisly temples and the saw the grisly temples and the bloody remnants of sacrifices. bloody remnants of sacrifices.

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec Aztec society was Aztec society was

patriarchal, but patriarchal, but women received high women received high honor for bearing honor for bearing warrior sons, and the warrior sons, and the spirits of women who spirits of women who died in childbirth died in childbirth were believed to help were believed to help the sun god in his the sun god in his journey through the journey through the sky each day.sky each day.

Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec The Aztecs also had The Aztecs also had

a large and powerful a large and powerful group of priests.group of priests.

They served as They served as advisors to the king advisors to the king and his officials, and and his officials, and they conducted the they conducted the elaborate religious elaborate religious rituals that were rituals that were central to Aztec central to Aztec society.society.


The chief god, Huitzilopochtli, ruled The chief god, Huitzilopochtli, ruled from the position of the sun at noon, from the position of the sun at noon, and in order to keep him in his proper and in order to keep him in his proper place in the sky, place in the sky, the Aztecs believed the Aztecs believed he must be fed human bloodhe must be fed human blood. .

This blood came from frequent human This blood came from frequent human sacrifices on altars that lined the main sacrifices on altars that lined the main streets of Tenochtitlan.streets of Tenochtitlan.


The Spanish were particularly The Spanish were particularly horrified by these Aztec blood rituals.horrified by these Aztec blood rituals.

Aztec blood rituals were particularly Aztec blood rituals were particularly messy, with thousands of victims messy, with thousands of victims taken as war captives or tribute just taken as war captives or tribute just for that purpose.for that purpose.


Cortes and the AztecCortes and the Aztec A special part of the ritual was cutting the A special part of the ritual was cutting the

heart from the live victims chest, and the heart from the live victims chest, and the heart was then eaten by the Aztec heart was then eaten by the Aztec nobility.nobility.


Priests used large obsidian (stone) Priests used large obsidian (stone) knivesknives..


Sacrifices were carried out in front of Sacrifices were carried out in front of large crowds that included the leaders large crowds that included the leaders from enemy and subject states, from enemy and subject states, sending the clear message of the sending the clear message of the power of the Aztec elite. power of the Aztec elite.

The political message was equally The political message was equally clear: rebellion, deviancy, and clear: rebellion, deviancy, and opposition were very dangerous.opposition were very dangerous.


Cortes didn’t trust the unpredictable Cortes didn’t trust the unpredictable Moctezuma.Moctezuma.

Fearing attempts on their lives, Cortes Fearing attempts on their lives, Cortes and 30 armed Spanish soldiers acted and 30 armed Spanish soldiers acted swiftly and with audacity by capturing swiftly and with audacity by capturing Moctezuma in his own palace.Moctezuma in his own palace.

Cortes had the emperor placed in his Cortes had the emperor placed in his royal litter and carried back to their royal litter and carried back to their palace.palace.


Moctezuma did not resist, and as the royal cortege made its way through the streets, the people stood watching silently, paralyzed in their belief in the legend of Quetzalcoatl.

The ancient god had returned, they told each other, to rule over their nation in the guise of the blackbearded Spaniards.


Now in control of the city, Cortes Now in control of the city, Cortes rushed back to the coast, where he rushed back to the coast, where he met 900 additional Spanish troops met 900 additional Spanish troops from Cuba.from Cuba.

While he was away, Cortes’ second in While he was away, Cortes’ second in command invited 600 Aztec nobles to command invited 600 Aztec nobles to a temple to celebrate one of their a temple to celebrate one of their religious festivals.religious festivals.

While they danced, the Spanish While they danced, the Spanish slaughtered all of them and stripped slaughtered all of them and stripped their bodies of their gold.their bodies of their gold.


When this atrocity became known, When this atrocity became known, the city exploded in anger.the city exploded in anger.

Moctezuma climbed to the palace Moctezuma climbed to the palace roof and called for calm, but his roof and called for calm, but his warriors jeered him and then in a warriors jeered him and then in a storm of arrows and stones, severely storm of arrows and stones, severely injured their emperor. injured their emperor.

He refused to be tended to.He refused to be tended to.


He later died from these injuries (or He later died from these injuries (or secretly strangled by the Spanish—secretly strangled by the Spanish—according to differing accounts).according to differing accounts).


The Spaniards, led by the just The Spaniards, led by the just returned Cortes, then stormed the returned Cortes, then stormed the Great Pyramid, set fire to the shrines, Great Pyramid, set fire to the shrines, and ripped down sacred Aztec idols.and ripped down sacred Aztec idols.

Soon, the once invincible city was Soon, the once invincible city was sacked and on fire. sacked and on fire.


The siege would last 93 days (of often The siege would last 93 days (of often brutal and bloody fighting). brutal and bloody fighting).

By the time it ended, 2/3 of the By the time it ended, 2/3 of the Spaniards had been killed or dragged Spaniards had been killed or dragged off for sacrifice and those that were off for sacrifice and those that were left were wounded.left were wounded.


But Cortes was able to maneuver his But Cortes was able to maneuver his remaining troops across the lake and remaining troops across the lake and into allied territory.into allied territory.

From there, Cortes was able to From there, Cortes was able to encourage revolt among those encourage revolt among those oppressed by the Aztecs.oppressed by the Aztecs.

About this time Cortes received 600 About this time Cortes received 600 well-armed Spanish reinforcements well-armed Spanish reinforcements (including 40 cavalrymen) from Cuba.(including 40 cavalrymen) from Cuba.


At the end of December 1520, Cortes At the end of December 1520, Cortes set out again to take Tenochtitlan.set out again to take Tenochtitlan.

This time he entered the city with This time he entered the city with over 100,000 Indian allies seeking over 100,000 Indian allies seeking revenge on their Aztec oppressors.revenge on their Aztec oppressors.

The city was already being ravaged The city was already being ravaged by smallpox (it had killed by smallpox (it had killed Moctezuma’s successor, his brother Moctezuma’s successor, his brother Cuitlahua) and thousands of Aztecs.Cuitlahua) and thousands of Aztecs.


Cortes had Tenochtitlan’s aqueducts Cortes had Tenochtitlan’s aqueducts and chinampas destroyed (no fresh and chinampas destroyed (no fresh water or food) and access to the city water or food) and access to the city cut off.cut off.

Weakened by hunger and disease, the Weakened by hunger and disease, the Aztec warriors fought on to the bitter Aztec warriors fought on to the bitter end as their corpses piled up in the end as their corpses piled up in the streets and clogged the canals. streets and clogged the canals.

The fighting stopped when the last The fighting stopped when the last emperor, Moctezuma’s 25 year old emperor, Moctezuma’s 25 year old nephew Cuauhtemoc, was captured.nephew Cuauhtemoc, was captured.


When the mighty Aztec capital fell in When the mighty Aztec capital fell in 1521, Aztec poets wrote:1521, Aztec poets wrote:

““We are crushed to the ground,We are crushed to the ground,

we lie in ruins.we lie in ruins.

There is nothing but grief and sufferingThere is nothing but grief and suffering

in Mexico and Tlatelolco,in Mexico and Tlatelolco,

where once we saw beauty and valor.”where once we saw beauty and valor.”


By 1535, most of central Mexico had By 1535, most of central Mexico had been brought under Spanish control been brought under Spanish control as the kingdom of New Spain.as the kingdom of New Spain.

From there, the Spanish pushed their From there, the Spanish pushed their conquest southward into Central conquest southward into Central America and northward into the area America and northward into the area of north central Mexico.of north central Mexico.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca The second wave of The second wave of

conquest led the conquest led the Spaniards to northern Spaniards to northern South America and South America and Panama.Panama.

In 1532, Francisco In 1532, Francisco Pizarro led his men to Pizarro led his men to the conquest of the the conquest of the Inca Empire, which Inca Empire, which was already was already weakened by a long weakened by a long civil war.civil war.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca

By the early 1500’s, the Inca ruled all By the early 1500’s, the Inca ruled all the “civilized” peoples of South the “civilized” peoples of South America.America.

The Incan empire stretched from the The Incan empire stretched from the modern borders of Ecuador and modern borders of Ecuador and Colombia to more than half-way down Colombia to more than half-way down the coast of modern Chile– 2600 miles the coast of modern Chile– 2600 miles (roughly the distance from Boston to (roughly the distance from Boston to LA or Madrid to Moscow).LA or Madrid to Moscow).


Using treachery Using treachery and deceit, and deceit, fewer than 200 fewer than 200 Spaniards were Spaniards were able to bring able to bring down the great down the great empire.empire.


The twelfth emperor, The twelfth emperor, Huayna Capac (1493-Huayna Capac (1493-1526) ruled a stable, and 1526) ruled a stable, and expanding, empire.expanding, empire.

He went to the northern He went to the northern provinces to quell an provinces to quell an outbreak of rebellion (in outbreak of rebellion (in today’s Ecuador) when he today’s Ecuador) when he died of a mysterious died of a mysterious disease (smallpox).disease (smallpox).

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca The Spanish had introduced smallpox The Spanish had introduced smallpox

into Mesoamerica and it quickly into Mesoamerica and it quickly spread south, devastating all natives spread south, devastating all natives in its path (since they had no in its path (since they had no resistance to it).resistance to it).

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca The disease also killed his chosen heir.The disease also killed his chosen heir. The deaths of the emperor and his heir The deaths of the emperor and his heir

immediately destabilized the empire.immediately destabilized the empire. During Huayna Capac’s illness, traders from During Huayna Capac’s illness, traders from

the northern regions reported the the northern regions reported the appearance of bearded strangers in strange appearance of bearded strangers in strange ships.ships.

These men (the Spanish) who were immune These men (the Spanish) who were immune to the disease caused Huayna Capac to to the disease caused Huayna Capac to believe his disease was divine wrath and believe his disease was divine wrath and had been prophesized.had been prophesized.


General religious belief among General religious belief among Andean peoples stressed the Andean peoples stressed the arbitrary nature and power of the arbitrary nature and power of the gods, and the death of the emperor gods, and the death of the emperor and his heir by a mysterious disease, and his heir by a mysterious disease, and the ensuring civil war, must have and the ensuring civil war, must have been seen as divine retribution for been seen as divine retribution for something they had done.something they had done.


Without a living designated heir, the Without a living designated heir, the imperial household was thrown into imperial household was thrown into confusion.confusion.

Huayna Capac had over 20 sons, so Huayna Capac had over 20 sons, so members of the imperial family split members of the imperial family split into factions lining up behind the two into factions lining up behind the two major contenders, Huascar and major contenders, Huascar and Atahualpa.Atahualpa.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca Huascar was the governor of Cuzco and Huascar was the governor of Cuzco and

controlled the largest part of the controlled the largest part of the Empire (a son to Huanyna’s sister-Empire (a son to Huanyna’s sister-wife), and his half brother Atahaulpa wife), and his half brother Atahaulpa controlled the Kingdom of Quito (who controlled the Kingdom of Quito (who was his son by his favorite concubine).was his son by his favorite concubine).

HuascarHuascar Atahualpa: Atahualpa:


Huascar seized the throne and initially Huascar seized the throne and initially Atahualpa supported his claim, but Atahualpa supported his claim, but rumors spread that Atahualpa was rumors spread that Atahualpa was plotting a coup so Huascar declared plotting a coup so Huascar declared him an enemy, a traitor, and an him an enemy, a traitor, and an outlaw.outlaw.

Civil war ensued, but Atahualpa (the Civil war ensued, but Atahualpa (the more able leader) had with him in the more able leader) had with him in the north the bulk of his father’s veteran north the bulk of his father’s veteran soldiers.soldiers.


The civil war lasted six years with The civil war lasted six years with Atahualpa eventually victorious when Atahualpa eventually victorious when his armies took Huascar prisoner and his armies took Huascar prisoner and they captured Cuzco (Huascar would they captured Cuzco (Huascar would eventually be murdered).eventually be murdered).

This civil war ended just before the This civil war ended just before the Spaniards landed in Peru.Spaniards landed in Peru.


There had actually been a prophesy that There had actually been a prophesy that Huayna Capac was to be the last Inca Huayna Capac was to be the last Inca and that the demise of the empire would and that the demise of the empire would come with the arrival of powerful come with the arrival of powerful foreigners.foreigners.

Incan priests saw omens of doom when a Incan priests saw omens of doom when a full moon had three halos (which they full moon had three halos (which they said represented the death of Inti, the said represented the death of Inti, the sun god; war among Capac’s sun god; war among Capac’s descendents; and the break-up of the descendents; and the break-up of the empire).empire).


Many historians believe that by 1526 Many historians believe that by 1526 the empire was so big, the Inca the empire was so big, the Inca couldn’t control it and it was already couldn’t control it and it was already beginning to fall apart.beginning to fall apart.

Even though Atahualpa won the civil Even though Atahualpa won the civil war (after six years of turmoil) and war (after six years of turmoil) and controlled the army, he was disliked controlled the army, he was disliked and distrusted by many Inca nobles.and distrusted by many Inca nobles.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca Trying to consolidate his Trying to consolidate his

power when he occupied power when he occupied Cuzco, he ordered the Cuzco, he ordered the provincial governors and provincial governors and chief administrators to chief administrators to attend him in the capital.attend him in the capital.

Since many were of Since many were of Huascar’s lineage or loyal Huascar’s lineage or loyal to Huascar, Atahualpa to Huascar, Atahualpa ordered them put to death.ordered them put to death.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca He then ordered the burning of the mummy He then ordered the burning of the mummy

of his grandfather (the predecessor of of his grandfather (the predecessor of Huayna Capac—Tupac Yupanqui-the 11Huayna Capac—Tupac Yupanqui-the 11thth Inca emperor) which the Inca considered a Inca emperor) which the Inca considered a major sacrilegious offense.major sacrilegious offense.

Atahualpa now claimed his lineage was the Atahualpa now claimed his lineage was the only legitimate one to the imperial throne.only legitimate one to the imperial throne.

To the Inca, it must have seemed that To the Inca, it must have seemed that Huayna Capac’s prophesy of their doom Huayna Capac’s prophesy of their doom was coming true.was coming true.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca The conquest of Peru by the Spanish The conquest of Peru by the Spanish

(Pizarro) required three expeditions (Pizarro) required three expeditions over nine years.over nine years.

The first (1524) ended in failure The first (1524) ended in failure because of storms, the second (1526-because of storms, the second (1526-7) was recalled by Spanish officials 7) was recalled by Spanish officials after Pizarro sailed to the Incan city of after Pizarro sailed to the Incan city of Tumbez. Tumbez.

The hospitable people of Tumbez The hospitable people of Tumbez welcomed the Spaniards and showed welcomed the Spaniards and showed them their temple, which was them their temple, which was decorated with sheets of gold. decorated with sheets of gold.


Under strict orders from Pizarro, the Under strict orders from Pizarro, the Spaniards pretended not to notice Spaniards pretended not to notice the gold and they treated the the gold and they treated the Peruvians with consideration and Peruvians with consideration and respect.respect.

The time for conquest and plunder The time for conquest and plunder had not come (yet).had not come (yet).

But Pizarro had a glimpse of the Inca But Pizarro had a glimpse of the Inca at their peak of order and prosperity.at their peak of order and prosperity.


Had he attacked now, the Spanish Had he attacked now, the Spanish would have met overwhelming forces would have met overwhelming forces that were organized and determined.that were organized and determined.

It was Pizarro’s good fortune that the It was Pizarro’s good fortune that the weakness of his forces compelled weakness of his forces compelled him to delay his assault on Peru until him to delay his assault on Peru until the Inca were distracted and the Inca were distracted and weakened by civil war.weakened by civil war.


So Pizarro returned to So Pizarro returned to Spain in 1528 to visit Spain in 1528 to visit King Charles V. He King Charles V. He showed the king gold showed the king gold drinking cups acquired drinking cups acquired at Tumbez as well as at Tumbez as well as live llama and two live llama and two young Inca he was young Inca he was training as training as interpreters.interpreters.


Charles V was impressed and gave Charles V was impressed and gave Pizarro a royal charter to conquer Pizarro a royal charter to conquer this “land of gold,” making Pizarro this “land of gold,” making Pizarro Governor and Captain-General of the Governor and Captain-General of the lands he had yet to win.lands he had yet to win.

When he returned to Panama in the When he returned to Panama in the spring of 1531, he set sail for spring of 1531, he set sail for Tumbez with three ships, 180 men, Tumbez with three ships, 180 men, and 27 horses.and 27 horses.


Before he reached Tumbez, Pizarro Before he reached Tumbez, Pizarro was reinforced by 130 additional men was reinforced by 130 additional men and horses from Panama.and horses from Panama.

When he reached Tumbez, he found When he reached Tumbez, he found the city almost deserted and largely the city almost deserted and largely destroyed.destroyed.

As the Spanish went down the coast, As the Spanish went down the coast, whole valleys were without men of whole valleys were without men of military age, all of them conscripted military age, all of them conscripted by Atahualpa’s armiesby Atahualpa’s armies.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca Learning that Atahualpa was camped Learning that Atahualpa was camped

near Cajamarca in the Andes, Pizarro left near Cajamarca in the Andes, Pizarro left a garrison on the coast (110 men) and a garrison on the coast (110 men) and turned eastward into the mountains, turned eastward into the mountains, following a narrow but well-paved road.following a narrow but well-paved road.

The Inca were noted road builders, with The Inca were noted road builders, with roads varying from fully constructed roads varying from fully constructed paved roads to narrow paths.paved roads to narrow paths.

Road widths varied from 3ft to over 80ft.Road widths varied from 3ft to over 80ft.


No Inca opposed him; No Inca opposed him; the fortresses that the fortresses that watched the road were watched the road were empty and silent, the empty and silent, the bridges across bridges across mountain chasms mountain chasms undestroyed, the undestroyed, the narrow passes narrow passes unguarded.unguarded.

Pizarro had less than Pizarro had less than 200 men.200 men.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca Up into the mountains they went, the Up into the mountains they went, the

horses having to be led.horses having to be led. They were met by a high-ranking Inca They were met by a high-ranking Inca

noble envoy from Atahualpa who said noble envoy from Atahualpa who said the Inca wanted to be friends with the the Inca wanted to be friends with the Spanish and that Atahualpa was Spanish and that Atahualpa was awaiting them in peace at Cajamarca. awaiting them in peace at Cajamarca.


Pizarro and his men marched into Pizarro and his men marched into Cajamarca and saw it deserted, Cajamarca and saw it deserted, thinking it was a trap.thinking it was a trap.

Once Pizarro secured the town, he Once Pizarro secured the town, he sent Hernando De Soto (later the sent Hernando De Soto (later the “discoverer” of the Mississippi River) “discoverer” of the Mississippi River) and 15 horsemen to visit the Inca.and 15 horsemen to visit the Inca.

Inca soldiers and noblemen, adorned Inca soldiers and noblemen, adorned in gleaming golden ornaments, in gleaming golden ornaments, surrounded Atahualpa, who sat on a surrounded Atahualpa, who sat on a low stool.low stool.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca Even though Atahualpa had never seen Even though Atahualpa had never seen

a horse or the bright steel armor the a horse or the bright steel armor the Spanish wore, he gave no hint that he Spanish wore, he gave no hint that he was impressed.was impressed.

The Spaniards rode up to him, bowed The Spaniards rode up to him, bowed politely without dismounting and politely without dismounting and announced (through an interpreter) announced (through an interpreter) that their commander invited the that their commander invited the emperor to visit him at his quarters.emperor to visit him at his quarters.

At first Atahualpa did not reply; then he At first Atahualpa did not reply; then he smiled. smiled.


““Tell your commander that I am keeping Tell your commander that I am keeping a fast that will end tomorrow. Then I will a fast that will end tomorrow. Then I will visit him with my chieftains.”visit him with my chieftains.”

De Soto noticed that the emperor was De Soto noticed that the emperor was fascinated by the horses, so digging his fascinated by the horses, so digging his spurs into his he gave a brilliant display spurs into his he gave a brilliant display of horsemanship, dashing away at a of horsemanship, dashing away at a gallop, rearing, wheeling. gallop, rearing, wheeling.


Then he rode full Then he rode full speed at speed at Atahualpa, Atahualpa, stopping the stopping the horse so close horse so close that flecks of that flecks of foam fell on the foam fell on the emperor’s emperor’s clothing.clothing.


Not a tremor of expression crossed Not a tremor of expression crossed Atahualpa’s face.Atahualpa’s face.

Deeply affected by this display of Deeply affected by this display of fortitude (and also the hundreds of fortitude (and also the hundreds of well-disciplined soldiers), the Spanish well-disciplined soldiers), the Spanish returned to Pizarro in low spirits.returned to Pizarro in low spirits.

Atahualpa was obviously no weakling Atahualpa was obviously no weakling like Moctezuma, who was paralyzed like Moctezuma, who was paralyzed by religious doubts and fear.by religious doubts and fear.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca De Soto’s report caused panic in the De Soto’s report caused panic in the

Spanish camp, but Pizarro was Spanish camp, but Pizarro was pleased, for only desperate men pleased, for only desperate men would be willing to risk the bold would be willing to risk the bold scheme he proposed…he convinced scheme he proposed…he convinced his men that their only hope of his men that their only hope of survival was to capture Atahualpa survival was to capture Atahualpa within the sight of his powerful army.within the sight of his powerful army.

Anything less would mean the Anything less would mean the destruction of the tiny band of destruction of the tiny band of Spaniards.Spaniards.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca At dawn, Pizarro positioned his men At dawn, Pizarro positioned his men

around the town’s plaza, and when around the town’s plaza, and when the signal was given (the firing of a the signal was given (the firing of a rifle), his men were to emerge and rifle), his men were to emerge and slaughter the emperor’s followers and slaughter the emperor’s followers and seize the emperor.seize the emperor.

Shortly after midday the emperor’s Shortly after midday the emperor’s procession moved slowly along the procession moved slowly along the city’s avenue…first came attendants city’s avenue…first came attendants to sweep the ground followed by to sweep the ground followed by nobles whose golden jewelry blazed in nobles whose golden jewelry blazed in the sun.the sun.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca Then came Atahualpa riding in a Then came Atahualpa riding in a

golden litter carried on the shoulders golden litter carried on the shoulders of his highest-ranking noblemen.of his highest-ranking noblemen.


A half-mile from the city’s plaza, A half-mile from the city’s plaza, Pizarro relayed a message to Pizarro relayed a message to Atahualpa that he was providing Atahualpa that he was providing entertainment and he expected the entertainment and he expected the emperor to join him for dinner.emperor to join him for dinner.

The emperor replied that he accepted The emperor replied that he accepted the invitation and that he would leave the invitation and that he would leave most of his warriors behind, and those most of his warriors behind, and those he brought would be unarmed. he brought would be unarmed.


To Pizarro, this was a sign that God To Pizarro, this was a sign that God was on the side of the Spanish.was on the side of the Spanish.

Historians believe that it never Historians believe that it never occurred to Atahualpa that the occurred to Atahualpa that the Spaniards might attack him…the Spaniards might attack him…the power of the Inca was so absolute power of the Inca was so absolute that any such action was that any such action was unthinkable.unthinkable.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca When Atahualpa entered the plaza no When Atahualpa entered the plaza no

Spaniard was in sight. “Where are the Spaniard was in sight. “Where are the strangers?” he said.strangers?” he said.

Pizarro’s chaplain came forward and Pizarro’s chaplain came forward and after a long discourse in Christian after a long discourse in Christian theology (that the Inca didn’t theology (that the Inca didn’t understand) he told Atahualpa that he understand) he told Atahualpa that he must change his religion and become must change his religion and become a vassal of Charles V of Spain. a vassal of Charles V of Spain.

Atahualpa was not pleased.Atahualpa was not pleased.


Atahualpa said “I will be no man’s Atahualpa said “I will be no man’s vassal. I am greater than any prince vassal. I am greater than any prince on earth. As for my religion, I will not on earth. As for my religion, I will not change it. You say your God was put change it. You say your God was put to death, but mine” –and he pointed to death, but mine” –and he pointed to the sun— “still lives.”to the sun— “still lives.”

The priest handed Atahualpa his Bible The priest handed Atahualpa his Bible and the emperor threw it down.and the emperor threw it down.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca The priest screamed at Pizarro “While The priest screamed at Pizarro “While

we are arguing with this arrogant dog we are arguing with this arrogant dog the fields are filling with Indians. Set on the fields are filling with Indians. Set on him! I absolve you.”him! I absolve you.”

Pizarro waved a white scarf, a gun Pizarro waved a white scarf, a gun thundered, and the slaughter began.thundered, and the slaughter began.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca Atahualpa’s retainers desperately Atahualpa’s retainers desperately

crowded around the royal litter but crowded around the royal litter but they had no weapons.they had no weapons.

They clung to the horses so Atahualpa They clung to the horses so Atahualpa wouldn’t be injured until the wouldn’t be injured until the Spaniards cut them away with their Spaniards cut them away with their swords.swords.

Fearing that the emperor might be Fearing that the emperor might be injured, Pizarro shouted that any injured, Pizarro shouted that any soldier that harmed him would be put soldier that harmed him would be put to death.to death.

Pizarro and the IncaPizarro and the Inca Pizarro was slightly cut on the hand Pizarro was slightly cut on the hand

(by one of his own men) and that was (by one of his own men) and that was the only Spanish injury that day.the only Spanish injury that day.


Atahualpa was captured and dragged Atahualpa was captured and dragged to a nearby building.to a nearby building.

Panic spread through the Inca Panic spread through the Inca warriors left behind and they fled… warriors left behind and they fled… ending all resistance to the Spanish.ending all resistance to the Spanish.


The massacre had lasted little more The massacre had lasted little more than half an hour, but at least 2,000—than half an hour, but at least 2,000—some reports say 10,000—Inca were some reports say 10,000—Inca were killed, including the key nobles which killed, including the key nobles which were the Empire’s administrative core.were the Empire’s administrative core.

When all was quiet, Pizarro invited When all was quiet, Pizarro invited Atahualpa to dinner as promised.Atahualpa to dinner as promised.

The banquet was held near the plaza The banquet was held near the plaza in a building still carpeted with the in a building still carpeted with the dead.dead.


Pizarro sat next to his captive who Pizarro sat next to his captive who showed remarkable composure.showed remarkable composure.

““It is the way of war,” the Emperor It is the way of war,” the Emperor remarked with dignity, “to conquer or remarked with dignity, “to conquer or be conquered.”be conquered.”

Pizarro ordered that Atahualpa’s court Pizarro ordered that Atahualpa’s court be brought to Cajamarca, including be brought to Cajamarca, including his favorite concubines, his cooks and his favorite concubines, his cooks and other servants, and young girls who other servants, and young girls who waited on him hand and foot. waited on him hand and foot.


Even though he was a prisoner, Even though he was a prisoner, Atahualpa continued to live as the Atahualpa continued to live as the Emperor (including dining off of solid Emperor (including dining off of solid gold plates)…but all orders given in gold plates)…but all orders given in his name were from Pizarro.his name were from Pizarro.

The people of the Empire, accustomed The people of the Empire, accustomed to obeying the Emperor’s every wish to obeying the Emperor’s every wish did not question the stranger through did not question the stranger through whom they believed their ruler was whom they believed their ruler was speaking.speaking.


For the next nine months For the next nine months (while Pizarro waited for (while Pizarro waited for reinforcements), Atahualpa reinforcements), Atahualpa lived in captivity.lived in captivity.

He noticed the He noticed the extraordinary effect gold extraordinary effect gold had on the Spaniards and had on the Spaniards and this gave him an idea to this gave him an idea to escape captivity.escape captivity.


To Atahualpa, gold was a decorative To Atahualpa, gold was a decorative material; since the Inca didn’t use material; since the Inca didn’t use money, he couldn’t understand its money, he couldn’t understand its importance as a medium of importance as a medium of exchange…but he saw that the exchange…but he saw that the Spanish craved it above all else.Spanish craved it above all else.


One day, Atahualpa and Pizarro were One day, Atahualpa and Pizarro were in a building and the Emperor offered in a building and the Emperor offered to cover the floor in gold if Pizarro to cover the floor in gold if Pizarro released him.released him.

The Spaniards present were The Spaniards present were dumbfounded by this proposal and dumbfounded by this proposal and couldn’t speak, so Atahualpa couldn’t speak, so Atahualpa increased his offer.increased his offer.


He stood on his tiptoes, reached as He stood on his tiptoes, reached as high as he could, and offered to fill high as he could, and offered to fill the room (17 x 22ft) with gold to that the room (17 x 22ft) with gold to that point. Pizarro drew a red line.point. Pizarro drew a red line.

Pizarro then demanded the adjoining Pizarro then demanded the adjoining two rooms be filled with silver. two rooms be filled with silver.


Atahualpa agreed, Atahualpa agreed, asked for two months asked for two months to accomplish the to accomplish the task, and ordered the task, and ordered the collection of gold and collection of gold and silver objects from silver objects from around the empire.around the empire.


To the Inca, gold and silver To the Inca, gold and silver represented the essence of the sun represented the essence of the sun and the moon.and the moon.

The importance of objects lay in the The importance of objects lay in the imagery of the gods they represented.imagery of the gods they represented.

To the Spanish, their interest was To the Spanish, their interest was purely monetary…they cared neither purely monetary…they cared neither for Incan artistry nor for the religious for Incan artistry nor for the religious value a piece carried.value a piece carried.



Fearing that once the rooms were filled Fearing that once the rooms were filled with treasure the Inca would attack the with treasure the Inca would attack the Spanish, Pizarro sent three of his men Spanish, Pizarro sent three of his men to Cuzco (600 miles away) to to Cuzco (600 miles away) to determine the state of the Inca.determine the state of the Inca.

On Atahualpa’s orders, they were to be On Atahualpa’s orders, they were to be carried on litters by troops of bearers, carried on litters by troops of bearers, and during their journey they were and during their journey they were greeted with reverence, not hostility.greeted with reverence, not hostility.

They reported back that Peru was They reported back that Peru was peaceful.peaceful.


When at last Pizarro declared the When at last Pizarro declared the ransom paid, he ordered that all the ransom paid, he ordered that all the gold be melted down to ingots except gold be melted down to ingots except for a few objects of artistic interest.for a few objects of artistic interest.

The ransom has been estimated to The ransom has been estimated to have been worth $30+ million.have been worth $30+ million.

Charles V was to receive 20% of the Charles V was to receive 20% of the gold, the remainder divided up gold, the remainder divided up between Pizarro and his men.between Pizarro and his men.


Pizarro’s share of the loot was over Pizarro’s share of the loot was over $2,000,000. Each foot soldier got $2,000,000. Each foot soldier got about $75,000, and every cavalry about $75,000, and every cavalry man about $175,000.man about $175,000.

Atahualpa then demanded his Atahualpa then demanded his freedom.freedom.

De Soto and a minority agreed and De Soto and a minority agreed and said it was a matter of honor. said it was a matter of honor.


But the majority of Spaniards, fearing But the majority of Spaniards, fearing for their safety if the Emperor lived, for their safety if the Emperor lived, disagreed and put him on trial disagreed and put him on trial charged with idolatry, polygamy, and charged with idolatry, polygamy, and incestuous marriage. incestuous marriage.

He was also charged with usurping the He was also charged with usurping the throne and having his half-brother throne and having his half-brother (Huascar) murdered.(Huascar) murdered.

He was pronounced guilty and He was pronounced guilty and condemned to death by burning at the condemned to death by burning at the stake.stake.


A stake was set up in the city plaza, A stake was set up in the city plaza, Atahualpa was bound to it, and Atahualpa was bound to it, and bundles of sticks were set around.bundles of sticks were set around.

The priest approached Atahualpa The priest approached Atahualpa with his crucifix and told him that if with his crucifix and told him that if he converted to Christianity, he he converted to Christianity, he would be strangled instead of burned would be strangled instead of burned alive.alive.


Atahualpa agreed, was immediately Atahualpa agreed, was immediately baptized under the name Juan de baptized under the name Juan de Atahualpa, then garroted (strangled) Atahualpa, then garroted (strangled) by a cord around his neck.by a cord around his neck.

So died the last of the ruling Incan So died the last of the ruling Incan emperors, and the Empire died with emperors, and the Empire died with him.him.


It shattered into helpless fragments It shattered into helpless fragments which passively accepted Spanish which passively accepted Spanish control.control.

To the common people, the To the common people, the Spaniards were merely a new class Spaniards were merely a new class of rulers, just as remote and probably of rulers, just as remote and probably no worse than the Inca had been. no worse than the Inca had been.

The Legacy of Cortes and Pizarro The Inca were as wrong in their The Inca were as wrong in their

trusting passivity as the Mexicans had trusting passivity as the Mexicans had been in actively aiding the invaders been in actively aiding the invaders against the Aztec oppressors, but against the Aztec oppressors, but nothing that either people could have nothing that either people could have done would have delayed the done would have delayed the outcome by more than a few years. outcome by more than a few years. The Spaniards brought more than The Spaniards brought more than conquest to the isolated civilizations conquest to the isolated civilizations of the ancient Americas; they also of the ancient Americas; they also brought contact with the outside brought contact with the outside world, and that proved disastrousworld, and that proved disastrous.


Conquest involved violence, domination, Conquest involved violence, domination, and theft. The Spanish conquest of the and theft. The Spanish conquest of the Americas created a series of important Americas created a series of important philosophical and moral questions for the philosophical and moral questions for the Europeans.Europeans.

Theologians and lawyers asked “Who Theologians and lawyers asked “Who were the Indians? Were they fully were the Indians? Were they fully human? Was it proper to convert them to human? Was it proper to convert them to Christianity? Could conversion by force Christianity? Could conversion by force or the conquest of their lands be or the conquest of their lands be justified?”justified?”


Driven by greed, the conquistadors Driven by greed, the conquistadors argued that conquest was necessary to argued that conquest was necessary to spread the gospel and that control of spread the gospel and that control of Indian labor was essential to Spanish Indian labor was essential to Spanish rule. rule.

In 1548, Juan de Sepulveda, a noted In 1548, Juan de Sepulveda, a noted Spanish scholar, published a book Spanish scholar, published a book claiming the conquests were fully claiming the conquests were fully justified.justified.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration The Spaniards had come to free the The Spaniards had come to free the

Indians from their unjust overlords and Indians from their unjust overlords and to bring them “the light of salvation.”to bring them “the light of salvation.”

Most importantly, he argued, the Most importantly, he argued, the Indians were not fully human, and Indians were not fully human, and some peoples “were born to serve.”some peoples “were born to serve.”


In 1550, Bishop In 1550, Bishop Bartolome de Las Bartolome de Las CasasCasas presented the king an opposing presented the king an opposing view.view.


Before the king Before the king (Charles V), Bishop (Charles V), Bishop de Las Casas said de Las Casas said that the Indians that the Indians were a rational were a rational people, who, unlike people, who, unlike the Muslims, had the Muslims, had never done harm never done harm to Christians.to Christians.

The Age of ExplorationThe Age of Exploration Therefore the Therefore the

conquest of their conquest of their lands was unjustified.lands was unjustified.

The court was The court was horrified as de Las horrified as de Las Casas related his Casas related his A A Short Account of the Short Account of the Destruction of the Destruction of the Indies Indies (written 1542).(written 1542).


He argued that “the He argued that “the Indians are our Indians are our brothers and Christ brothers and Christ has given his life for has given his life for them.”them.”

Spanish rule to spread Spanish rule to spread Christianity was Christianity was justified, but justified, but conversion should conversion should take place only by take place only by peaceful means.peaceful means.


Bishop de Las Casas was such an Bishop de Las Casas was such an advocate of the natives he famously advocate of the natives he famously refused to administer “last rites” to refused to administer “last rites” to Spaniards who confessed to Spaniards who confessed to brutalizing them.brutalizing them.

But he also assumed, as Aristotle said, But he also assumed, as Aristotle said, that some men were ‘by nature’ that some men were ‘by nature’ slaves (he had African slaves of his slaves (he had African slaves of his own) but he denied that the Indians own) but he denied that the Indians were among them. were among them.


In the end, In the end, the Spanish crown ruled the Spanish crown ruled that the Indians must be treated that the Indians must be treated better.better.

Unfortunately, it was too little too Unfortunately, it was too little too late and since the New World was far late and since the New World was far from Spain, change came very from Spain, change came very slowly.slowly.

The great conquests were essentially The great conquests were essentially over by the 1570’s.over by the 1570’s.


It was not It was not courage or courage or better weapons better weapons that defeated that defeated the indigenous the indigenous peoples of the peoples of the Americas; it was Americas; it was disease (mostly disease (mostly smallpox).smallpox).


Fifteen major epidemics raged through Fifteen major epidemics raged through the Americas in the century after the Americas in the century after Columbus. Columbus.

Many historians consider this to be theMany historians consider this to be the single greatest tragedy in the history of the human species, as an estimated 25-50 million natives died within 100 years (equal to ½ billion people today).


Enslavement of Africans Enslavement of Africans is is consideredconsidered by many historians to by many historians to be the second greatest tragedy.be the second greatest tragedy.

By 1650, the European conquest By 1650, the European conquest of the Americas was fairly of the Americas was fairly complete and the Americas were complete and the Americas were driven by a plantation and mining driven by a plantation and mining export economy of raw materials export economy of raw materials sent back to Europe.sent back to Europe.


Natives were used Natives were used as slave labor in as slave labor in mining gold and mining gold and silver and on silver and on plantations.plantations.

In the Potosi mines In the Potosi mines of Bolivia, by 1650 of Bolivia, by 1650 an estimated 8 an estimated 8 million natives had million natives had died.died.


Brazilian and Caribbean export Brazilian and Caribbean export economies by the 17th century were economies by the 17th century were based on plantations which produced based on plantations which produced sugar, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, rice.sugar, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, rice.

As natives died, European plantation As natives died, European plantation and mine owners needed workers, and mine owners needed workers,

spawning the spawning the Atlantic slave trade.

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System

The relationship between Africa—The relationship between Africa—Europe—the Americas in the 17th Europe—the Americas in the 17th century is called the century is called the Plantation Plantation ComplexComplex or or the Atlantic Systemthe Atlantic System. .

The Atlantic System The Atlantic System initially initially combined two institutions in new combined two institutions in new ways:ways: sugar production and slavery sugar production and slavery..

Slavery was a fundamental, basic Slavery was a fundamental, basic institution in nearly all pre-modern institution in nearly all pre-modern societies.societies.


Up to the 14th century, most Up to the 14th century, most European slaves came from the European slaves came from the SlavicSlavic areas around the Black Sea areas around the Black Sea and were sold/used in the and were sold/used in the Mediterranean area. Mediterranean area. Slave came Slave came from the word Slav.from the word Slav.

European slavery had nothing to do European slavery had nothing to do with Africa until the mid-15th with Africa until the mid-15th century.century.

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System Up to this point, Up to this point, European slavery European slavery

had nothing to do with had nothing to do with RACE RACE because most slaves were white.because most slaves were white.

Two events changed the relationship:Two events changed the relationship:1). 1453 Muslim Turks captured 1). 1453 Muslim Turks captured Constantinople (and changed the Constantinople (and changed the name to Istanbul) and sealed off the Black name to Istanbul) and sealed off the Black Sea to the slave trade.Sea to the slave trade.

2). 1433 Portugal made its way down the 2). 1433 Portugal made its way down the West coast of Africa, making first contact West coast of Africa, making first contact with the Sub-Saharan African slave trade with the Sub-Saharan African slave trade that already existed.that already existed.


SugarSugar:: Until the 11th century Europe’s only Until the 11th century Europe’s only

sweetener was honey.sweetener was honey. As a result of the Crusades, Europe As a result of the Crusades, Europe

came into contact with sugar cane came into contact with sugar cane in the Middle East. in the Middle East.

Sugar cane was brought to Caribbean Sugar cane was brought to Caribbean islands and fertile South American islands and fertile South American soils to be cultivated.soils to be cultivated.

It is very labor intensive.It is very labor intensive.


Sugar became the most Sugar became the most dominant, most lucrative dominant, most lucrative cash crop in the New cash crop in the New World. World.

Sugar was not only used Sugar was not only used as a sweetener but also to as a sweetener but also to make rum.make rum.

By 1700, even though it By 1700, even though it was still expensive, sugar was still expensive, sugar was a European was a European necessity.necessity.


Long before oil had international Long before oil had international consequences, it was the production of consequences, it was the production of sugar to make rum that dominated sugar to make rum that dominated trade between the Americas, Europe, trade between the Americas, Europe, and Africa. and Africa.

For a century (1570-1670) the For a century (1570-1670) the northeast coast of Brazil dominated the northeast coast of Brazil dominated the world market in sugar production.world market in sugar production.

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System Then the British, French, and Dutch Then the British, French, and Dutch

turned their Caribbean colonies to sugar turned their Caribbean colonies to sugar production, trying to break the production, trying to break the Portuguese/Brazilian monopoly.Portuguese/Brazilian monopoly.

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System Sugar transformed Sugar transformed

Brazil and the Brazil and the Caribbean.Caribbean.

Its production, which Its production, which involved both the involved both the growing of sugarcane growing of sugarcane and processing it into and processing it into usable sugar, usable sugar, occurred in large-occurred in large-scale, industrial type scale, industrial type plantations.plantations.


The slaves worked The slaves worked in horrendous in horrendous conditions. The conditions. The heat and fire from heat and fire from the cauldrons the cauldrons (turning sugarcane (turning sugarcane into crystallized into crystallized sugar) reminded sugar) reminded many visitors of many visitors of scenes from Hell.scenes from Hell.


The origin of the word The origin of the word rumrum is unclear. is unclear. A common claim is that the name A common claim is that the name was derived from was derived from rumbullionrumbullion meaning "a great tumult or uproar". meaning "a great tumult or uproar".

Another claim is that the name is Another claim is that the name is from the large drinking glasses used from the large drinking glasses used by Dutch seamen known as by Dutch seamen known as rummersrummers, from the Dutch word , from the Dutch word roemerroemer, a drinking glass. , a drinking glass.


By the 17By the 17thth century, the islands of the century, the islands of the Caribbean were nearly empty or had Caribbean were nearly empty or had isolated populations that died.isolated populations that died.

Initially plantations were worked by Initially plantations were worked by natives, but as they died, the New natives, but as they died, the New World turned to their home countries World turned to their home countries to find workers through persuasion, to find workers through persuasion, propaganda, coercion, kidnapping.propaganda, coercion, kidnapping.

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System Thousands of Europeans came to the Thousands of Europeans came to the

New World seeking a new life…but New World seeking a new life…but millions were needed.millions were needed.

Many died of malaria or yellow fever—Many died of malaria or yellow fever—they had no immunities.they had no immunities.

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System With millions of

natives dead/dying, and European workers dying, the European plantation/mine owners began to import slaves from Africa (partially because of de Las Casas).

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System By the end of 16th century, the labor

force of coerced Africans had replaced the coerced Native Americans.


By the 16th century, Africa had become By the 16th century, Africa had become a commercially active area with the a commercially active area with the Middle East and Asia, and this included Middle East and Asia, and this included the slave trade.the slave trade.

Portugal had been taking slaves back to Portugal had been taking slaves back to Europe since the 1430’s.Europe since the 1430’s.

By the early 1500’s, there were over By the early 1500’s, there were over 35,000 Africans (mostly slaves, but also 35,000 Africans (mostly slaves, but also freedmen) living in Portugal.freedmen) living in Portugal.



Who were the slavesWho were the slaves?? Professional slave dealers brought slaves to Professional slave dealers brought slaves to

the coasts to be bought by the Europeans the coasts to be bought by the Europeans (Europeans didn’t travel into the interior of (Europeans didn’t travel into the interior of Africa because of fear of deadly diseases). Africa because of fear of deadly diseases).

Slaves were collected in many ways: Slaves were collected in many ways: 1. 1. most common were prisoners of tribal warmost common were prisoners of tribal war

(also seen in India, China). Dealers did not sell (also seen in India, China). Dealers did not sell friends or family but did sell enemies, least friends or family but did sell enemies, least desirables of society.desirables of society.

2. 2. sold condemned criminalssold condemned criminals (no prison costs (no prison costs + sale revenue)+ sale revenue)

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System The African slave trade to the The African slave trade to the

Americas lasted three centuries.Americas lasted three centuries. It began in Brazil in 16th century; moved It began in Brazil in 16th century; moved

to Caribbean by 17th century; to Caribbean by 17th century;

migrated to North America in 18th migrated to North America in 18th century; and Cuba/Puerto Rico in 19th century; and Cuba/Puerto Rico in 19th century.century.

The slave trade officially ended in U.S. The slave trade officially ended in U.S. 1808; 55 years later it is abolished. 1808; 55 years later it is abolished.

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System Slavery ended in the U.S. in 1863, in Slavery ended in the U.S. in 1863, in

Brazil in the 1880’s.Brazil in the 1880’s.


Until 1840’s, more Africans crossed Until 1840’s, more Africans crossed the Atlantic than Europeansthe Atlantic than Europeans..

Between 15-19th centuries, an Between 15-19th centuries, an estimated estimated 10-12 million slaves10-12 million slaves were were

brought to the Americas. brought to the Americas. 95% were intended for95% were intended for the mines the mines

and plantations of the and plantations of the Caribbean, Caribbean, Latin and South America…Latin and South America…

Only 5% intended for North America. Only 5% intended for North America.


10-12 million is the number which 10-12 million is the number which survived the tripsurvived the trip (the (the Middle Middle

PassagePassage) and actually landed in the ) and actually landed in the New World…New World…

It is estimated that between 16-30 It is estimated that between 16-30 million Africans were enslavedmillion Africans were enslaved and and that 1/3 to ½ died in the Middle that 1/3 to ½ died in the Middle Passage.Passage.


TheThe Middle Passage Middle Passage was a was a shipping term referring to the middle shipping term referring to the middle leg of the leg of the triangular tradetriangular trade that 1). that 1). sent manufactured goods to Africa sent manufactured goods to Africa from Europe (guns, cloth)…from Europe (guns, cloth)…

2). which sent slaves to the 2). which sent slaves to the Americas… Americas…

3). which sent raw materials (sugar, 3). which sent raw materials (sugar, rum, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, indigo, rum, coffee, cocoa, tobacco, indigo, silver, lumber, etc) back to Europe.silver, lumber, etc) back to Europe.


The The Triangle TradeTriangle Trade: :


The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System The slave trade’s long term The slave trade’s long term

impact on Africa:impact on Africa: 1). 1). Significant loss of male population Significant loss of male population

16-30 years old16-30 years old in their prime, in their prime, productive years…they cannot add productive years…they cannot add value to their economy if they are value to their economy if they are gone. gone.

The loss of millions retards African The loss of millions retards African developmentdevelopment, and it does not , and it does not recover.recover.


2). 2). Polygamy increasedPolygamy increased because of because of the lack of men.the lack of men.

3). 3). The slave trade increased the The slave trade increased the level of violence in Africalevel of violence in Africa as wars as wars were started over slavery…warfare were started over slavery…warfare became more common and more became more common and more violent. violent.


The impact on the AmericasThe impact on the Americas:: African labor was crucial to the African labor was crucial to the

development of the New World.development of the New World. In North America, Africans faced more In North America, Africans faced more

racism because the color line was racism because the color line was greatergreater than in South America than in South America (where (where several different races had been several different races had been created weakening the “color line”).created weakening the “color line”).

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System The long-term mix of the population The long-term mix of the population

was changed with the creation of was changed with the creation of Mestizos & Mulattos.Mestizos & Mulattos.

Mestizos Mestizos (or mixed-race) were the (or mixed-race) were the product of unions between Spanish product of unions between Spanish men and Indian women.men and Indian women.


Rooted in the sexual imbalance among Rooted in the sexual imbalance among Spanish immigrants (7 men to 1 woman Spanish immigrants (7 men to 1 woman in early colonial Peru), the emergence of in early colonial Peru), the emergence of a a mestizomestizo population was facilitated by population was facilitated by the desire of many surviving Indian the desire of many surviving Indian women for the security of a Spanish women for the security of a Spanish household, where their children wouldn’t household, where their children wouldn’t be subjected to the abuse and harsh be subjected to the abuse and harsh demands made on the native peoples.demands made on the native peoples.


The Spanish Crown encouraged The Spanish Crown encouraged settlers to marry into elite Indian settlers to marry into elite Indian families (Cortes fathered children families (Cortes fathered children with two of Moctezuma’s daughters).with two of Moctezuma’s daughters).

Over the 300 years of the colonial Over the 300 years of the colonial era, era, mestizomestizo numbers grew numbers grew substantially, becoming the majority substantially, becoming the majority of the Mexican population sometime of the Mexican population sometime during the 19during the 19thth century. century.


MulattosMulattos were a mixed race created were a mixed race created between European men and African between European men and African women.women.

Cross-racial unions accounted for only Cross-racial unions accounted for only about 10% of all marriages, but the about 10% of all marriages, but the use of mistresses and informal use of mistresses and informal relationships between Indians, relationships between Indians, Africans, and the Europeans created Africans, and the Europeans created substantial racial mixing. substantial racial mixing.


In Brazil alone, there emerged over 40 In Brazil alone, there emerged over 40 separate and racially mixed groups, separate and racially mixed groups, each named by the amount of racial each named by the amount of racial mixing contained.mixing contained.

The English colonies of North The English colonies of North America/the Caribbean were much more America/the Caribbean were much more racially conscious than the racially conscious than the Spanish/Portuguese colonies so there Spanish/Portuguese colonies so there was much less racial mixing (the “color was much less racial mixing (the “color line” was much more distinct making line” was much more distinct making racism a bigger issueracism a bigger issue).).

The Atlantic SystemThe Atlantic System But the Spanish minority in the But the Spanish minority in the

Caribbean/Central/South America (never Caribbean/Central/South America (never more than 20% of the population) was more than 20% of the population) was itself a divided community.itself a divided community.

Politically they saw themselves, not as Politically they saw themselves, not as colonials, but as residents of a Spanish colonials, but as residents of a Spanish kingdom, subject to the Spanish king, kingdom, subject to the Spanish king, yet separate and distinct from Spain yet separate and distinct from Spain and deserving of a large measure of and deserving of a large measure of self- government.self- government.


Descendants of the original Descendants of the original conquistadores conquistadores tried to protect their tried to protect their privileges from immigrant privileges from immigrant newcomers; Spaniards born in the newcomers; Spaniards born in the Americas were known as Americas were known as creoles creoles and and they resented the pretensions to they resented the pretensions to superiority of those born in Spain superiority of those born in Spain ((peninsularespeninsulares).).

Documents

The Age of Exploration The Creation of the Atlantic System and the Eurocentric World 1433-1650