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THE EFFECTS OF THE CLASSROOM FLIP ON THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT: A COMPARISON OF
LEARNING ACTIVITY IN A TRADITIONAL CLASSROOM AND A FLIP CLASSROOM THAT USED AN INTELLIGENT TUTORING SYSTEM
DISSERTATION
Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate
School of The Ohio State University
By
Jeremy F. Strayer, B.S., M.A.Ed.
*****
The Ohio State University
2007
Dissertation Committee: Approved by
Dr. Douglas T. Owens, Adviser ______________________________
Dr. Sigrid Wagner Adviser Graduate Program in Education Dr. Rick Voithofer
Cop
yrig
ht
Jere
my
F. S
tray
er
2007
ii
AB
ST
RA
CT
Wit
h th
e ri
se o
f te
chno
log
y us
e in
col
lege
cla
ssro
oms,
man
y pr
ofe
ssor
s ar
e op
en
to s
truc
turi
ng t
heir
cla
ssro
oms
in i
nnov
ativ
e w
ays.
The
cla
ssro
om f
lip
(or
inve
rted
clas
sroo
m)
is o
ne s
uch
inno
vati
ve c
lass
room
str
uctu
re t
hat
mov
es t
he l
ectu
re o
utsi
de t
he
clas
sroo
m v
ia t
echn
olo
gy
and
mov
es h
omew
ork
and
prac
tice
wit
h co
ncep
ts i
nsid
e th
e
clas
sroo
m v
ia l
earn
ing
acti
viti
es.
Thi
s re
sear
ch c
ompa
res
the
clas
sroo
m f
lip
and
the
trad
itio
nal
lect
ure/
hom
ewor
k
stru
ctur
e in
tw
o di
ffer
ent
coll
ege
leve
l in
trod
ucto
ry s
tati
stic
s cl
assr
oom
s. I
n t
he c
lass
room
flip
cla
ssro
om, a
n in
tell
igen
t tu
tori
ng s
yste
m (
ITS
) w
as u
sed
to d
eliv
er t
he l
ectu
re c
onte
nt
outs
ide
the
clas
sroo
m. S
tude
nts
com
plet
ed a
ctiv
e le
arni
ng
proj
ects
in
the
clas
sroo
m t
hat
ofte
n re
quir
ed t
he u
se o
f a
spre
adsh
eet
com
pute
r p
rogr
am t
o he
lp s
tude
nts
wor
k w
ith
the
conc
epts
in
the
cou
rse.
In
the
lec
ture
/hom
ewo
rk c
lass
room
, stu
dent
s at
tend
ed l
ectu
res
on
cour
se c
onte
nt t
hat
incl
uded
Pow
erP
oint
sli
des,
and
the
n st
uden
ts p
ract
iced
wit
h th
e
cour
se c
once
pts
by
com
ple
ting
hom
ewor
k fr
om t
hei
r bo
oks
outs
ide
of c
lass
.
The
lea
rnin
g en
viro
nmen
t an
d th
e le
arni
ng
acti
vity
in
both
cla
ssro
oms
are
inve
stig
ated
in
this
stu
dy
wit
h re
spec
t to
act
ivit
y th
eory
and
lea
rnin
g en
viro
nmen
ts
rese
arch
. Stu
dent
s w
ere
give
n th
e C
olle
ge a
nd U
nive
rsit
y C
lass
room
Env
iro
nmen
t
Inv
ento
ry (
CU
CE
I) t
o m
easu
re b
oth
thei
r le
arni
ng
envi
ronm
ent
pref
eren
ces
and
thei
r
lear
nin
g en
viro
nmen
t ex
peri
ence
s. I
n ad
diti
on, d
ata
wer
e co
llec
ted
via
fiel
d no
tes,
ii
i
clas
sroo
m t
rans
crip
ts, s
tude
nt i
nter
view
s, s
tude
nt f
ocus
gro
ups,
res
earc
her
jour
nal
entr
ies,
and
stud
ent
refl
ecti
ons.
The
qua
ntit
ativ
e da
ta w
ere
anal
yzed
usi
ng
t-te
sts
and
MA
NO
VA
,
and
the
qual
itat
ive
data
wer
e an
alyz
ed u
sing
gro
unde
d th
eory
met
hods
.
The
fin
ding
s o
f th
is r
esea
rch
show
tha
t cl
assr
oom
fli
p st
uden
ts w
ere
less
sat
isfi
ed
wit
h ho
w t
he s
truc
ture
of
the
clas
sroo
m o
rien
ted
them
to
the
lear
nin
g ta
sks
in t
he c
ours
e.
The
var
iety
of
lear
nin
g ac
tivi
ties
in
the
flip
ped
clas
sroo
m c
ontr
ibut
ed t
o an
uns
ettl
edne
ss
amon
g st
uden
ts t
hat
trad
itio
nal
clas
sroo
m s
tude
nts
did
not
expe
rien
ce. F
inal
ly, t
he
conc
ept
of s
tude
nt c
om
fort
abil
ity
wit
h l
earn
ing a
ctiv
ity
is p
rese
nted
and
dev
elop
ed i
n
ligh
t of
lea
rnin
g en
viro
nm
ents
res
earc
h.
iv
DE
DIC
AT
ION
Ded
icat
ed t
o m
y w
ife
and
chil
dren
.
v
A
CK
NO
WL
ED
GM
EN
TS
I fi
rst
wis
h to
tha
nk m
y d
isse
rtat
ion
com
mit
tee.
Tha
nks
to D
r. D
ougl
as O
wen
s
who
fre
ely
gave
his
sup
por
t an
d ad
vice
ov
er t
he l
ast
9 ye
ars.
I w
as a
ble
to c
ompl
ete
this
diss
erta
tion
res
earc
h in
lar
ge m
easu
re b
ecau
se o
f h
is s
tead
y en
cour
agem
ent.
Dr.
Sig
rid
Wag
ner
and
Dr.
Ric
k V
oit
hofe
r ha
ve s
har
ed t
hei
r ex
pert
ise
and
giv
en c
riti
cism
and
reco
mm
enda
tion
s, a
nd t
his
dis
sert
atio
n is
str
onge
r be
caus
e o
f it
. Tha
nk y
ou.
I al
so w
ant
to t
hank
Dr.
Hen
ry S
mit
h an
d D
r. R
andi
e T
impe
for
mak
ing
reso
urce
s
avai
labl
e th
at g
ave
me
the
free
dom
to
purs
ue m
y do
ctor
al s
tudi
es. T
hank
s to
Dr.
Kar
en
Doe
nge
s an
d D
r. J
ohn
Noo
nan
for
thei
r p
atie
nce
and
enco
urag
emen
t as
the
y’v
e pi
cked
up
my
slac
k an
d su
ppor
ted
me
man
y ti
mes
dur
ing
this
pro
cess
.
To
Dr.
Bre
nita
Nic
hola
s, M
s. L
iza
Mau
rer,
and
Ms.
Jen
Bra
den,
I s
ay t
hank
yo
u.
You
wer
e m
y ey
es a
nd e
ars
man
y ti
mes
in
this
pro
ject
. Tha
nk y
ou f
or y
our
cont
ribu
tion
s
that
oft
en i
nfus
ed t
his
rese
arch
wit
h li
fe. A
ccor
din
gly,
I w
ish
to t
hank
ev
ery
intr
oduc
tion
to s
tati
stic
s st
uden
t w
ho p
arti
cipa
ted
in t
his
rese
arch
pro
ject
. You
gav
e ho
nes
t fe
edb
ack
and
wor
ked
har
d to
lea
rn a
sub
ject
tha
t of
ten
tim
es i
s no
one
’s f
avor
ite.
Wit
hout
you
, thi
s
proj
ect
wou
ld n
ever
hav
e ta
ken
shap
e. I
app
reci
ate
you
and
adm
ire
your
per
seve
ran
ce.
Tha
nks
to D
r. R
on W
righ
t, D
r. R
od B
uch
an, a
nd M
r. P
aul
Jone
s. O
ur t
heol
ogic
al
read
ings
and
dis
cuss
ions
in
rece
nt y
ears
hav
e he
lped
me
thin
k an
d w
rite
bet
ter,
and
I o
we
you
a d
ebt
of g
rati
tude
. I
valu
e yo
ur f
rien
dshi
p im
men
sely
.
vi
Fin
ally
, I
wan
t to
tha
nk m
y fa
mil
y. M
om a
nd D
ad t
hank
s fo
r yo
ur l
ove
and
supp
ort
over
the
yea
rs. D
an a
nd J
oan,
tha
nks
for
your
enc
oura
gem
ent
and
for
shar
ing
a
quie
t an
d be
auti
ful
spac
e in
whi
ch I
cou
ld w
rite
. Rod
and
Sue
, tha
nks
for
your
enco
urag
emen
t an
d lo
ve a
s w
ell.
Lis
a, y
our
love
has
sus
tain
ed m
e m
ore
than
you
wil
l ev
er k
now
. Abb
y, R
ache
l,
and
Eli
jah,
you
r fa
ith
in m
e an
d yo
ur p
layf
ul s
piri
ts h
ave
mad
e m
e sm
ile
on
the
ordi
nary
and
the
diff
icul
t da
ys. T
han
ks f
or g
ivin
g up
pie
ces
of y
our
husb
and
/ da
ddy
so I
cou
ld
take
thi
s im
port
ant
step
.
vi
i
V
ITA
Ju
ne 4
, 197
2...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....B
orn
in P
orts
mou
th, O
H
1995
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..B
.S.,
Mat
hem
atic
s/S
econ
dary
Edu
cati
on
A
sbur
y C
olle
ge
1996
-199
7...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.Adj
unct
Pro
fess
or
M
ount
Ver
non
Naz
aren
e U
nive
rsit
y 19
97...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
M.A
.Ed.
, Cur
ricu
lum
an
d In
stru
ctio
n
Mou
nt V
erno
n N
azar
ene
Uni
vers
ity
1997
-199
9...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.Ins
tru
ctor
of
Mat
hem
atic
s
Mou
nt V
erno
n N
azar
ene
Uni
vers
ity
2000
-pre
sent
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.Ass
ista
nt P
rofe
ssor
of
Mat
hem
atic
s
Mou
nt V
erno
n N
azar
ene
Uni
vers
ity
P
UB
LIC
AT
ION
S
Res
earc
h P
ubli
cati
ons
1.
Els
tak,
I.,
Ric
e, G
., S
tray
er, J
., &
Wei
ss,
L. (
2000
). D
isse
rtat
ions
in
mat
hem
atic
s ed
ucat
ion
repo
rted
in
2000
. In
M.K
. Ree
d &
D.T
. O
wen
s (E
ds.)
, Res
earc
h i
n
math
emati
cs e
duca
tion 2
000
(p.
1-40
). C
olum
bus,
OH
: E
RIC
Cle
arin
ghou
se f
or S
cien
ce,
Mat
hem
atic
s, a
nd E
nvir
onm
enta
l E
duca
tion
. 2.
S
tray
er, J
. (19
97).
Mor
alit
y as
sess
men
t in
the
cla
ssro
om. M
ount
Ver
non N
aza
rene
Coll
ege
gra
duate
rev
iew
, 1
(1),
29-
30.
F
IEL
DS
OF
ST
UD
Y
Maj
or F
ield
: E
duca
tion
vi
ii
TA
BL
E O
F C
ON
TE
NT
S
P
age
AB
ST
RA
CT
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
ii
DE
DIC
AT
ION
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.iv
AC
KN
OW
LE
DG
ME
NT
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
v
VIT
A...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
vii
LIS
T O
F T
AB
LE
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....x
i
LIS
T O
F F
IGU
RE
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.xii
CH
AP
TE
RS
:
1.
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..1
Inv
esti
gati
ons
wit
h th
e C
lass
room
Fli
p....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...2
The
Thi
nkw
ell
Pil
ot S
tudy
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..4
Met
hods
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.5
Res
ults
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...5
Con
clus
ions
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.7
The
Fli
p P
ilot
Stu
dy
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
8 M
etho
d...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
8 R
esul
ts...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
9 C
oncl
usio
ns...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..11
P
robl
em S
tate
men
t....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..12
G
uidi
ng Q
uest
ions
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
14
2.
CO
NC
EP
TU
AL
FR
AM
EW
OR
K...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
5 C
lass
room
Fli
p →
Edu
cati
onal
Tec
hnol
ogy
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...16
In
tell
igen
t T
utor
ing
Sys
tem
s....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
19
Ear
ly I
TS
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...19
E
xpe
rt M
odul
e...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...21
S
tude
nt M
odel
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.22
Eva
luat
ion
Mod
ule.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
23
Tut
oria
l M
odul
e...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.23
ix
Ex
ampl
es o
f E
arly
IT
Ss
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....2
4 C
riti
cism
s...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
26
Cur
rent
and
Fut
ure
ITS
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
28
ITS
, Kno
wle
dge
Spa
ces,
and
the
Cla
ssro
om F
lip
......
......
.29
Cla
ssro
om F
lip →
Lea
rnin
g T
hrou
gh A
ctiv
ity
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
32
Com
men
ts o
n L
earn
ing
The
ory
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....3
2 A
ctiv
ity
The
ory
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
36
Lea
rnin
g T
hrou
gh A
ctiv
ity →
The
Lea
rnin
g E
nvir
onm
ent
Edu
cati
onal
T
echn
olo
gy →
The
Lea
rnin
g E
nvir
onm
ent.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...46
U
sing
the
Fra
mew
ork
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..49
3.
LIT
ER
AT
UR
E R
EV
IEW
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.51
Mat
hem
atic
al R
epre
sent
atio
ns...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...52
R
epre
sent
atio
ns:
Fle
xib
ilit
y, T
rans
lati
ons,
and
Co
nnec
tion
s...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....5
3 R
epre
sent
atio
ns a
s M
edia
ting
Too
ls...
......
......
......
......
......
56
“Nat
ural
” R
epre
sent
atio
ns
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
59
Tec
hnol
og
y-R
ich
Lea
rnin
g E
nvir
onm
ents
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
61
Fli
pped
and
Inv
erte
d...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
61
Tec
hnol
og
y-R
ich
Act
ive
Lea
rnin
g E
nvir
onm
ents
......
......
65
Sum
mar
y...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
71
4.
RE
SE
AR
CH
ME
TH
OD
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....7
2 P
arti
cipa
nts
and
Set
ting
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
73
The
Par
tici
pant
s...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.75
The
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n T
eam
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
75
Dat
a C
olle
ctio
n...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..78
Q
uant
itat
ive
Dat
a...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
79
Qua
lita
tive
Dat
a...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.80
Dat
a A
naly
sis
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..86
Q
uant
itat
ive
Ana
lysi
s....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....8
6 Q
uali
tati
ve A
naly
sis.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...87
O
pen
Cod
ing
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...88
M
emo
Wri
ting
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.89
Ax
ial
and
Sel
ecti
ve C
odin
g...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.92
Val
idit
y...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..95
L
imit
atio
ns...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...97
5.
FIN
DIN
GS
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
00
Qua
ntit
ativ
e R
esul
ts...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
100
Sum
mar
y...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
06
Qua
lita
tive
Fin
din
gs...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
108
Wha
t H
appe
ned
in t
he F
lip
Cla
ss...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...10
9 T
he I
nstr
ucto
r’s
Tak
e...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...10
9 T
he S
tude
nts’
Tak
e...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
117
x
Wha
t H
appe
ned
in t
he T
radi
tion
al C
lass
......
......
......
......
......
......
139
The
Ins
truc
tor’
s T
ake
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
139
The
Stu
dent
s’ T
ake
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...14
3 T
hem
e A
naly
sis
of t
he T
wo
Lea
rnin
g E
nvir
onm
ent
Cul
ture
s....
154
Typ
es o
f A
ctiv
ity
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
155
Hom
ewor
k D
ynam
ics
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
157
In-C
lass
Dyn
amic
s...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.159
A
Stu
dy
of A
ctiv
ity
in t
he T
wo
Lea
rnin
g E
nvir
onm
ents
......
......
161
Com
fort
abil
ity
and
Lea
rnin
g A
ctiv
ity
......
......
......
......
....1
63
Str
uctu
re..
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
163
App
roac
h....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...16
4 M
ind-
set.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.165
S
ynth
esis
.....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..16
6 C
omfo
rtab
ilit
y an
d P
arti
cipa
tion
......
......
......
......
......
......
.167
B
lend
ing
the
Qua
ntit
ativ
e an
d Q
uali
tati
ve A
nal
yses
......
......
......
......
......
169
Coo
pera
tion
and
Inn
ovat
ion
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..17
0 T
ask
Ori
enta
tion
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..17
1
6.
CO
NC
LU
SIO
NS
AN
D I
MP
LIC
AT
ION
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.178
S
umm
ary
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.178
C
oncl
usio
ns i
n L
ight
of
Pas
t R
esea
rch
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...18
1 C
oncl
usio
ns i
n L
ight
of
The
ory
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..18
7 L
earn
ing
The
ory
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..18
8 S
elf-
Eff
icac
y an
d C
omfo
rtab
ilit
y...
......
......
......
......
......
...18
9 L
earn
ing
Env
iron
men
ts...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
192
Rec
omm
enda
tion
s fo
r P
ract
ice
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...19
6 F
urth
er R
esea
rch
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.198
RE
FE
RE
NC
ES
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...20
1 A
PP
EN
DIC
ES
:
A
LIS
T O
F A
CR
ON
YM
NS
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
211
B
TH
E T
HIN
KW
EL
L P
ILO
T S
TU
DY
QU
ES
TIO
NN
AIR
E...
......
......
.....
213
C
TH
E F
LIP
PIL
OT
ST
UD
Y G
RO
UP
PR
OJE
CT
......
......
......
......
......
......
215
D
TH
E F
LIP
PIL
OT
ST
UD
Y C
ON
FID
EN
CE
SU
RV
EY
......
......
......
......
..21
7 E
IN
TE
RV
IEW
QU
ES
TIO
NS
AN
D F
OC
US
GR
OU
P Q
UE
ST
ION
S...
...22
0 F
T
HE
JA
CK
PR
OB
LE
M...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
223
G
INF
ER
EN
TIA
L S
TA
TIS
TIC
S F
LO
W C
HA
RT
......
......
......
......
......
......
225
H
ME
AN
S A
ND
ST
AN
DA
RD
DE
VIA
TIO
NS
FO
R C
UC
EI.
......
......
......
227
I L
IST
OF
CO
DE
S...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...23
0
x
i
L
IST
OF
TA
BL
ES
T
able
P
age
5.1
Mea
ns, s
tand
ard
dev
iati
ons
, and
dif
fere
nce
scor
es f
or a
ctu
al a
nd p
refe
rred
ve
rsio
ns o
f C
UC
EI.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....1
02
5.2
Mea
ns a
nd s
tand
ard
devi
atio
ns f
or t
he a
ctu
al v
ersi
on o
f C
UC
EI.
......
......
......
.....1
03
5.3
Mea
ns a
nd s
tand
ard
devi
atio
ns f
or t
he p
refe
rred
ver
sion
of
CU
CE
I....
......
......
...10
4 5.
4 R
epea
ted
mea
sure
s m
ulti
vari
ate
anal
ysis
of
vari
ance
res
ults
for
th
e C
UC
EI.
.....1
05
5.5
Tes
ts o
f be
twee
n-su
bjec
ts e
ffec
ts f
or t
he C
UC
EI.
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....1
06
x
ii
L
IST
OF
FIG
UR
ES
F
igu
re
Pag
e 1.
1 T
he c
lass
room
fli
p...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.2
2.1
The
oret
ical
fra
mew
ork
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.16
2.2
Ex
ampl
e of
a k
now
led
ge s
tate
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.30
2.3
Vyg
otsk
y’s
mod
el f
or
med
iate
d ac
tivi
ty...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.38
2.4
Mod
ern
refo
rmul
atio
n of
Vyg
otsk
y’s
mod
el...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
39
2.5
The
str
uctu
re o
f a
hum
an a
ctiv
ity
syst
em...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....4
0 2.
6 H
iera
rch
y of
act
ivit
y...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.43
2.7
Tw
o in
tera
ctin
g ac
tivi
ty s
yste
ms
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...45
2.
8 A
mod
el o
f th
e re
lati
onsh
ip b
etw
een
envi
ronm
enta
l an
d pe
rson
al
vari
able
s an
d st
uden
t st
abil
ity
and
chan
ge...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....4
9 3.
1 F
ram
ewor
k fo
r re
view
of
lite
ratu
re...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...52
6.
1 A
mod
el o
f th
e re
lati
onsh
ip b
etw
een
envi
ronm
enta
l an
d pe
rson
al
vari
able
s an
d st
uden
t st
abil
ity
and
chan
ge...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..193
6.
2 T
he s
truc
ture
of
a hu
man
act
ivit
y sy
stem
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
194
6.3
Stu
dent
com
fort
abil
ity,
the
cla
ssro
om s
truc
ture
, and
lea
rnin
g ac
tivi
ty...
......
......
195
1
CH
AP
TE
R 1
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
Man
y co
lleg
e an
d un
iver
sity
pro
fess
ors
des
ire
to c
hang
e th
eir
inst
ruct
iona
l st
yle
from
tra
diti
onal
lec
ture
to
a m
ore
acti
ve, s
tude
nt-c
ente
red
styl
e th
rou
gh t
he u
se o
f gr
oup
proj
ects
, dis
cove
ry a
ctiv
itie
s, e
xpe
rim
ents
, and
cla
ss p
rese
ntat
ions
(B
aker
, 20
00).
Unt
il
rece
ntly
, how
ever
, som
e pr
ofes
sors
fea
red
they
wou
ld s
acri
fice
cou
rse
con
tent
if
they
util
ized
suc
h ac
tive
lea
rnin
g te
chni
ques
dur
ing
clas
s. W
ith
the
incr
ease
d av
aila
bili
ty o
f
web
-bas
ed i
nstr
ucti
onal
tec
hnol
ogi
es l
ike
Web
CT
and
Bla
ckbo
ard
duri
ng t
he l
ate
1990
s,
prof
esso
rs b
egan
pro
vidi
ng s
tude
nts
wit
h ac
cess
to
cour
se c
onte
nt v
ia v
ideo
and
Pow
erP
oint
lec
ture
s ou
tsid
e th
e cl
assr
oom
(L
age
& P
latt
, 200
0). W
ith
the
deli
very
of
cour
se c
onte
nt s
ecur
ed v
ia t
echn
olo
gy,
pro
fess
ors
felt
fre
er t
o in
trod
uce
acti
viti
es i
nsid
e
the
clas
sroo
m t
hat
wou
ld g
ive
stud
ents
the
opp
ortu
nity
to
enga
ge m
ater
ial
in a
n
envi
ronm
ent
whe
re o
ther
stu
dent
s an
d th
e pr
ofes
sor
are
pre
sent
to
aid
in t
he
lear
nin
g
proc
ess.
Thi
s ch
ange
in
how
cou
rse
cont
ent
is i
ntro
duce
d to
and
en
gage
d b
y st
uden
ts i
s a
sign
ific
ant
dep
artu
re f
rom
the
lec
ture
-hom
ewor
k cy
cle
foun
d in
mor
e tr
adit
iona
l
clas
sroo
ms.
Per
haps
the
mos
t st
riki
ng d
epar
ture
is
the
phys
ical
loc
atio
n of
whe
re t
he
intr
oduc
tion
and
dee
per
enga
gem
ent
wit
h th
e m
ater
ial
occu
rs. T
radi
tion
ally
, th
e
intr
oduc
tion
is
give
n in
cla
ss t
hrou
gh a
lec
ture
, an
d th
e de
eper
en
gage
men
t oc
curs
out
side
2
of c
lass
thr
ough
hom
ewo
rk.
In t
he a
bov
e de
scri
ptio
n, h
owev
er, t
he
intr
oduc
tion
occ
urs
outs
ide
of c
lass
and
the
eng
agem
ent
occu
rs i
nsid
e th
e cl
assr
oom
. Res
earc
her
s ha
ve c
ome
to d
ub t
his
flip
ping
of
wh
at i
s tr
adit
iona
lly
done
in
side
and
out
side
the
cla
ssro
om t
he
“cla
ssro
om f
lip”
(B
aker
, 20
00)
or t
he “
inve
rted
cla
ssro
om”
(Lag
e &
Pla
tt, 2
000;
Lag
e,
Pla
tt, &
Tre
glia
, 200
0).
Fig
ure
1.1
. The
cla
ssro
om
fli
p (B
aker
& M
entc
h, 2
000,
n.p
.) (
Use
d w
ith
perm
issi
on.)
In
ves
tiga
tion
s w
ith
the
Cla
ssro
om F
lip
I
wan
t to
tak
e a
few
mom
ents
to
trac
e m
y in
volv
emen
t w
ith
tech
nolo
gy
in t
he
clas
sroo
m a
nd h
ow I
cam
e to
be
inte
rest
ed i
n th
e cl
assr
oom
fli
p. I
n 19
98,
I be
gan
usin
g
Pow
erP
oint
and
web
pag
es a
s in
stru
ctio
nal
aids
in
my
intr
oduc
tion
to
stat
isti
cs c
ours
es.
Thi
s m
arke
d th
e be
ginn
ing
of m
y ev
eryd
ay c
omp
uter
use
in
the
clas
sroo
m.
In t
he s
pri
ng
sem
este
r of
200
1, I
rep
lace
d th
e pa
per
tex
tboo
k in
my
prec
alcu
lus
cour
se w
ith
a C
D-
RO
M v
ideo
lec
ture
“te
xtb
ook”
cal
led
Thi
nkw
ell
(see
htt
p://
ww
w.t
hink
wel
l.co
m f
or m
ore
info
rmat
ion)
. Out
side
of
clas
s, s
tude
nts
wat
ched
pre
calc
ulus
lec
ture
s an
d co
mpl
eted
3
onli
ne m
ulti
ple-
choi
ce e
xer
cise
s fo
r ho
mew
ork.
Whe
n st
uden
ts c
ame
to c
lass
, we
wor
ked
on m
ore
diff
icul
t pr
ecal
culu
s pr
oble
ms
in s
mal
l gr
oups
. Wit
hout
giv
ing
it a
nam
e, I
was
foll
owin
g th
e fo
rmat
of
the
clas
sroo
m f
lip:
int
rodu
ctio
n of
mat
eria
l ou
tsid
e cl
ass
usin
g
com
pute
r te
chno
log
y, a
nd
acti
ve p
arti
cip
atio
n in
side
cla
ss.
Lat
er, i
n a
2002
new
slet
ter,
Thi
nkw
ell
mad
e re
fere
nce
to h
ow t
heir
pro
duct
can
be
used
in
an “
inve
rted
cla
ssro
om”
sett
ing
(Thi
nkw
ell,
200
2).
In J
une
of 2
001,
I p
arti
cipa
ted
in a
sum
mer
tra
inin
g in
stit
ute
whe
re I
lea
rned
how
to u
se a
cou
rsew
are
man
agem
ent
syst
em (
CM
S)
(see
App
endi
x A
for
a c
om
plet
e li
st o
f
acro
nym
s us
ed i
n th
is d
ocum
ent)
cal
led
Bla
ckbo
ard.
Bla
ckbo
ard
(and
oth
er C
MS
) is
a
com
pute
r sy
stem
des
igne
d to
hel
p pr
ofes
sors
dev
elop
an
inte
ract
ive
web
pag
e fo
r us
e in
the
clas
sroo
m. P
rofe
ssor
s an
d st
uden
ts c
an e
xch
ange
com
pute
r fi
les
(tex
t, v
ideo
, and
audi
o), a
nd p
rofe
ssor
s ca
n se
t up
ele
ctro
nic
disc
ussi
on b
oard
s, g
ive
stud
ents
on-
line
quiz
zes,
and
man
age
thei
r gr
ade
book
s on
line
(am
ong
a ho
st o
f ot
her
thi
ngs)
. I
firs
t he
ard
of t
he c
lass
room
fli
p du
ring
thi
s tr
aini
ng
inst
itut
e, a
nd t
he a
dmin
istr
atio
n at
the
uni
vers
ity
whe
re I
tau
ght
enco
ura
ged
me
to t
ry i
t us
ing
Bla
ckbo
ard.
The
fol
low
ing
spri
ng s
emes
ter
(200
2),
I ex
plor
ed t
he c
lass
room
fli
p id
ea f
urth
er
by
vide
otap
ing
mys
elf
teac
hin
g a
lect
ure
that
cov
ered
a c
hap
ter
in m
y In
tro
duct
ion
to
Sta
tist
ics
cour
se. S
tude
nts
view
ed t
his
lect
ure
for
hom
ewor
k an
d co
mpl
eted
a p
roje
ct
duri
ng c
lass
for
tha
t ch
apte
r. I
col
lect
ed s
mal
l am
oun
ts o
f da
ta i
n bo
th t
he T
hink
wel
l
Pre
calc
ulus
cla
ss a
nd t
he I
ntro
duct
ion
to S
tati
stic
s cl
ass
wit
h vi
deot
aped
lec
ture
. The
resu
lts
of t
hese
pil
ot s
tudi
es g
uide
d m
y th
inki
ng a
t th
e be
ginn
ing
of m
y di
sser
tati
on
rese
arch
. Th
ey a
re s
umm
ariz
ed b
elow
.
4
The
Thin
kwel
l P
ilot
Stu
dy
In
the
sp
rin
g se
mes
ter
of
2001
, I
used
the
Thi
nkw
ell
vide
o le
ctur
e se
ries
and
web
-
base
d ho
mew
ork
syst
em (
rath
er t
han
a p
aper
tex
tboo
k) a
s th
e pr
imar
y le
arn
ing
reso
urc
e
in m
y pr
ecal
culu
s cl
ass.
The
cla
ss w
as m
ade
up o
f 15
stu
dent
s: 7
fem
ale
and
8 m
ale.
The
clas
s m
et 3
tim
es p
er w
eek
and
stud
ents
wer
e re
qui
red
to w
atch
an
hou
r of
vid
eo l
ectu
re
and
com
plet
e m
ulti
ple
choi
ce h
omew
ork
assi
gnm
ents
on
the
web
bef
ore
co
min
g to
eac
h
clas
s se
ssio
n. W
hen
stud
ents
ans
wer
ed e
ach
hom
ewor
k qu
esti
on, t
he s
yste
m i
mm
edia
tely
told
stu
dent
s if
the
ir r
espo
nse
was
co
rrec
t. I
f th
e st
uden
t ha
d re
spon
ded
inc
orre
ctly
, the
syst
em g
ave
an e
xpl
anat
ion
as t
o th
e pr
obab
le m
ista
ke t
hey
mad
e an
d pr
ovid
ed t
he
corr
ect
answ
er a
lon
g w
ith
a br
ief
just
ific
atio
n fo
r th
at a
nsw
er.
At
the
begi
nnin
g of
eac
h cl
ass
mee
tin
g, I
wou
ld c
ond
uct
a sh
ort
ques
tion
an
d
answ
er s
essi
on o
ver
the
assi
gnm
ent
that
was
due
tha
t da
y. T
hen,
I w
ould
han
d ou
t
chal
len
gin
g pr
oble
ms
(sim
ilar
to
the
mor
e co
mpl
ex p
robl
ems
they
did
fo
r h
omew
ork)
fo
r
stud
ents
to
com
plet
e in
pai
rs.
I w
ould
flo
at a
roun
d t
he r
oom
to
answ
er q
ues
tion
s an
d
prov
ide
hint
s to
hel
p st
uden
ts s
olve
the
se m
ore
diff
icul
t pr
oble
ms.
I h
ad a
thr
ee-f
old
mot
ivat
ion
for
stru
ctur
ing
clas
s th
is w
ay.
Fir
st,
I ha
d di
ffic
ulty
in p
revi
ous
cour
ses
gett
ing
stud
ents
to
read
the
ir m
athe
mat
ics
tex
tboo
ks b
efor
e co
min
g to
clas
s, a
nd I
wan
ted
to s
ee i
f vi
deo
lect
ures
cou
ld s
uffi
cien
tly
intr
oduc
e st
uden
ts t
o
conc
epts
and
get
the
m r
ead
y to
wo
rk w
ith
mor
e in
volv
ed m
athe
mat
ics
in t
he c
lass
room
.
Sec
ond,
sin
ce t
his
clas
s w
as a
n 8:
00 a
.m. c
lass
, I
wan
ted
to g
ive
stud
ents
con
trol
ove
r
when
the
y w
ere
pres
ente
d w
ith
new
inf
orm
atio
n. I
had
wat
ched
too
man
y st
uden
ts
stru
ggle
to
stay
aw
ake
thro
ugh
earl
y m
orni
ng
lect
ures
and
hop
ed t
hat
giv
ing
stud
ents
cont
rol
over
wh
en t
hey
cons
ider
ed n
ew i
dea
s w
ould
pro
ve p
rodu
ctiv
e. F
inal
ly,
I ho
ped
5
the
imm
edia
te f
eedb
ack
of t
he w
eb-b
ased
hom
ewor
k w
ould
hel
p st
uden
ts a
s th
ey w
orke
d
to u
nder
stan
d th
e m
athe
mat
ical
con
cept
s in
the
cou
rse.
Met
hods
A
t th
e ti
me
I w
as t
each
ing
this
pre
calc
ulus
cou
rse,
I w
as a
lso
expl
orin
g re
sear
ch
that
dea
lt w
ith
tech
nolo
gy a
nd e
duca
tion
. The
mes
of
inte
rest
to
me
in t
his
lite
ratu
re d
ealt
wit
h co
ntro
l ov
er l
earn
ing,
stu
dent
con
fide
nce
wit
h th
e co
mpu
ter,
stu
dent
ent
husi
asm
,
conn
ecti
ons
to p
eopl
e ra
ther
tha
n m
achi
nes
, and
the
nee
d fo
r a
phys
ical
cla
ssro
om.
I
deve
lope
d a
ques
tion
nair
e th
at a
ddre
ssed
som
e of
the
se t
hem
es (
see
App
endi
x B
), a
nd a
t
mid
term
I a
dmin
iste
red
this
que
stio
nnai
re t
o ge
t fe
edba
ck f
rom
stu
dent
s ab
out
thei
r
expe
rien
ce i
n th
is u
niqu
e cl
assr
oom
set
ting
. All
of
the
ques
tion
s on
the
que
stio
nnai
re
wer
e ca
tego
rica
l in
nat
ure,
so
I us
ed t
he c
hi-s
quar
e te
st s
tati
stic
as
a to
ol t
o lo
ok f
or
sign
ific
ant
rela
tion
ship
s am
ong
thes
e th
emes
.
Res
ult
s
In t
he T
hink
wel
l pr
ecal
culu
s cl
ass,
stu
dent
s w
ere
even
ly s
plit
(7
to 7
) in
the
ir
opin
ion
of w
heth
er t
he t
echn
olog
y ga
ve t
hem
mor
e or
les
s co
ntro
l ov
er t
heir
lea
rnin
g in
the
cour
se. T
her
e w
as a
lso
a sp
lit
(i.e
. the
re w
as n
o si
gnif
ican
t st
atis
tica
l di
ffer
ence
)
amon
g th
e st
uden
ts a
s to
whe
ther
tec
hnol
ogy
gave
the
m a
wor
se (
9 st
uden
ts)
or b
ette
r (5
stud
ents
) op
port
unit
y to
mas
ter
prec
alcu
lus.
Sin
ce T
hink
wel
l ga
ve
stud
ents
: (1
) th
e
free
dom
to
man
ipul
ate
the
vide
o le
ctur
es (
to r
epla
y or
ski
p ov
er s
ecti
ons)
, (2
) th
e
free
dom
to
choo
se t
he t
ime
whe
n th
ey v
iew
ed t
he v
ideo
lec
ture
s, a
nd (
3) i
mm
edia
te
feed
back
on
hom
ewo
rk q
uest
ions
, I
was
ini
tial
ly s
urpr
ised
by
thes
e su
rvey
res
ults
.
How
ever
, as
I re
flec
ted
on
conv
ersa
tion
s I
had
wit
h st
uden
ts t
hrou
ghou
t th
e se
mes
ter
and
anal
yzed
wri
tten
com
men
ts o
n th
e su
rvey
s, I
beg
an t
o se
e po
tent
ial
expl
anat
ions
for
the
se
6
resu
lts.
On
the
wri
tten
po
rtio
n of
the
que
stio
nnai
re, h
alf
of t
he s
tude
nts
stat
ed t
hey
love
d
havi
ng c
ontr
ol o
ver
the
vid
eo l
ectu
res
and
free
dom
to
choo
se w
hen
they
wou
ld v
iew
lect
ures
and
com
plet
e ho
mew
ork.
How
ever
, man
y st
uden
ts r
ecou
nted
pro
blem
s w
ith
tech
nolo
gy
that
hur
t th
em i
n th
e le
arni
ng p
roce
ss. A
few
stu
dent
s ha
d ac
cess
onl
y to
old
er
com
pute
rs, a
nd t
his
caus
ed t
he v
ideo
lec
ture
s to
per
iodi
call
y ha
ng
up a
nd t
hen
jum
p
ahea
d. T
hes
e di
ffic
ulti
es m
ade
view
ing
the
lect
ure
a fr
ustr
atin
g ex
peri
ence
for
the
se
stud
ents
. A c
oupl
e of
stu
dent
s co
mpl
aine
d of
nee
ding
to
cons
tant
ly t
roub
lesh
oot
tech
nolo
gy
issu
es (
one
stud
ent
wro
te, “
it t
akes
mo
re t
ime
to f
ix t
echn
olog
y pr
oble
ms
than
to a
ctua
lly
do t
he
hom
ewor
k”),
whi
le o
ther
s ac
tual
ly e
xpe
rien
ced
head
ach
es f
rom
spen
ding
lon
g pe
riod
s of
tim
e w
atch
ing
the
com
pute
r sc
reen
. Man
y st
uden
ts m
enti
oned
how
fru
stra
tin
g it
was
to
not
be a
ble
to a
sk t
he p
rofe
ssor
on
the
vide
o a
sim
ple
ques
tion
,
and
alm
ost
all
stud
ents
at
one
poin
t or
ano
ther
in
the
sem
este
r st
ress
ed h
ow i
ncon
veni
ent
it w
as t
o ha
ve t
o be
con
nec
ted
to t
he I
nter
net
to c
om
plet
e th
eir
mul
tipl
e ch
oice
hom
ewor
k
assi
gnm
ents
.
Tak
en t
oge
ther
, the
se p
robl
ems
pres
ent
a m
ount
ain
of t
echn
ical
dif
ficu
ltie
s
stud
ents
mus
t cl
imb
to b
e su
cces
sful
in
the
cou
rse.
The
se d
iffi
cult
ies
expl
ain
stud
ents
’
resp
onse
s to
the
que
stio
n t
hat
aske
d w
heth
er t
hey
wer
e en
thus
iast
ic o
r he
sita
nt a
bout
usin
g te
chno
log
y in
thi
s co
urse
at
the
beg
inni
ng o
f th
e se
mes
ter
ver
sus
at m
idte
rm.
Tw
elve
stu
dent
s re
port
ed b
eing
ent
husi
asti
c ab
out
tech
nolo
gy
use
at t
he b
egin
ning
of
the
term
whi
le o
nly
4 re
port
ed b
eing
ent
husi
asti
c ab
out
tech
nolo
gy
use
at m
idte
rm. T
hese
resu
lts
show
a s
igni
fica
nt s
hift
in
the
stud
ents
’ op
inio
ns o
f te
chno
log
y us
e fr
om t
he
begi
nnin
g of
the
sem
este
r to
mid
term
(p <
0.0
1).
The
fru
stra
tion
wit
h te
chno
log
y is
appa
rent
in
this
stu
dent
’s c
omm
ent
from
the
wri
tten
por
tion
of
the
ques
tion
nair
e:
7
Tec
hnol
og
y m
akes
thi
ngs
go
fast
er a
nd i
s m
uch
easi
er, b
ut t
here
are
mor
e dr
awba
cks
from
tec
hnol
ogy
than
pos
itiv
e th
ings
. In
thi
s co
urse
, I
feel
tec
hnol
ogy
is a
dra
wba
ck.
I am
not
lea
rnin
g… t
here
is
no b
enef
it i
n us
ing
tech
nolo
gy
in t
his
cour
se. P
lus,
it
is m
ore
of a
has
sle
[tha
n] j
ust
gett
ing
out
the
tex
tboo
k an
d do
ing
the
hom
ewor
k.
In t
he q
ues
tion
s th
at m
easu
red
rela
tion
ship
dev
elop
men
t in
the
cla
ss, n
one
of t
he
stud
ents
res
pond
ed t
hat
they
fel
t m
ore
conn
ecte
d in
the
ir r
elat
ions
hips
wit
h th
e pr
ofes
sor
or o
ther
stu
dent
s in
thi
s cl
ass
than
the
y do
in
thei
r ot
her
clas
ses.
In
an e
ven
spl
it, 7
stud
ents
sai
d th
ey f
elt
the
sam
e le
vel
of c
onne
cted
ness
to
othe
r st
uden
ts i
n th
is c
lass
as
com
pare
d to
the
ir o
ther
cla
sses
and
8 s
tude
nts
said
the
y fe
lt l
ess
conn
ecte
d. H
owev
er,
stud
ents
rep
orte
d 11
to
4 th
at t
hey
felt
les
s co
nnec
ted
wit
h th
e pr
ofes
sor
in t
his
clas
s th
an
in t
heir
oth
er c
lass
es. T
his
resu
lt w
as m
oder
atel
y si
gnif
ican
t (p
< 0
.10)
wh
en c
ompa
red
to
an e
xpe
cted
res
pons
e of
the
cla
ss b
ein
g sp
lit
even
ly b
etw
een
the
sam
e an
d le
ss c
onne
cted
.
One
stu
dent
fel
t so
str
ongl
y ab
out
the
impo
rtan
ce o
f be
ing
conn
ecte
d to
the
pro
fess
or t
hat
all
he w
rote
on
the
wri
tten
por
tion
of
the
surv
ey w
as, “
Eve
ryth
ing
is 3
.” T
he
thir
d
ques
tion
on
the
surv
ey w
as t
he q
uest
ion
that
ask
ed a
bout
con
nect
edne
ss t
o th
e pr
ofes
sor.
Fin
ally
, th
e is
sue
of t
he n
eed
for
a ph
ysic
al c
lass
room
was
rai
sed
in 3
of
the
stud
ents
’ w
ritt
en r
espo
nses
and
in
conv
ersa
tion
s w
ith
stud
ents
thr
ough
out
the
sem
este
r.
Stu
dent
s co
mm
ente
d th
at c
lass
was
red
unda
nt, b
orin
g, o
r ev
en a
was
te o
f ti
me.
As
one
stud
ent
wro
te, “
Cla
ss c
an g
et a
lit
tle
bori
ng s
ince
we
alre
ady
lear
n th
e st
uff
on t
he
com
pute
r.”
Con
clusi
ons
T
wo
conc
lusi
ons
from
th
is p
ilot
stu
dy
info
rmed
my
diss
erta
tion
res
earc
h. F
irst
, if
a pr
ofes
sor
is g
oin
g to
use
tec
hnol
og
y as
the
mai
n to
ol t
o in
trod
uce
stud
ents
to
new
cont
ent,
the
n th
e te
chno
log
y m
ust
wor
k sm
ooth
ly a
nd n
ot b
urde
n st
uden
ts w
ith
its
form
.
8
Stu
dent
s ar
e w
illi
ng t
o w
ork
wit
h te
chno
log
y to
a p
oint
bef
ore
call
ing
for
supp
ort,
but
if
ther
e ar
e to
o m
any
tech
nica
l di
ffic
ulti
es a
nd s
tude
nts
mus
t sp
end
mor
e ti
me
trou
bles
hoot
ing
than
doi
ng h
omew
ork
, the
n th
e p
osit
ives
tec
hnol
ogy
brin
gs t
o th
e ta
ble
(fre
edom
and
con
trol
ov
er l
earn
ing)
wil
l be
ov
er-r
un b
y th
e n
egat
ives
.
Sec
ond,
it
appe
ars
that
usi
ng t
echn
olo
gy
to i
ntro
duce
stu
dent
s to
new
con
tent
may
caus
e st
uden
ts t
o fe
el l
ess
conn
ecte
d to
the
pro
fess
or i
n th
e cl
assr
oom
. Usi
ng t
echn
olog
y
for
the
intr
oduc
tion
may
als
o ne
gati
vely
inf
luen
ce s
tude
nts’
abi
lity
to
tran
sfer
the
ir
lear
nin
g to
con
tex
ts d
iffe
rent
fro
m t
hose
in
the
init
ial
intr
oduc
tion
. Whe
n st
uden
ts f
eel
clas
s is
a w
aste
of
tim
e, t
his
is a
n in
dica
tion
tha
t th
e pr
ofes
sor
mus
t of
fer
som
ethi
ng
beyo
nd m
ore
dif
ficu
lt p
ract
ice
prob
lem
s in
cla
ss.
Per
haps
the
pro
fess
or s
hou
ld f
ocus
clas
sroo
m a
ctiv
ity
on h
elpi
ng s
tude
nts
tran
sfer
the
ir l
earn
ing
to n
ew s
itua
tion
s. W
hate
ver
the
case
, pro
fess
ors
mus
t of
fer
som
ethi
ng
in t
he c
lass
room
tha
t st
uden
ts c
anno
t ge
t
else
whe
re. T
hey
mus
t cr
eate
an
envi
ronm
ent
whe
re t
he c
lass
room
bec
omes
a d
ynam
ic
lear
nin
g co
mm
unit
y.
The
Fli
p P
ilot
Stu
dy
D
urin
g th
ree
day
s in
Feb
ruar
y of
200
2, I
aga
in i
nves
tiga
ted
the
clas
sroo
m f
lip,
this
tim
e in
tw
o of
my
Intr
oduc
tion
to
Sta
tist
ics
clas
sroo
ms.
I s
tru
ctur
ed o
ne c
lass
as
a
lect
ure
and
hom
ewor
k ou
t of
a b
ook
clas
s an
d th
e ot
her
as a
cla
ssro
om f
lip
clas
s. I
wan
ted
to i
nves
tiga
te h
ow
the
cha
nge
in
com
mun
icat
ion
in a
cla
ssro
om f
lip
sett
ing
wou
ld
infl
uenc
e st
uden
ts’
lear
ning
, con
fide
nce,
and
att
itu
des
tow
ard
lear
nin
g.
Met
hod
I
used
a r
ando
m n
umbe
r ge
ner
ato
r to
cho
ose
the
8:0
0 a.
m. s
ecti
on o
f In
trod
ucti
on
to S
tati
stic
s to
be
the
clas
sroo
m f
lip
clas
s an
d th
e 9:
10 a
.m. s
ecti
on t
o be
the
lec
ture
and
9
hom
ewor
k cl
ass.
Bot
h se
ctio
ns h
ad b
een
stru
ctu
red
as a
lec
ture
and
hom
ewor
k cl
ass
whe
n w
e le
arne
d th
e in
form
atio
n in
cha
pter
1 o
f th
e te
xtb
ook.
For
cha
pter
2 (
the
desc
ript
ive
stat
isti
cs c
hap
ter)
, how
ever
, I
had
the
fli
p cl
ass
go t
o th
e li
brar
y to
che
ck o
ut
and
wat
ch a
55-
min
ute
vide
o of
me
lect
uri
ng o
ver
the
inf
orm
atio
n fr
om t
he c
hapt
er f
or
thei
r ho
mew
ork.
Whe
n st
uden
ts c
ame
to c
lass
, the
y co
mpl
eted
a g
roup
pro
ject
for
thr
ee
clas
s pe
riod
s. T
his
proj
ect
gav
e th
em a
n op
port
unit
y to
app
ly d
escr
ipti
ve s
tati
stic
al
tech
niqu
es t
o a
real
-wo
rld
cont
ext.
Stu
dent
s th
en w
rote
a r
epor
t to
a f
icti
onal
cha
ract
er
who
ask
ed t
hem
to
put
thei
r m
athe
mat
ical
fin
din
gs i
n ev
eryd
ay l
angu
age.
(F
or a
desc
ript
ion
of t
he p
roje
ct, s
ee A
ppen
dix
C).
The
lec
ture
and
hom
ewor
k cl
ass
cont
inue
d in
the
norm
al w
ay f
or
the
thre
e da
ys t
hat
we
disc
usse
d ch
apte
r 2.
Whe
n th
is t
hree
-day
inve
stig
atio
n w
as c
ompl
ete,
bot
h se
ctio
ns r
etur
ned
to
the
lect
ure
and
hom
ewor
k cl
ass
form
at f
or t
he r
emai
nder
of
the
sem
este
r.
In a
n ef
fort
to
gath
er d
ata
that
wou
ld s
hed
ligh
t on
thi
s pi
lot
stud
y’s
rese
arch
obje
ctiv
es,
I re
cord
ed g
rade
s on
the
fir
st e
xam
(ch
apte
rs 1
–3),
dev
elop
ed a
nd d
istr
ibut
ed
a su
rvey
to
mea
sure
stu
den
ts’
conf
iden
ce i
n th
eir
abil
itie
s to
com
plet
e pr
oble
ms
over
the
info
rmat
ion
in c
hapt
er 2
(se
e A
ppen
dix
D),
vid
eota
ped
clas
s se
ssio
ns, a
nd i
nter
view
ed 3
stud
ents
fro
m t
he f
lip
clas
sroo
m.
I an
alyz
ed t
he q
uant
itat
ive
data
usi
ng a
t-t
est
to l
ook
for
sign
ific
ant
diff
eren
ces
bet
wee
n th
e tw
o se
ctio
ns.
I an
alyz
ed t
he
qual
itat
ive
data
by
perf
orm
ing
a th
eme
anal
ysis
to
look
for
pat
tern
s th
at c
ould
pro
vide
des
crip
tion
s an
d
expl
anat
ions
of
wha
t w
as h
appe
nin
g in
the
tw
o cl
assr
oom
s.
Res
ult
s
An
anal
ysis
of
the
con
fide
nce
surv
eys
show
ed t
hat
stud
ents
fro
m t
he l
ectu
re a
nd
hom
ewor
k cl
ass
wer
e m
ore
con
fid
ent
in t
heir
abi
liti
es t
o su
cces
sful
ly c
ompl
ete
a qu
iz
10
over
inf
orm
atio
n fr
om c
hap
ter
2 th
an s
tude
nts
fro
m t
he f
lip
clas
s (p
< 0
.00
1). S
tude
nts
in
the
lect
ure
and
hom
ewor
k cl
ass
also
had
a h
ighe
r av
erag
e sc
ore
on t
he f
irst
ex
am t
han
stud
ents
in
the
flip
cla
ss (
p <
0.0
5).
Ana
lysi
s of
th
e cl
assr
oom
fli
p in
terv
iew
s re
veal
ed t
hat
stud
ents
see
med
to
stru
ggle
wit
h w
her
e th
ey f
it i
nto
this
new
way
of
doi
ng c
lass
. As
one
stud
ent
desc
ribe
d,
The
thi
ng I
hav
e w
ith
[the
cla
ssro
om f
lip]
rea
lly
is t
hat
it d
idn’
t fi
t m
y st
udy
habi
ts.
I’m
use
d to
doi
ng m
y ho
mew
ork
lat
er a
t ni
ght
wit
h ei
ther
a m
ovie
on
or
mus
ic p