Teachers and Teachers and MachinesMachines

The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920The Classroom Use of Technology Since 1920- Larry Cuban- Larry Cuban

Presented by Presented by Jose A. SaldivarJose A. Saldivar

Top Down ImplementationTop Down Implementation

Most if not all initiatives to introduce Most if not all initiatives to introduce new technology into the classroom are new technology into the classroom are proposed by enthusiasts, such as proposed by enthusiasts, such as reformers, foundation executives, reformers, foundation executives, education administrators, and education administrators, and wholesalers.wholesalers.

Teachers were the last asked and/or the Teachers were the last asked and/or the least likely to have any input into the least likely to have any input into the implementation of the technologies.implementation of the technologies.

Driven by Efficiency Within Driven by Efficiency Within ClassroomsClassrooms

The reasons for adding new technologies are The reasons for adding new technologies are varied, but the central theme is that of varied, but the central theme is that of efficiency - teaching more students at the same efficiency - teaching more students at the same time, teaching the same material better, time, teaching the same material better, teaching at a set pace, etc.teaching at a set pace, etc.

Technology would replace teachers or Technology would replace teachers or supplement the lack of teachers.supplement the lack of teachers.

Improving test scores is the ultimate goal, as Improving test scores is the ultimate goal, as well as saving money, if possible.well as saving money, if possible.

Films In SchoolsFilms In Schools

Early use in schools, 1920’s, then Early use in schools, 1920’s, then decreasing usage over the passing decreasing usage over the passing years.years.

Not much success for many reasons - Not much success for many reasons - lack of skills by teachers in using the lack of skills by teachers in using the equipment, cost of films, equipment not equipment, cost of films, equipment not readily available, few good educational readily available, few good educational films, etc.films, etc.

Radio at the StartRadio at the Start

““Textbooks of The Air”- to Textbooks of The Air”- to bring the world into the bring the world into the classroom. Benjamin Darrow classroom. Benjamin Darrow was an early major was an early major proponent of radio.proponent of radio.

Educational programming, Educational programming, available through private and available through private and commercial venues, commercial venues, increased up to the late increased up to the late 1940’s.1940’s.

The problems experienced The problems experienced with equipment eventually with equipment eventually went away.went away.

Radio Usage SurveysRadio Usage Surveys

Surveys were often overstated by counting Surveys were often overstated by counting the number of students in the school, not the number of students in the school, not how many actually listened to the radio. how many actually listened to the radio.

Superintendents or other administrators Superintendents or other administrators were the ones usually targeted for were the ones usually targeted for information about the radio programs.information about the radio programs.

Teachers were very rarely asked about the Teachers were very rarely asked about the programs - how they used radio, and how programs - how they used radio, and how often. Those who did respond were few in often. Those who did respond were few in number.number.

Television Killed the Radio Television Killed the Radio ShowShow

Some success was achieved in promoting music appreciation and Some success was achieved in promoting music appreciation and the arts. At some of the schools, the radio exposure to the arts was the arts. At some of the schools, the radio exposure to the arts was all that the students would have, as there were no classes for music all that the students would have, as there were no classes for music appreciation and/or arts of any kind.appreciation and/or arts of any kind.

Classroom radio promoters blamed the teachers for being Classroom radio promoters blamed the teachers for being indifferent, ‘lethargic’, and even antagonistic.indifferent, ‘lethargic’, and even antagonistic.

Commercial radio networks abandoned their school broadcasts.Commercial radio networks abandoned their school broadcasts.

Instructional television stepped in and took over the imaginations of Instructional television stepped in and took over the imaginations of policy makers and educators.policy makers and educators.

Television Television inin Schools Schools

Television Funding/PushTelevision Funding/Push

Ford Foundation donates millions of dollars Ford Foundation donates millions of dollars - reason: shortage of teachers.- reason: shortage of teachers.

NDEA (National Defense Education Act) in NDEA (National Defense Education Act) in 1958 gets into television.1958 gets into television.

John F. Kennedy promotes funding for the John F. Kennedy promotes funding for the U.S. Office of Education, and Congress U.S. Office of Education, and Congress approves millions of dollars.approves millions of dollars.

By 1971, over $100 million was spent on By 1971, over $100 million was spent on television for education.television for education.

Overview of Patterns in Overview of Patterns in Television InstructionTelevision Instruction

Total instructional program is presented by television Total instructional program is presented by television teachers - teacher/adult in the room is a supervisor teachers - teacher/adult in the room is a supervisor only. only.

Supplemented television instruction - teachers Supplemented television instruction - teachers prepare classes for the video lesson and follow up prepare classes for the video lesson and follow up with in-class discussions and assignments.with in-class discussions and assignments.

Television as a teaching aid - teacher has more Television as a teaching aid - teacher has more control of the content, also when and how to use this control of the content, also when and how to use this medium. This appears to be the dominant method of medium. This appears to be the dominant method of use of television. use of television. ______________________________________ ______________________________________ Samoa is the only Samoa is the only case of an educational setting with total instructional television.case of an educational setting with total instructional television.

Possible Success of TelevisionPossible Success of Television

Hagerstown, Maryland, used closed circuit television Hagerstown, Maryland, used closed circuit television to meet the needs of overcrowded schools during to meet the needs of overcrowded schools during the 1950’s.the 1950’s.

Over a five year period, they reported increases in Over a five year period, they reported increases in standardized tests scores in arithmetic, science, standardized tests scores in arithmetic, science, reading, advanced math and other high school reading, advanced math and other high school subjects.subjects.

Television was used only as supplement, not as a Television was used only as supplement, not as a replacement, unless you count the lack of hiring any replacement, unless you count the lack of hiring any music or art teachers in secondary school, in which music or art teachers in secondary school, in which case it was a replacement.case it was a replacement.

The Teacher’s Role in The Teacher’s Role in Implementation Implementation ofof Television Television

Teachers are not asked, they are forced to implement tv Teachers are not asked, they are forced to implement tv usageusage

Important key points are accessibility, purpose, and the Important key points are accessibility, purpose, and the use of technologyuse of technology

How many sets are available, who sets up the station, How many sets are available, who sets up the station, how easy it is to view the television in the classroomhow easy it is to view the television in the classroom

Which basic curriculum is covered, which subjects are Which basic curriculum is covered, which subjects are enriched through televisionenriched through television

How often is the television watched, how many hours, How often is the television watched, how many hours, how many programshow many programs

Summary of Television Usage Summary of Television Usage in Schoolsin Schools

Instructional television has limited use and continues to Instructional television has limited use and continues to be used as an accessory, rather than the primary be used as an accessory, rather than the primary vehicle, for basic instruction.vehicle, for basic instruction.

Only a few teachers use it willingly, consistently, and Only a few teachers use it willingly, consistently, and with enthusiasm.with enthusiasm.

Teacher use of television occurs more in elementary Teacher use of television occurs more in elementary schools, less in secondary.schools, less in secondary.

More usage occurs in the afternoon than in the More usage occurs in the afternoon than in the morning.morning.

Implementation DefinedImplementation Defined

Implemented (defined) - n. something used or Implemented (defined) - n. something used or needed in a given activity, especially an needed in a given activity, especially an instrument, tool, utensil, vessel, or the like. instrument, tool, utensil, vessel, or the like. t.v. 1. to carry into effect; to fulfill; accomplish t.v. 1. to carry into effect; to fulfill; accomplish 2. to provide with the means for carrying into 2. to provide with the means for carrying into effect or fulfillment, to give practical effect to. effect or fulfillment, to give practical effect to. 3. to provide with implements.3. to provide with implements.

Implementation - implementing or being Implementation - implementing or being implemented.implemented.

Flaws of ImplementationFlaws of Implementation

Top to bottom is faster in getting the technology into the Top to bottom is faster in getting the technology into the classroom - there is no deliberation by principals or teachers, classroom - there is no deliberation by principals or teachers, which can take much time. which can take much time.

Teachers are forced to do and use the technology, they have Teachers are forced to do and use the technology, they have no say, which leads to “token compliance” by them. They say, no say, which leads to “token compliance” by them. They say, “Yes, I will use it”, while thinking to themselves ... but watch “Yes, I will use it”, while thinking to themselves ... but watch how I use it ... I will use it only when you watch me or remind how I use it ... I will use it only when you watch me or remind me!me!

Schools are not military in structure, and some teachers buck Schools are not military in structure, and some teachers buck the system. It is not so easy to start a program and not the system. It is not so easy to start a program and not experience troubles or ‘glitches’. With only limited time to experience troubles or ‘glitches’. With only limited time to teach and get results, the ‘tried and proven’ ways are always teach and get results, the ‘tried and proven’ ways are always there to fall back on.there to fall back on.

Analyzing Teacher Analyzing Teacher Use of MachinesUse of Machines

Cuban puts forth his explanation of how teachers Cuban puts forth his explanation of how teachers choose, “situationally constrained choice”, which is choose, “situationally constrained choice”, which is school and classroom structure and the culture of school and classroom structure and the culture of teaching.teaching.

If the technology reinforces the control teachers have If the technology reinforces the control teachers have and improves their teaching, they will use it.and improves their teaching, they will use it.

Teacher constructed criteria range, but are not limited Teacher constructed criteria range, but are not limited to, the ease of use, the degree of use, the versatility, to, the ease of use, the degree of use, the versatility, the simplicity, the return in worth if much energy is the simplicity, the return in worth if much energy is expended, etc.expended, etc.

The Paradoxes of Teaching - The Paradoxes of Teaching - found on page 2 of textbookfound on page 2 of textbook

Socialize all children, yet nourish each child’s individual Socialize all children, yet nourish each child’s individual creativity.creativity.

The reality: teach to the TAKS (or current standardized test) - The reality: teach to the TAKS (or current standardized test) - passing the test is important and that is enough, forget about passing the test is important and that is enough, forget about creativity or the arts.creativity or the arts.

Teach the best that the past has to offer, but insure that each Teach the best that the past has to offer, but insure that each child possesses practical skills marketable in the community. child possesses practical skills marketable in the community.

The reality: skills are ‘outsource’-able or found elsewhere, The reality: skills are ‘outsource’-able or found elsewhere, business will not let you use them, even if you have them.business will not let you use them, even if you have them.

Teachers Must CopeTeachers Must Cope

Practical use of timePractical use of time

Classroom management is the keyClassroom management is the key

Accountability for achievement is Accountability for achievement is critical, and prevents teachers from critical, and prevents teachers from experimenting or deviating from the experimenting or deviating from the norm.norm.

C is for ComputersC is for Computers

Are computers the same as film, radio, television? Are computers the same as film, radio, television?

Will they face the same or similar problems Will they face the same or similar problems experienced with these other technologies?experienced with these other technologies?

Are computers good for children?Are computers good for children?

How much is too much?How much is too much?

A is for AccountabilityA is for Accountability

As stated by Cuban on page 86, “Converting As stated by Cuban on page 86, “Converting teaching into a science historically has driven many teaching into a science historically has driven many reformers, researchers, and policy-makers toward reformers, researchers, and policy-makers toward embracing numerous innovations that have promised embracing numerous innovations that have promised precision harnessed to efficiency.”precision harnessed to efficiency.”

““The surge of popular interest in making schools The surge of popular interest in making schools productive and accountable spurred efforts to train productive and accountable spurred efforts to train teachers to write precise objectives aimed at teachers to write precise objectives aimed at producing student results.”producing student results.”

States mandated testing programs that required States mandated testing programs that required teachers to concentrate on the skills that legislators teachers to concentrate on the skills that legislators believed were important.believed were important.

Questions to Aid Questions to Aid the Implementation the Implementation

of Technologyof Technology

What is the nature of the innovation?What is the nature of the innovation?

How is it being introduced?How is it being introduced?

Who are the users, and how much are the Who are the users, and how much are the machines used?machines used?

Should computers be used in classrooms?Should computers be used in classrooms?