Reforms and Revolutions up through 1848

Greek Independence• The Greeks had been under Ottoman (Turkey) control

since the 15th c.• The Greeks had maintained their own cultural identity

(language, religion, etc.)• Nationalism rose and a revolution broke out in 1821.• Metternich was against all revolutions, but, many

Europeans supported Greek independence.• 1827- the Ottomans were pressured to grant

independence to Greece by France, G.B. and Russia; Ottomans declined and the navies were called out.

• The Ottomans eventually granted independence in 1830; in 1832 a German prince was placed as king of Greece.

Reform in Britain• 18th c. Britain was not very democratic, despite having a constitutional

monarchy– 8% of men could vote; king ruled Parliament

• By the 1870’s, reform was necessary, but the land-owners (aristocrats) were fearful due to the French Rev. example– Tory Party: aristocratic political party that resisted all liberal change– Corn Laws: Tory law that prohibited the importing of cheap grain

unless prices at home were outrageous– These laws benefitted the land-owning aristocrats because they

could charge whatever price they wanted for their grain– High unemployment and these high grain prices angered many and

led to riots• Tories made protesting illegal• Issued the “Six Acts” limiting freedoms of the press: more rioting

– Battle of Peterloo

• Wealthy industrialists soon demanded more political power and liberal reforms

• Whig Party (political party) helped to push through liberal reforms in Parliament in 1832

• Reform Bill of 1832:– Gave House of Commons more power– They were the decision makers and voted on by the people (as

opposed to the House of Lords who had a hereditary position)– Eliminated voting fraud in various districts; pushed for more

voters• People’s Charter, 1838

– Pushed for universal male voting (rejected by Parliament)• Corn Laws repealed in 1846: free grain imports• Tories later tried to appeal to the working class through

laws like the 10 Hours Act and regulating working conditions– Realized it was better to appeal to the largest group in Britain:

the working class

Ireland and the Potato Famine

• Ireland was controlled by G.B.• Irish peasants worked the land that was owned by

the Church of England or British land-owners• Irish peasants were extremely poor• The potato, as well as other factors like early

marriage, helped Ireland grow in population• The potato was a hardy crop and less land was

necessary to grow enough for a family + the landowner

• The Irish lived off the potato alone– Estimates claim 10 lbs. a day!

• British landowners only leased the land for a brief period of time– No incentive to take care of the land; i.e.

irrigation, new farming techniques, etc.• A crop disease impacted the potato crop from

1845-46 and again in 1848-51– Dependency on the crop was so great that it led

to starvation, human disease, lost land/homes– British gov’t did very little (laissez faire attitude)– Famine created huge population losses; ½ died or

left Ireland– Anti-British and Irish nationalism grew

• This would later promote Irish Independence

French Revolution of 1830• It’s not over…Louis XVIII who was king

after Napoleon’s first and second exiles, made a small attempt at promoting democracy and social reforms– Issued the Constitutional Charter, 1814

• Created a 2 house Parliament (Chamber of Deputies being the group who could be voted for)

• He also kept many social and economic gains of the revolution

• Despite all of this, France was not a democracy– Only 100,000 of the 30 million pop. could vote

• After Louis’ death, his brother Charles X becomes king of France– He was an absolutist and wanted to reestablish

the Old Regime– The Chamber of Deputies opposed him

• Charles tried to use war and expansion to build nationalism and support– He believed that if he could win a war, he would

be able to manipulate the citizens enough that they failed to realize they were losing their rights• After victory in Algeria, he repealed the Constitutional

Charter, took away voting rights, censored the press• Led to huge riots in Paris and the gov’t fell in 3 days;

Charles fled

• After Charles fled, a cousin, Louis Philippe came to the throne– Pledged to rule for the people, but still

the notable elites were the only citizens with power in the country

– No real change had occurred under Louis Philippe

– Now 170,000 could vote for the Deputies• An increase of 70,000 voters, but still a

significant number less than the population total

Louis XVIII

Charles X

Louis Philippe

Revolutions in 1848

• The 1840s were difficult throughout Europe– Famine and economic hardships led to riots– Political change was certain– Culminated in 1848 throughout Europe

France in 1848• Louis Philippe’s monarchy was growing more and more

unpopular• Citizens wanted the republic back- we will call this France’s

Second Republic• Reforms include:

– Slavery & capital punishment abolished, work-day shortened (10 hrs), universal male suffrage (voting rights)

– There was a push by some to form social programs to help support the poor by providing jobs (workshops)

– The push towards socialism was concerning to many conservatives; others were desperate for social change

– Frustrations led to a mini-revolution that lasted 3 days (called “June Days”, 10,000 dead)

– New constitution formed…allowed for a strong central monarch

Guess Who’s Back?...

• Well sort of….Louis-Napoleon! – Nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte will be elected in

December 1848– Later named Napoleon III

Austrian Empire in 1848• Remember that Metternich is from Austria• Revolts in France spread throughout the Europe• In Austria, liberals wanted representative government, etc.• Hapsburg Emperor Ferdinand I gave in to reforms• Problems in Austria

– They still practiced serfdom, ethnically diverse, students revolt in Vienna

• Nephew Francis Joseph will come to the throne in late 1848 and will regain authority. – Put down the Hungarian rebellion with the help of Russia

Prussia in 1848

• Prussia was the most powerful German kingdom• Inspired by France, the city of Berlin erupted in

violence in the name of liberalism. – Prussian King Frederick William IV caved in

• There had been discussion over the years of merging the German kingdom into an actual German state– Steps were taken to form a constitutional monarchy– Unification will fail due to disagreements