PITANJA IZ GRAMATIKE

1. Uses of the Present Simple Tense2. Uses of the Present Continuous Tense3. Verbs that do not usually take the continuous form4. Uses of the Past Simple Tense5. Expressing past habits6. Uses of the Past Continuous Tense7. Uses of the Past Perfect Simple Tense8. Uses of the Past Perfect Continuous Tense9. Uses of the Present Perfect Simple Tense10. Uses of the Present Perfect Continuous Tense11. Present tenses used to express future12. Uses of the Future Simple Tense13. Uses of the Future ‘ going to ‘14. Uses of the Future Continuous Tense15. Uses of the Future Perfect Tense16. Reported Speech: questions17. Reported Speech: statements and orders (requests)18. Sequence of tenses19. Cases when tenses do not change in reported speech20. Uses of articles: ‘zero’ article21. Uses of articles: definite article22. Uses of articles: indefinite article23. Participle clauses24. Conditionals: ‘zero’ and I25. Conditionals: II and III26. Mixed conditionals27. Avoiding ‘if’ in conditionals28. Form and use of the passive voice29. Defining vs. non-defining relative clauses30. Verbs + gerund31. Verbs + gerund vs. verbs + infinitive32. Countable and uncountable : nouns that can be both33. Nouns that have only the plural form34. Nouns that have only the singular form (‘ unmarked plural forms’)35. Nouns that can be both singular and plural in meaning while singular in form36. Plural of nouns37. Irregular plural of nouns38. Foreign plurals39. Saxon and Norman genitives40. Uses of some / any, much / many41. Uses of little / a little, few / a few

42. Formation of adjectives (prefixes and suffixes)43. Types of adjectives44. Comparison of adjectives45. Compound adjectives46. Adverbs: formation and type47. Adverbs: comparison48. Adverbs: position49. Modal verbs: can50. Modal verbs: could51. Modal verbs: should52. Modal verbs: must53. Modal verbs: have to54. Use of modal verbs to express deduction55. Causative have / get56. Infinitives: types and usage57. Question tags58. Possessive pronouns vs. possessive adjectives59. Interrogative pronouns vs. interrogative adjectives60. Reflexive pronouns61. The pronoun ‘it’62. Subjunctive (expressing wishes)63. Types of sentences64. Diminutives65. Inversion

USES OF THE PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE

1)regular repeated activities:She drinks coffee every morning.2)permanent situations:He is from Hungary.3)scientific facts:Water boils at 100 degrees.4)newspapers headlines5)dramatic narration6)conditional sentences types zero and one 7)discussing a book/play/movie

8)spoken instructions, jokes, formal letters9)timetabled future eventsThe train leaves at 10AM.

USES OF THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1)actions happening now2)actions happening around now:I am reading a good book.3)temporary situations:She’s living here until she finds a flat.4)annoying habits (with ALWAYS):He is always snoring.5)changing situations:More and more people are learning English.6)for arranged future events:I am seeing Larry at 8.

USES OF THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE TENSE

1)sth started in the past and is still going on:He has lived in Japan for three years.2)sth has happened in the recent past and the consequences are present now:I have cut my finger.3)sth has happened in ‘unfinished time’ (today, this week, this morning):Have you seen Jack today?4)for describing repeated actions that have continued up till now:We’ve seen three films this week.-‘since’ gives us the point in time when sth has begun-‘for’ gives us the period of time how long sth has lasted

USES OF THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

1)for recent activities-when we can still see the effects:Why are you so sweaty? I have been running for hours.2)to show sth is temporary:She’s been learning Italian but knowing her she’ll give up soon.3)to show sth isn’t complete:I’ve been typing these letters all morning and I am still not done.I have typed three letters this morning. (a complete action)

USES OF THE PAST SIMPLE TENSE

1)for finished past actions, we usually know the exact time:She went to Greece in 1994.2)for past habits (always with a time reference):They always had dinner late.3)for consecutive actions-following each other:She washed her hair, dried it and went out.4)for events which took place over a specific period of time:She was his nurse from 1995 to 1999.

USES OF THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

1)a continuous past event:She was working very hard for his company.2)an incomplete action:He was reading a book on the plane. (incomplete)He read a book on the plane. (complete)3)for an interrupted past action:She was cooking when the phone rang.4)for two simultaneous actions (happening at the same time):She was sleeping while he was writing his essay.5)for anticipated actions which didn’t happen:They were going to Wales but had to cancel the trip.

USES OF THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE TENSE

1)for a past activity which occurred before another past activity:When Paul came, the guests had already left.2)for expressing past wishes:If only he had come to the party. (but he didn’t)3)past perfect doesn’t change in the reported speech.

THE USE OF THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

-expresses an ‘older’ situation (like the Past Perfect Simple) but we also want to emphasize the continuity of the activity:He had been looking for a job for years before he was offered this one.

USES OF THE FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE

1)for future facts;She will be 25 next month.2)for decisions made at the moment of speech:We are out of bread, I’ll go and get some.3)for predictions based on our opinion or expectations:I think they will break up soon.4)for promises, threats, offers, requests:I’ll tell your father how naughty you are.

USES OF THE FUTURE ‘GOING TO’

1)for predictions based on evidence or previous knowledge:She is going to have a baby.2)for intentions, not sth decided at the moment of speech:I am going to study in London.

3)for insisting that people do/don’t do things:You are going to finish that soup whether you like it or not!

USES OF THE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

1)for actions or events which will be in progress at a certain point in the future:This time next week we will be studying for our exams.2)to be more polite:Will you be going to Paul’s party?3)for actions which will occur in the natural course of events:The plane will be landing soon.

USES OF THE FUTURE PERFECT TENSE

-for events which will be completed at a certain time in the future:By 2020. we will have finished this project.

ZERO ARTICLE

No article is used in front of:

1. names of continents, most of the countries, mountains, lakes: Asia, Peru, lake Ontario

2. names of cities, towns, villages (the only exception for cities is the Hague)

3. names of streets and roads: Oxford street4. names of magazines5. names of illnesses6. uncountable or countable plural nouns used in general sense:

I love dogs more than cats.

7. names of days, months, times of day and night, meals, means of transport

8. names of languages9. names of airports, train stations, universities10.names of churches and cathedrals11.fixed expressions with zero article: to / at / from work in class to / at / from university, school, college to / in / out of prison, hospital, bed

INDEFINITE ARTICLE

1. with singular countable nouns – when sth is mentioned for the first time

2. with names of jobs – He’s a doctor.3. with 100,1000,1 000 000 – There are a hundred people.4. in exclamations with singular countable nouns:

What a fantastic view !5. with expressions of frequency:

once a week, two times a day…6. with names of people when we don’t know them:

There is a Mr. Williams to see you.7. when two things are often mentioned together as if they are one : a

knife and fork, a cup and saucer8. with expressions of quantity : a lot of, a little of, a couple of9. if we say : A Mathew Stephens hangs on our bedroom wall , we are

talking about the paining done by this artist

DEFINITE ARTICLE

1. when sth has already been mentioned before :The book you told me about is great.

2. when there is only one in the context or in the world :The Queen is going to give a speech.

3. when it is clear form the context what we are talking about : Could you close the door, please ?

4. with the names of rivers, seas, oceans, mountains ranges, groups of islands : the Alps, the Adriatic sea

5. with the names of countries in the plural : the United Kingdom6. with the names of hotels, cinemas, theatres7. names of newspapers8. names of nationalities : The French are usually seen as romantic.9. with superlatives10.with adjectives used as nouns : The rich can never understand the problems of the poor.11.with surnames when we are talking about the whole family:

The Smiths have moved away

QUESTION TAGS

- We use QTs to ask people if they agree with us or to check if sth is true

- If the sentence is affirmative, the QT is negative, and the other way round

- QTs consist of an auxiliary verb (be / do / have) or a modal verb AND a personal pronoun :She is so smart, ISN’T SHE ?

- If, in a sentence, we have an auxiliary and a full verb, to make a QT we repeat the auxiliary:They have seen us, HAVEN’T THEY ?

- if there is only full verb, we add DO in the QT:He comes today, DOESN’T HE ?

- modal verb is repeated in the tag:She couldn’t come, COULDN’T SHE ?

- in sentences with LET’S we use SHALL:Let’s go out, SHALL WE ?

- in imperatives we use WILL or WOULD:Take the dog for a walk, WILL YOU ?

- with NOBODY or SOMEBODY we use THEY:Nobody came, DID THEY ?

- with NOTHING we use IT:Nothing is wrong, IS IT? (we cannot use double negative in English)

DIMINUTIVES

- Diminutives indicate smallness- they aren’t so often in English as in other languages- in some cases we get diminutives by adding a suffix to a noun:

a small book – booklet a small pig – pigleta small duck – ducklinga small statue – statuette

a small kitchen- kitchenettea small bird – birdie

- sometimes, there is a different word for diminutive: a small cat – kitten a small dog – puppy - but, in most cases, we add SMALL or LITTLE in front of a noun

CONDITIONALS: ‘ZERO’ AND FIRST

- zero conditional describes situations which are always true:If you learn well, you get higher grades.

- present simple is used in both clauses- first conditional describes a possible situation in the future- we have a possible condition and a probable result:

If it rains, I’ll get wet.( present simple + will (or can, may) followed by infinitive )

- we can use WILL in both clauses to express willingness:If you’ll wash, I’ll dry the dishes.

- if we add SHOULD we sound less certain:If you should see Mat, he may be a little upset.

- in order to sound more formal, we use inversion:Should you see Mat, he may be a little upset.

- instead of IF we can use PROVIDED, PROVIDING, UNLESS Unless you invite her, she won’t come.

CONDITIONALS: SECOND AND THIRD

- second conditional describes an unlikely or imaginary situation in the present or future

- the unreality is shown by tense shift backwards:If I were taller, I would be a basketball player.

( past simple + would (or could, might) followed by infinitive)- if we add WERE TO we sound less certain

If you WERE TO tell him the truth, you might hurt him.- if we need to sound more formal, we use inversion:

WERE YOU to achieve the goal, you would be promoted.- we use second conditional to sound more polite, too:

Would you mind if I opened the window ?- third conditional describes an imaginary situation in the past:

If you had been nicer, they wouldn’t have left.( past perfect + would have followed by past participle)

- if we want to be more formal, we use inversion:Had I known the truth, I could have saved him.

MIXED CONDITIONALS

- it is possible for each of the two clauses in a conditional sentence to have a different time reference

- we can mix second and third conditional1. If you had brought the map, we wouldn’t be lost now.

( imaginary past situation and a result in the present )2. He wouldn’t have married her if he didn’t love her.

( sth that didn’t happen because of the present situation )

AVOIDING ‘IF’ IN CONDITIONALS

- an inversion of subject and verb may be used instead of ‘if’:Should you see Tom, he may be a little upset.Were you to lose the key, I would be really angry.Had Tom come, I would have been satisfied.

- this is mostly used in written language- we can also introduce conditionals by conjunctions: as long as,

provided (that), supposing (that), on condition that…Provided that you come on time, you can get the job.

- there are phrases used instead of ‘if’ :WITH LUCK, we’ll be there in time. (if we are lucky)GIVEN TIME, he will change his mind. ( if we give him time)WITHOUT YOUR HELP, I would have been lost. (if you hadn’t helped me)

- we can also use UNLESS instead of ‘if’:I’ll come tomorrow UNLESS it rains.

RELATIVE CLAUSES

- a relative clause gives extra information about people, things, places…

- it is introduced by a relative pronoun:WHO for peopleWHICH for thingsTHAT for people and thingsWHOSE for possessionAnd also WHEN, WHERE, WHY

- there are two types of relative clauses defining and non-defining- defining relative clause gives extra information which is essential to the meaning of the sentence:

My sister who lives in Berlin has two children.( I have three sisters, so the relative clause tells you which one)

- THAT can be used instead of WHO and WHICH

- We can omit the relative pronoun if it isn’t the subject of the sentence: This is the girl (who) I told you about.- non-defining relative clause gives extra information which isn’t

essential for the meaning of the sentence: My sister, who lives in Berlin, has two children.(I only have one sister, so the information isn’t essential)

- non-defining clauses are always between commas or between a comma and a full stop -we cannot use THAT in this kind of relative clauses

VERBS THAT DO NOT USUALLY MAKE CONTINUOUS TENSES

- verbs are divided into activity and state verbs- activity verbs are for example walk, talk, work, smile, play, complain…- they can be used in all tenses;He talks too loudly.They haven’t talked to each other for a long time.She will be talking to her boss.- state verbs aren’t usually used in continuous tenses- there are four groups of such verbs:1. activities of the mind (admit, know, want…)2. emotions (love, hate, adore)3. senses (feel, hear, smell)4. having and being ( appear, be, have, possess)- some of these state verbs can be used in a continuous tense, with

different meaning1. They have two cars. (possess- a state)

We are having lunch. (eat- an activity)2. I feel this I is bad. (believe- a state)

I’m feeling hungry. (experience- an activity)3. I think you are wrong. (believe- a state)

What are you thinking about? (consider-an activity)4. It looks as if it’s going to rain. (seem-a state)

Why are you looking at me? (watch-an activity)

CAUSATIVE HAVE / GET

FORM: have / get + object + past participle- we use it when sth is done FOR the subject, not BY the subject:I have my teeth checked every year.

- we can use either have or get, but in some cases only one form is possible:1. in the present perfect, we use only HAVE Have you had your room redecorated ?2.when sth is urgent, we usually use GET I really must get my head checked.3.in imperatives we use GET Get your hair cut!

- there is also non-causative use of HAVE STH DONEWe had our roof torn off in the storm !(nobody did anything, it was our experience)

SAXON AND NORMAN GENITIVE

- genitive is also called the possessive case- it is used to show that sth belongs to sb- SAXON GENITIVE is marked by apostrophe and S to the noun, eg.

Frank’s car- if the noun is in the plural, we add only the apostrophe

eg. Girls’ dolls- if two names go together, we add ‘S to the last

eg. John and Jack’s home- to the nouns with irregular plural we also add ‘S

eg. children’s books

- with compound nouns we add ‘S to the last elementeg. sister-in-law’s

- NORMAN GENITIVE is marked by OFeg. the key of the door

- we cannot say ‘the key’s door’ because it is a non-living thing- every ‘S construction has an OF equivalent (eg. a man’s voice-a voice

of a man) but not the other way around ( we can only say ‘a leg of the table’)

FORMATION AND USE OF THE PASSIVE VOICE

FORM: appropriate form of the verb TO BE + past participle- the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive- we use the passive voice when:a) we want to put an emphasis on the person or thing affected by the

actionb) we don’t know or don’t want to say who did itc) we want to sound more formal- the object of the passive sentence is called ‘the agent’- it can be omitted when:a) it isn’t importantb) it is obvious – The thief was caught. (by the police)c) it is unknown or secretd) already mentionede) it is people in general- some verbs have two objects- direct and indirect- in that case both can become subjects of a passive sentenceHe gave the book to Mary.(book is indirect; Mary is direct object)The book was given to Mary.Mary was given the book.

INVERSION

-it is usual for the verb to follow the subject- sometimes this word order can change and this is called the inversion

- we can put an adverbial phrase at the beginning of the sentence, especially in formal or literary style:He found three letters. INSIDE THE FIRST was a short note.- inversion often occurs after HERE and THERE:Here comes Sandra’s car.- we can use inversion in conditional sentences, to make them sound

more formal and to avoid ‘if’:Had I known you were coming, I would have prepared sth.- Inversion after negative adverbials:Seldom do we have such an opportunity.- inversion in expressions: only after, only once, only then:Only once did I manage to see him.

THE PRONOUN ‘IT’

- personal pronouns are called that way not because they refer to people but because they refer to grammatical persons (first, second and third person)

Your breakfast is ready. IT is on the table. - IT can refer to a thing, a quality, an event, a place…Loyalty must be earned. IT can’t be bought.- we also use IT to identify peopleThere’s a knock at the door. Who is it?IT’s the postman.- we also use IT if we don’t know the sex of a baby

IT is a cute baby, is IT a boy or a girl?- IT can also be used for animalsI hate this dog. IT never stops barking.- we often use IT to refer to time, weather, temperature, distance… In these cases ‘IT’ is called ‘an empty subject”IT is 8 o’clock. IT is hot. IT is noisy in here.-we can begin sentences with ‘IT IS’ or ‘IT WAS’ + subject + THAT if we want to emphasize sth. These are called ‘cleft sentences’IT was Fred who called last night. (and not Jim)

TYPES OF SENTENCES

-there are simple, compound and complex sentencesSIMPLE sentences consist of subject + verb- they can be;statements- give us onformation, can be affirmative or negativeinterrogative- we ask for informationcommands- instruct sb to do sthexclamations- express feelingsCOMPOUND consist of two or more clauses joined by a conjunction ( and, or, but…)eg. A man stole the money and hid it in the house.COMPLEX consist of main + subordinate clauseeg. If you won a lot of money, you’d be able to buy a house.- the main clause can stand alone, subordinate cannot- subordinate clauses can be:a) a relative clause:This is the man WHO STOLE YOUR MONEY.b) a reason clause:He was very angry BECAUSE SHE WAS SO LATE.c) a time clause:He saw her in the centre WHILE SHE WAS SHOPPING.

REPORTED SPEECH-QUESTIONS

There are two kinds of questions in English: YES/NO and WH- questions. YES/NO questions begin with auxiliary verb; WH-questions begin with who, what, why, how…YES/NO questions-when there is no question word in the direct speech, we use if/whether-word order is the same as in the statement‘ Have you ever been here?’Tom wanted to know IF I HAD BEEN there.( word order as in the statement; tense changes; ‘here’ becomes ‘there’, no question mark in the end)WH-questions-the word order is again important:question word + subject + verb

‘ What’ your favourite colour?’Mary asked me WHAT MY FAVOURITE COLOUR WAS.( no question mark in the end; the pronoun changes from ‘your’ into ‘my’)

REPORTED STATEMENTS AND ORDERS

‘ I want to see this place thoroughly.’He said HE WANTED TO SEE THAT PLACE THOROUGHLY.-the tense changed; THIS becomes THAT; ‘I’ becomes ‘he’

‘Go outside!’The teacher told me TO GO outside.-in orders we use TO-infinitive-in the negative sentences:‘Don’t touch this button!’we put NOT in front of the infinitive:He told me NOT TO TOUCH that button.

SEQUENCE OF TENSES

Direct speech-we repeat the exact words sb said or wrote.Indirect speech-we report sth said or written and since this is usually done after the time it was said or written we have to shift the tenses. This is called ‘sequence of tenses’.

PRESENT TENSES – PAST TENSESPresent Simple-Past SimplePresent Continuous-Past continuousPresent Perfect-Past PerfectPAST TENSES-PERFECT TENSESPast Simple-Past PerfectPast Continuous-Past Perfect ContinuousPast Perfect-no change

MODAL VERBSCan, shall, will, may, must- could, should, would, might, had to

OTHER CHANGESnow-thenhere-therethis-thatthese-thosetoday-that dayyesterday-the day beforetomorrow-the next daya few days ago-a few days beforeCASES WHEN TENSES DO NOT CHANGE IN REPORTED SPEECH

1)Past Perfect never changes in the reported speech:‘I had met you before.’He told me he had met me before.2) if sth is going to happen soon:He told me the bar will open tonight.3)we don’t change the tense when the reporting verb is in the present (when reading a letter or newspapers):The paper SAYS it will be rainy today.4)when the reporting verb is in the past but we want to show that the statement is still true:Tom said Bill IS his cousin.5)we don’t change should, would, might, ought to:They said they COULD come the next day.6)we don’t change the tense when expressing wishes with unreal past:‘I wish I was older.’He said he wished he WAS older. (NOT had been older.)

ADVERBS-FORMATION AND TYPE

-adverbs go with verbs and tell us how sth happens or how sth is done-most adverbs are formed by adding the –LY suffix to adjectives:

nicely, quickly, usually…-some adverbs have the same form as adjectives, for example FAST and HARD:He is fast. / He runs fast.-adverbs are also: yesterday, always, well, abroad…

TYPESa)adverbs of manner-how sth is donebadly, in a hurry, well…b)adverbs of place-where sth is donesomewhere, here, abroad…c)adverbs of time-when sth is doneyesterday, now, 6 weeks agod)adverbs of frequency-how often sth happensalways, sometimes, usuallye)adverbs of degree-show us to what extent sth is truealmost, rather, quitef)adverbs of viewpoint-give an opinionsurprisingly, amazingly, obviously

ADVERBS-COMPARISON

-only gradable adverbs can be compared-GRADABLE means that we can imagine degrees in the quality and use it with words like VERY, OFTEN, TOO-comparison is not possible with adverbs such as;daily, extremely, only, really… (they are not gradable)

-some adverbs have the same forms as adjectives, so they compare the same way:fast – faster - fastest ( we don’t use THE in superlatives with adverbs)-LY adverbs of manner usually have two or more syllables, so we add MORE/MOSTeasily – more easily – most easily-cases of irregular comparison:badly – worse – worst

well – better – bestlate – later – latestlittle – less – leastmuch – more – most-we can also compare adverbs using:a)AS…AS She sings as sweetly as her sister.b)THE…THE The faster you drive THE sooner we’ll arrive.c)…AND… It rained more AND more heavily.

ADVERBS-POSITION

1)adverbs of manner, place, time usually go in the end of the sentence;He came late.-if they are all in one sentence, the order is manner-place-timeHe waited patiently here for 30 minutes.-sometimes they can be placed at the beginning, when we want to create an atmosphere:Slowly, he walked out of the room.

2)adverbs of frequency go before the verb in simple tenses:I always chew gum.-after the auxiliary:She has always been there for him.-after the verb BE:I’m never late.-sometimes at the beginning of the sentence, for emphasis:Usually, he was late.

3)adverbs of degree go before the word they modify:She almost died.

4)adverbs of viewpoint go at the beginning:Surprisingly, she wasn’t at home. FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES (SUFFIXES AND PREXIFES)

-adjectives go with nouns and describe it

-they give us information about:age- an old manshape-a round tableorigin-a Swiss knife1)they can be formed by adding suffixes to verbs:-able : enjoyable, washable-ful : careful, helpful-less : useless-ed : amazed-ing : exciting2)we can also add suffixes to nouns:-al : professional-ic : metallic-ful : successful-less : hopeless-ous : dangerous3)we can also add prefixes to adjectives to give them the opposite meaning:dishonestuninterestedimmoralillegalirresponsibleinadequate

TYPES OF ADJECTIVES

-adjectives are used with nouns to describe them in more details (a new idea, a bright light, an old man)1)a group of adjectives which identify qualities someone or sth has are called QUALITATIVE ADJECTIVESa sad girl, a small child, a healthy baby2)a group of adjectives which identify someone or sth as a member of a class – CLASSIFYING ADJECTIVES

a daily shower, financial help3)a group of adjectives which are used to emphasize your feelings about the person or the thing you are talking about – EMPHASIZING ADJECTIVESComplete, absolute, utter (He is a complete idiot.)4)a group of adjectives which make the reference more precise – POSTDETERMINERSLAST few years, FOLLOWING brief discussion5)a group of adjectives which identify the colour of sth – COLOUR ADJECTIVESso-called VALUE ADJECTIVES indicate personal opinion-if more than one goes with the noun, they go in this order:size-age-shape-colour-origin-materialtheir huge circular swimming poolthe dirty old metal garden seat

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES

-an adjective describes a person, thing…which a noun refers to-adjectives give us an information about:quality – a nice daysize – a big carage – a young girltemperature – a cool eveningshape – a round tablecolour – blue eyesorigin – a Swiss knife

1)adjectives with one syllable are compared by adding –ER/-ESTlong – longer – the longest

2)if they end in –E we add only –R/-STnice – nicer – the nicest3)if they end with a combination of a short vowel and a consonant, we double the consonant before adding suffixesThin – thinner – the thinnest (sad, wet, fat, big…)4)if they end in –Y we change Y into Iheavy – heavier – the heaviest5)adjectives with two or more syllables are compared by adding MORE/THE MOSTbeautiful – more beautiful – the most beautiful6)some long adjectives can be compared in two wayssimple – simpler – the simplestsimple – more simple – the most simple (common,gentle,clever)7)there is also irregular comparison (bad, good, much/many, little)8)we can also compare adjectives by using Enough – This house isn’t big enough.Too – They were too tired.As…as – Was the film as interesting as the book?so …that – It was so simple that I managed it on my own. COMPOUND ADJECTIVES

-a compound adjective is an adjective made up of two parts and is usually written with a hyphen, for example well-dressed, never-ending…-their meaning is usually clear from the words it combines-the second part of the compound adjective is frequently a present or past participle-a large number of compound adjectives describe personal appearance: curly-haired, long-legged…-another set describes a person’s character:absent-minded, easy-going, two-faced…-a preposition can also be the second part of a compound adjective : broken-down, worn-out, well-off…-we can make various compound adjectives by changing one part:curly-haired first-handred-haired first-classlong-haired first-born

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE: NOUNS THAT CAN BE BOTH

-opsti deo o imenicama1)some nouns like: stone, hair, cake… can be both countable and uncountable-they can refer to a single thing or a substance:There’s a hair in my soup. She had long, curly hair.Give me a glass of water. Do you know who invented glass?2)some uncountable nouns can be countable when they refer to a certain kind of a thing:Do you drink wine?They’ve got a very good white wine.3)words for drinks, for example: coffee, tea, beer…Coffee is not expensive these days.Why don’t we stop for a coffee?4)time, space, room can also be bothI don’t have time.She had a great time.

NOUNS THAT HAVE ONLY THE PLURAL FORMS

-opsti deo o imenicama-some nouns only have plural forms, for example1)subjects: maths, statistics2)games: billiards, darts3)also nouns like: aerobics, genetics, measles…-these nouns have plural form but they are used with singular verb forms:The news WAS terrible.Maths IS a difficult subject.

-other nouns that have only plural form are used with plural verb forms-those are nouns like: authorities, stairs, sights…-they are used with the definite article:He fell off the stairs.We wanted to see the sights.

-nouns for clothes and tools which are made of two joined parts also have only plural forms: scissors, trousers, glasses, jeans, pyjamas…-if we want to refer to them in singular or plural, we use ‘ a pair of’She bought two pairs of blue jeans.

NOUNS THAT HAVE ONLY THE SINGULAR FORM ( ‘UNMARKED PLURAL FORMS’ )

-opsti deo o imenicama-nouns that only have singular forms are:advice, information, luck, homework, traffic…-if we want to talk about a certain amount, we use:a piece of (advice)a few pieces of (information)a pile of (rubbish)a lump of (sugar)a few drops of (water)a touch of (flu)a few slices of (bread)-some of these nouns have their pairs which can be used in plural:work – jobsluggage – suitcasesbread- a loafmoney- a note, a coinclothing- a garmentpoetry- a poem

NOUNS THAT CAN BE BOTH SINGULAR AND PLURAL IN MEANING WHILE SINGULAR IN FORM

-opsti deo o imenicama-some nouns have singular form but can be seen as singular or plural, for example TEAMOur team is winning. (we see the team as a single unit)

Our team are winning. (the team seen as members of a group)-other nouns like this are: army, staff, public, jury, press, band, family…

OPSTI DEO O MODALIMA (uz svaki modal)

1)they aren’t used when sth definitely exists or has definitely happened. They are used when we expect sth, when sth is not possible, when we think sth is necessary…2)modals don’t get –S in the third person singular3)they are followed by bare infinitive (infinitive without TO)The exception is OUGHT TO.4)questions are formed by inversion5)they can refer to the future6)in the past we add HAVE+PAST PARTICIPLE MODAL VERBS: CAN

1)this modal verb is used to express possibility:It can rain tomorrow.2)to express that sth is always true:Cycling in big cities can be dangerous.3)to express permission:Can I go outside?4)ability:He can speak four languages.5)offer:I can help you with your luggage.6)it is used with verbs of perception (hear, smell, see, feel…)7)negative form ‘CAN’T’ expresses prohibition:You can’t leave now.8)it is used for logical deduction-making conclusions based on evidence:His car isn’t here, he can’t be at home. (present)Her light was off, she can’t have been in her office. (past)9)for the future we use ‘be able to’10)for the past can + have + past participle MODAL VERBS: COULD

1)this modal verb expresses possibility:

It could rain today.2)permission3)general past ability:He could swim at the age of six.-if sth happened only on one occasion:He managed to jump over the fence.4)offers5)with verbs of perception (hear, smell, see…)6)for expressing wishes:If only he could come. (present)I wish she could have been there. (past)7)in the past we use could + have + past participle

MODAL VERBS: SHOULD

1)it expresses mild obligation, advice, recommendation:You should see a doctor.2)it is used for predictions, when sth is logical:He should be here by 9.3)used in conditionals:If all goes well, he should manage to get away.-it is used to make conditionals more formal:Should you happen to see him, please tell him to be careful.4)past should + have + past participle:I should have gone to the party. (regret)You should have taken that job. (criticism)

MODAL VERBS: MUST

1)must expresses personal obligation:I must stop smoking.-unlike ‘must’, ‘have to’ expresses an obligation coming from a third person:You have to wear a seat-belt.

2)must can be stronger than have to when it is used for urgency:You must phone home at once!3)expresses recommendation, strong advice:You simply must come to my party.4)used for logical deduction-making conclusions based on evidence:He promised to come, he must be here. (present)He was ill, he must have gone to see a doctor. (past)5)negative form mustn’t expresses prohibition6)negative form to express lack of obligation is don’t have to7)in the past we use had to

MODAL VERBS: HAVE TO

This modal verb, unlike others, is followed by TO infinitive1)it expresses obligation coming from a third person-unlike HAVE TO, MUST expresses personal obligation2)for lack of obligation we use don’t have to3)to express the future, we can add adverbials:You have to leave before 9 tomorrow.4)in the past we use had to (didn’t have to)5)’needn’t have to’ can also be used for lack of obligation in the past but the meaning isn’t the same:I didn’t have to go to the office yesterday. (so I didn’t)I needn’t have gone to the office yesterday. (I did go but unnecessarily)-it can be used for logical deduction-making conclusions based on evidence in American English:This has to be the best film I have ever seen.

EXPRESSING PAST HABITS

-we can use Past Simple, used to and would -PAST SIMPLE always needs a time reference:I collected stamps when I was a child.-with USED TO we don’t need a time reference, we can only say:I used to collect stamps.-USED TO shows that things happened in the past and this is now finished

-we cannot use it to say how long sth took or how many times sth happened, for this we use Past Simple-USED TO isn’t used with FOR and SINCE-it goes with both action and state verbs:I used to get up really late.He used to have a beard.-WOULD also expresses a past habit:He would get up early.-it is only used with action verbs-it is used for regular activities, especially in narrative, or when we are reminiscing. WOULD is never used at the beginning of the story, the scene must first be set with Past Simple or USED TO:When I was a boy we always spent (OR used to spend) our holidays on a farm. We’d get up at five and we’d help milk the cows…

PRESENT TENSES USED TO EXPRESS FUTURE

-Present Simple is used for timetabled events and regular schedule:What time does the bus arrive in Seattle?-it is used in subordinate clauses, after: WHAT, WHERE, WHEN, IF, UNTIL…I’ll tell you when I find out.-asking for and giving instructions:Where do I pay?What do we do now?-Present Continuous is used for personal arrangements and fixed plans-time and place have been decided:I’m seeing Larry on Saturday.What are you doing tonight? I’m washing my hair.-it is associated with future arrivals and departures, so it is used with verbs: arrive, come, leave, go…He’s arriving tomorrow at 13.10.-it is also used with verbs of movement, for actions just beginning:Are you coming to the pub?I’m just popping out to the post office.-present perfect:

She isn’t coming out until she’s done her homework.

FOREIGN PLURALS

-words which are borrowed from other languages, especially from Latin, still form their plurals according to the rules of those languages-many of them are technical or formal1)nouns ending in –US have plural endings –Iradius-radii, stimulus-stimuli2)nouns ending in –UM have a plural ending –Amemorandum-memoranda3)those ending in –IS have plural ending –ESanalysis-analyses, diagnosis-diagnoses4)those ending in –A end in –AE /e/ in the plurallarva-larvae5)some of these borrowed nouns can have –S in the pluralantennas, formulas…6)some have two plural forms, and the form with –S is more common in less formal Englishappendix-appendices / appendixestempo-tempi / tempos

PLURAL OF NOUNS

1)we usually add –S to the singulardays, dogs, houses-S can be pronounced as/s/ books /z/ dogs /iz/ houses2)if nouns end in -CH, -SH, -SS or –X, we add –ES kisses, brushes, churches…3)to the nouns that end in –O we usually add –EStomatoes, potatoes…-in some cases we can add either –S or –ES:tornados / tornadoes-we add only –S:a)when the noun ends in -OO (bamboos)b)to abbreviations (kilos)

c)to Italian music terms (pianos, solos)d)to proper nouns (Eskimos)4)initials can also be made plural by adding -SUFOs, VIPs, MPs (members of the Parliament)5)compound nouns-in ‘noun + noun’ combinations usually the second word gets –Sboyfriends-in some cases only the first element gets –Smothers-in-law-when there is only one noun in the combination it gets –S regardless of its position the wordpassers-by, onlookers -when there is no noun, the last word gets –Sgrown-ups, breakdowns

IRREGULAR PLURAL OF NOUNS

1)if a noun contains –F in turns into –V before adding a suffix:wife- wives wolf-wolves-there are exceptions like: gulf, staff… where we add only –S without the change of –F-some nouns can have both forms:dwarf-dwarfs/dwarves 2)if a noun contains –Y it changes into –I before adding –ES:city-cities country-countries-if –Y is in front of a vowel, it doesn’t change:days, toys-noun ‘lady’ changes into ‘ladies’ but in compound nouns it stays in the singular: lady friends3)a group of nouns turn into plural by an internal vowel change:man-men woman-women tooth-teeth mouse-mice-in compound nouns with ‘man’ and ‘woman’ both nouns change into plural: women students4)to some nouns we add –EN, a suffix from the past:ox-oxen child-children-noun ‘brother’ can also have this suffix ‘brethren’ which is used in religious contexts

5)some nouns are the same in the singular and plural:fish, deer, offspring, sheep, speciesMy gold fish has / have died.

OPSTI DEO O IMENICAMA

Proper (India)NOUNS concrete (book) countable common abstract (idea) concrete (clothes) uncountable abstract (love)

-countable nouns have singular and plural forms-they can be used with: indefinite article, numbers, many, few/a few-uncountable nouns have only one form-they can be used with: much, little/a little

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS VS. POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES

-they express possession, belonging- possessive adjectives go with nouns: This is MY house. - possessive pronouns are used without nouns: These things are MINE.- we use poss. pronouns when we talk about the same type of thing that has just been mentioned but to show it belongs to someone else:

Jane showed them her passport, then I showed MINE.- poss. pronouns are also used in phrases beginning with OFF:

He is a friend of MINE.Tom was a student of YOURS.

- poss. adjectives in English are used with parts of body, which is not the case in our language:Emma shook HER head.I cut MY hand.

- we can use ‘own’ after poss. adjectives to show that sth belongs to a certain person and nobody else:

I have MY own flat.- ITS without an apostrophe expresses possession:

This is my dog, ITS name is Jack.

poss. adjectives: my, your, his, her, its, our, your, theirposs. pronouns: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

- they refer back to the subject: I cut MYSELF.- in the plural ‘F’ turns into ‘V’ and we add –ES ourselves, yourselves, themselves

- some verbs are always followed by a reflexive pronoun, for eg. He prides HIMSELF on his collection.

- some verbs can but don’t have to be followed by a reflexive pronoun: I cut MYSELF. OR I cut my hand.- we can use a reflexive pronoun for emphasis: He HIMSELF cleaned the whole house.

- there are many idioms with reflexive pronouns, like: Help YOURSELF. (take as many/much as you want) Go by YOURSELF. (alone)

- in a sentence, a reflexive pronoun can be:a) a direct object- My brother has hurt HIMSELF.b) an indirect object- He soon found HIMSELF a new house.c) used after prepositions- She lives by HERSELF.

SOME / ANY , MUCH / MANY

- these are called QUANTIFIERS, they express quantity- SOME and ANY can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns:

some furniture / some books any milk / any ideas

- we use SOME and ANY when we are not interested in the exact quantity:There are some letters on the table.

- SOME is also used in the meaning ‘certain’:There are some people waiting for you.

- SOME is used in affirmative sentences, ANY in questions and negative sentences

- MANY is used with countable, MUCH with uncountable nounsMany houses / much love

- HOW MANY is used when we want to find out the number of people or things

- HOW MUCH is used when we want to find out the quantity of a substance or a liquid

LITTLE / A LITTLE , FEW / A FEW

-these are called QUANTIFIERS, they express quantity- HOW MUCH is used for the quantity of a substance or a liquid- it is used with uncountable nouns, and we can answer with LITTLE / A LITTLE- LITTLE means ‘ hardly any at all ’ He has little money so he is very poor.

- A LITTLE means ‘ a small quantity ‘ He has a little money so can manage.

- HOW MANY is used for a number of people or things- it is used with countable nouns, and we can answer with FEW / A FEW- FEW means ‘ hardly any at all ‘

She’s very lonely because she has so few friends.- A FEW means ‘ a small number ‘

She has a few friends so she isn’t lonely at all.

SUBJUNCTIVE ( EXPRESSING WISHES )

- for expressing wishes that haven’t come true in the present or might come true in the future, we use WISH + PAST SIMPLE: I wish I had a car.

- to talk about things which didn’t come true in the past, we use WISH + PAST PERFECT: He wishes he had worked harder.

- to talk about wishes for the future, we use WISH + WOULD: I wish it would rain soon.- when we use WISH + WOULD, we can also talk about people’s irritating habits I wish he wouldn’t snore.- to talk about our own irritating habits, we use COULD I wish I could eat less.- IF ONLY is used with the same verb forms like ‘wish’ and it expresses stronger feelings: If only I could see him now.

- IT’S TIME + PAST SIMPLE is used for present and future, for sth that should have been done before:

It’s (high) time you went home now.- I’D RATHER + PAST SIMPLE is used when we want sb to do sth for us now

or in the future; I’d rather you stayed with me.

- SUPPOSE has three meanings:a) sth may happen- Suppose someone sees us !b) sth is unlikely to happen- Suppose someone told you this lie !c) sth could have happened but didn’t- Suppose you had studied more.

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS VS INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVES

- interrogative adjectives are used with nouns:

WHICH bag is yours ? - interrogative pronouns are used alone:

WHICH of these was bought yesterday ?- WHAT is used for things but also for people when it is before a noun:

WHAT doctor did you see?- WHICH is used for things

- WHAT is used when there is a wide choice of possible answers: WHAT sport do you play ?

- WHICH is used for a limited number of possible answers: WHICH finger did you cut ?

- sometimes both are possible:WHICH / WHAT train did you take ?

- WHO / WHOSE are used for people- WHO can be a subject or an object of a sentence:

WHO rang you? WHO did you ring?

- WHOSE expresses possession- Can also be a subject or an object

USE OF MODAL VERBS TO EXPRESS DEDUCTION

- deduction is making conclusions based on evidence- sth can be:

a) a possibility ( based on a speculation )She may be at home.

b) certainty ( based on a fact )She is at home.

c) or we can use evidence to make a conclusion:The light is on, he MUST be at home.

- in the present we use MUST + INFINITIVE ( without ‘ to’ ) His car isn’t in the garage, he MUST BE at work.

- in the past we use MUST HAVE + PAST PARTICIPLE She went to bed early, she MUST HAVE BEEN really tired.

- in the negative form we use CAN’T

present: You CAN’T BE hungry, you have just eaten. past: He CAN’T HAVE SEEN me, I was really careful.

PARTICIPLE CLAUSES

- there are three participles: present VERB + ING

past VERB + ED for regular verbs or a different form for irregular verbs perfect HAVING + PAST PARTICIPLE

- participle clause contains a participle and it can express: 1)activities happening at the same time:SEEING him at the door she knew sth was wrong.2)one activity happening after another:On OPENING the letter she was shocked by the news.3)one activity finished before another one started:HAVING SPENT all the money she went home.4)it can have the meaning ‘ because’:BEING a mean person, he never buys presents.5)it can show result:It rained yesterday, completely RUINING our holiday.6)it can be used instead of IF;TAKEN regularly these pills can help.

- participle clauses can be introduced by: while, when , after, by, on, sinceAfter CRYING all day long, she finally fell asleep.

VERBS + GERUND

FORM OF THE GERUND: VERB + ING-it is also called a verbal noun-gerund can be the subject of the sentence: EATING out is expensive.

- it can be the object:My brother enjoys FISHING.

- some verbs are always followed by a gerund:a)verbs that express likes and dislikes 9enjoy, love, prefer…)b)verbs like: admit, consider, finish, prevent, risk…

- it can also be used after ADJECTIVE+PREPOSITION combinations:I’m BORED WITH DOING all the work in this house.( worried about, sorry for, good at, afraid of…)

VERBS + GERUND VS. VERBS + INFINITIVE

- some verbs can be followed by gerund or infinitive:a)with no change in meaning ( start, begin continue…) It started to rain / raining.b)with a slight change in meaning ( love, hate, prefer…)-verb + gerund for general statements I like drinking coffee.-verb + infinitive for specific information I like to drink coffee at noon.c)with a change in meaning (try, remember, forget, regret…)- They stopped to talk. ( stop one activity in order to do another) They stopped talking. ( stop doing sth)

- I regret to inform you that he had died.( I regret sth I am going to do)I regret marrying him !( I regret sth I have already done)

INFINITIVES; TYPES AND USAGE

Types of infinitives:1)bare infinitive (without ‘to’)- GO2)TO infinitive which can be present infinitive- TO GO / continuous form-TO BE GOING

perfect infinitive- TO HAVE GONE / continuous form-TO HAVE BEEN GOING- bare infinitive is used with:

-modal verbs- How dare you SAY that !-let and make- Let me GO !-would rather- I’d rather DO it myself.

- TO infinitive is always used with certain verb, like: agree, choose, decide, expect, hope, manage…- perfect infinitive is used:

-with past modals- He could HAVE BEEN very successful.-in the third conditional- If he had come, you would HAVE REALISED the truth.