Period 5

Essential Terms Projects

AP Language and Composition Essential Terms

I. Mode of Rhetoric:

A. Expository- writing with the purpose to inform, explain, describe or define the authors subject to the reader.

1. Classification- searching for common characteristics among various items and grouping them accordingly.

2. Cause and Effect- process that describes how and analyzes why something happens.

Expository cont.

3. Comparison/Contrast-pattern of development that focuses on similarities and differences.

4. Definition- explanation of a words meaning; pattern of development to explain something or someone.

5. Analysis- pattern of development where the author separates a piece of work.

B. Description

• Pattern of development that presents a word picture of a thing, person, situation, or events. It relies on the five senses- sight, hearing, taste, touch, and smell.

C. Narration

• Pattern of development that tells a story.

D. Persuasion/Argument

• A method a writer uses to move an audience to adopt a belief or follow a course of action. To persuade an audience, a writer relies on various appeals- to the emotions, to reason, or to ethics.– Persuasion is different from argumentation, which

appeals primarily to reason. • Argumentation examples- “Declaration of

Independence”

II. Genres

A. Allegory- A narrative that serves as an extended metaphor. Written in fables, parables, poems, stories and genres.• Allegory's often have a strong moral or lessen.

The main purpose of an allegory is to tell a story that has characters, a setting, as well as other types of symbols, that have both literal and figurative meanings.

• Example- “Young Goodman Brown”

B. Autobiography

• A biography of a person written by that person.– Example- “Into My Own” by Roger Kahn

C. Biography

• An account of a person’s life written, composed or produced by another.– Example- “A Beautiful Mind” by Sylvia

Nasar

D. Chronicle

• Factual written account of important or historical events in order of occurrence. – Example- “Into My Own” by Roger Kahn

E. Diary

• A book in which daily events and experiences are recorded. – Example- “Diary of Anne Frank”

F. Essay

• A short work of nonfiction writing on a single topic that usually expresses the author’s impressions or opinions. – Example of a typical essay prompt- According to

some people, elderly drivers should be required to reapply for their driving licenses because with age comes diminished vision, hearing, and reaction time. How do you feel about this issue? Explain what you think should be done and why.

G. Fiction/Non-Fiction

• Fiction; writing about imaginary events and people– Example- “The Hunger Games”

• Non-Fiction; prose writing based on facts such as biography. – Example- “The Yoga Directory”

H. Parody

• Imitation of style of a particular writer, artist, or genre with deliberate exaggeration for comic effect.

I. Prose• Written or

spoken language in its ordinary form, with out metrical structure.– Example-

Everything that is not poetry.

J. Satire• The use of humor, irony,

exaggeration, or ridicule to expose and criticize people’s stupidity or vices, particularly in context of contemporary politics and other topical issues. – Example- “Flatland” by Edwin

Abbott Abbott

K. Sermon

• A religious discourse, as a part of a church service.– Example- “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God”

by Jonathon Edwards

L. Stream of Consciousness

• Style of writing in which the thought and feeling of writer are recording as they occur– Example- Continuous writing.

Figures of Speech and Sound Devices

Analogy

• Definition: Similarity in some respect between things that are otherwise dissimilar. • “Awesome is to me as lame is to you.”

Apostrophe

• Definition: a direct address to an absent or dead person, idea, or quality.• “Twinkle, twinkle, little star,

How I wonder what you are.Up above the world so high,Like a diamond in the sky."

Conceit

• Definition: An elaborate parallel between two seemingly dissimilar objects or ideas• “Conceit that the entire universe has rolled

itself up into the person of the beloved.”

Cliché

• Definition: An expression that has been used so frequently that it has lost its expressed power.• “As old as the hills,” “Fit as a fiddle”

Epithet

• Definition: An adjective or phrase that describes a prominent feature of a thing• “You two-faced, two-timing satchel-butted

lazy lying twerp.”

Euphemism

• Definition: The use of decorous language to express vulgar or unpleasant events or actions.• “Passed away” instead of died• “Correctional facility” instead of jail• “Comfort woman” instead of prostitute

Hyperbole

• Definition: An excessive overstatement of conscious exaggeration of fact.• “I’m a billion percent done with you people.”

Imagery

• Definition: The formation of mental images, figures, or likeness of things, or of such images collectively. • "Languidly, and with no thought of going in, I

watched him, his hard little body, skinny and bare, saw him wince slightly as he pulled up around his vitals the small, soggy, icy garment. As he buckled the swollen belt, suddenly my groin felt the chill of death.”

Irony

• Definition: Use of words to convey a meaning opposite of its literal meaning.

Verbal Irony

• Definition: When a person says one things but means another.• “Romeo and Juliet is the greatest play I’ve

ever had the pleasure of being forced to read for class.”

Dramatic Irony

• Definition: Inherent in speeches or a situation of a drama and is understood by the audience but not grasped by the characters in the play.• “In Dracula, the reader knows that Dracula is

a vampire the whole time, but Johnathan Harker doesn’t pick up on it until later.”

Metaphor

• Definition: A figure of speech in which a term or phrase is applied to something to which it is utterly not applicable in order to suggest a resemblance.• “An emotional roller coaster”

Metonymy

• Definition: Substitution of one term or another that’s generally associated with it• “Suits” in place of businessmen

Oxymoron

• Definition: Association of two contrary terms.• “Military intelligence”• “Serious fun”• “Reasonable attorney fees”

Paradox

• Definition: Statement that seems absurd or even contradictory on its face, but expresses a deeper truth.• “All animals are equal, but some are more

equal than others.”

Personification

• Definition: Use of human characteristics to describe an animal or thing.• “I watch the wind bow down the grass.”

Pun

• Definition: The humorous use of a word or phrase so as to emphasize or suggest its different meanings or applications, or the use of words that are nearly alike in sound but different in meaning; a play on words.

Simile

• Definition: A figure of speech in which two unlike things are put into likeness by the use of the words “like” or “as”.• “Now I’m feeling so fly, like a G6.”• “Do you ever feel like a plastic bag?”

Synecdoche

• Definition: A figure of speech in which a part is used for the whole or the whole for a part, the special for the general or the general for the special. • “Referring to every soda ever as ‘coke’ instead

of by their brand name.”

Understatement

• Definition: The act or an instance of understating, or representing in a weak, over restrained way that is not borne by the facts.

It’s very obviously more than a scratch, because he hasn’t got his left arm anymore.

Alliteration:

• Definition: The commencement of two or more stressed syllables of a word group either with the same consonant sound or sound group.

Onomatopoeia

• Definition: The formation of a word by imitation of a sound made or associated with its referent.

Assonance

• Definition: Rhyme in which the same vowel sounds are used with different consonants in the stressed syllables of the rhyming words• “Fuzzy Wuzzy was a bear, Fuzzy Wuzzy had no

hair. Fuzzy Wuzzy wasn’t very fuzzy, was he?”

Diction

By: Vanessa Alvarez, Taylor Davis, Benjamin Jackson,

Elysia Neris

Connotation and Denotation

• Connotation is the underlying emotional meaning of a word or phrase.

• Connotation can be positive or negative.• Denotation is the exact dictionary definition

of a word.• For example: Slim and scrawny are two words

with similar denotation (thin), however, one would much rather be considered slim than scrawny.

Pedantic

• Pedantic- characterized by a narrow, often ostentatious concern for book learning and formal rules.

• In other words- stressing minor details• English teachers are often pedantic when

grading papers.

Simple

• Simple- Characterized by basic sentence structures with the purpose of conveying a simplistic voice for a lower-level audience.

• Examples of simple diction: I don’t like cats. Cats make me cry.

• Vs: Despite the fact that felines are lazy, foul-smelling balls of fur, cat-lovers possess an inhuman strength to look past these qualities and accept these aloof creatures.

Monosyllabic v. Polysyllabic

• Monosyllabic- Diction characterized by words with only one syllable

• Examples- Cat, mouse• Polysyllabic- Diction characterized by words

with multiple syllables• Examples- Feline, kitten, courteous,

melancholy

Euphonious v. Cacophonic

• Euphonious- pleasant in sound, or agreeable to the ear.

• Example: Poetry, writing with meter and rhyme

• Cacophonic- Having an unpleasant sound• Example: Some foreign languages; hard

consonants

Figurative vs. Literal

• Figurative- language that transcends literal meaning. Uses figures of speech to heighten and color the meaning.

• Literal- Language that means exactly what it appears to mean.

• Figurative: We’re going to kill them in this game! (Chances are, nobody is actually dying, it’s just a game.)

• Literal: The cat killed the mouse. (The mouse is dead. Cats don’t play games.)

Active

• Active- Indicates that the subject is acting or doing something.

• Example of active diction: The cat stalked its prey stealthily.

• The cat is performing an action; therefore, this is active diction.

Passive

• Passive- indicates that the subject of the sentence is being acted upon, rather than performing the action.

• Example of passive diction: The mouse was chased by the hungry cat.

• A stronger, active sentence would be: The hungry cat chased the mouse.

Overstated

• Overstated- To state in exaggerated terms• Example: “That UF v. FSU game was a blowout!”

(calm yourself, the Gators did not win by that much) • “Justin Bieber is the greatest male performer since

Elvis Presley!” (Funny. Even if you’re a fan, you can’t say that he is better than artists like Michael Jackson and Steven Tyler.)

Understated

• Understated- to express with restraint or lack of emphasis.

• Example: Nutella is alright. (In reality, it’s one of God’s greatest creations, “alright” doesn’t adequately describe it)

• Example: Noa Grooms is pretty smart. (He’s a genius, duh.)

Colloquial

• Colloquial- characteristic of or suited to spoken language or informal writing.

• Includes words such as y’all and gonna• Includes phrases such as “raining cats and

dogs” and “There’s more than one way to skin a cat.”

Formal

• Formal Diction- relating to or involving outward form of structure; elaborate, technical, or polysyllabic vocabulary and careful attention to the proprieties of grammar

• In other words: Language that is lofty, dignified, and impersonal

• Example: A textbook.

Non-standard

• Non-standard- varying in form; not adhering to convention

1. Slang- figures of speech in place of proper grammar, newly coined and rapidly changing.

-Examples: Bling, Oh snap2. Jargon- nonsensical or meaningless talk; the

language specific to a profession or group-Example: Medical terminology

ESSENTIAL TERMS – VI. OTHER LITERARY/RHETORICAL TERMS

Allusion

• A reference in literature to a familiar person, place, or thing

• The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne – References to the bible

http://thewritersideoflife.wordpress.com/2010/04/19/the-scarlet-letter/

Ambiguity

• 1) Doubtfulness or uncertainty as regards to interpretation

• 2)Something of doubtful meaning

• The Worn Path by Eudora Welty• How we feel about the Chapter 7 Patterns test

Anachronism

• Representation of someone as existing or something as happening in other than the chronological, proper, or historical order

• Julius Caesar by Shakespeare – Brutus: Peace! count the clock.Cassius: The clock has stricken three.Act II, scene i : lines 193 – 194

Aphorism

• A brief statement of a principle

• To Kill a Mockingbird - "You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view - until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.“

• Mr. Loudon - “Thou shall know thy definitions!”

Audience• An effective essay is always written with a

specific audience in mind. They are the people who will read or hear your work, and you base the information included in your essay off that.

Invective• An abusive, reproachful or venomous language used to

express blame or censure; also, a rude expression or discourse intended to offend or hurt.

“Why should Caesar get to stomp around like a giant, while the rest of us try not to get smushed under his big feet? What's so great about Caesar? Hm? Brutus is just as cute as Caesar. Brutus is just as smart as Caesar. People totally like Brutus just as much as they like Caesar. And when did it become okay for one person to be the boss of everybody, huh? Because that's not what Rome is about. We should totally just STAB Caesar!”- Gretchen, Mean Girls

Juxtaposition

• Placing two ideas (words or pictures) side by side so that their closeness creates a new, often ironic meaning.

• The rosebush in Scarlet Letter

Malapropism

• The substitution of an incorrect word for a word with a similar sound, especially with humorous results.

• Kiera’s puns • Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare - the

nurse says the word "confidence" when she really means conference, and "indite" instead of invite.

Sensory Detail

• Details that involve your five senses• Example: “The Scarlet Letter” by Nathaniel

Hawthorne

Shifts

• A change that takes place in the story that could involve time or tone

• Time shifts: shows events happening at different periods of time

-Example: “Indian Education” by Sherman Alexie• Tone shifts: mood changing as the story progresses -Example: “The Cask of Amontillado” by Edgar Allan Poe

Tone

• The author’s attitude toward the subject• Example: “My Mother Never Worked” by

Donna Smith-Yackel

Point of View• The perspective from which the story is told The Different Types of Views

• First person- the story is told by a single character from their perspective -Example: “Only Daughter” by Sandra Cisneros • Third person- 1) Omniscient: narrator can direct the reader’s attention to the inner thoughts of any of the characters and they can tell everything that is happening in the story -Example: “The Open Boat” by Stephen Crane 2) Limited omniscient: narrator reveals the thoughts of one central character -Example: “The Gift of the Magi” by O. Henry 3) Objective: no narrator is present and the character’s minds are not entered at all; the reader can only view the work externally as an observer -Example: “Thirty-Eight Who Saw Murder Didn’t Call the Police” by Martin Gansberg

Style• How the author uses words, phrases and

sentences to form his or her ideas. Style distinguishes one writer from another

• The House on Mango Street vs. Scarlet Letter

Theme

• Life statement that is being conveyed to the reader. It may be clear or unclear.

• Scarlet Letter – Don’t be a Puritan.

Thesis

• Specific subject + specific feeling or feature = focused statement

• Oedipus Rex by Sophocles – Fate cannot be avoided.

Voice

• Subject being acted upon or acting– Active – Subject of a verb is acting or doing

something– Passive – Subject of a verb is being acted upon

• Active – Mrs. Pearce made us do this project.• Passive – This project was irritating.

Argument/Persuasion

• Persuasion is a process aimed at changing a person's (or a group's) attitude or behavior toward some event, idea, object, or other person(s), by using written or spoken words to convey information, feelings, or reasoning, or a combination thereof.

Persuasion is used in advertisements, political speeches, telemarketing, an many more. Common Techniques include: Slogan Repetition Bandwagon Testimonial Emotional Appeal

Expert Opinion

Argument• An argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something, by giving reasons or evidence for accepting a particular conclusion.

In fact, making an argument—expressing a point of view on a subject and supporting it with evidence—is often the aim of academic writing.

Most arguments can be found in the thesis statements of literary works.

Appeal

• APPEALING TO AN AUDIENCE’S OPINIONS ALLOWS ONE TO GAIN THE AUDIENCE’S TRUST AND INTEREST, CREATING A STRONGER PLATFORM FOR AN ARGUMENT.Ethos

LogosPathos

EthosWriters use Ethos to develop their credibility.

Consider these questions when identifying ethos:

What are the writer’s

qualifications? How has the

writer connected

him/herself to the topic being

discussed?

Does the writer

demonstrate

respect for

multiple

viewpoints by

using sources in

the text?

Are sources credible? Are

sources documented

appropriately?

Does the writer use

a tone that is

suitable for the

audience/purpose?

Is the diction (word

choice)used

appropriate for the

audience/purpose?

Is the document

presented in a polished and professional

manner?Questions here and in next two slides from: http://www.iupui.edu/~uwc/pdf/Rhetorical%20Triangle.pdf

Logos• Logos is a logical appeal typically marked by facts,

figures, and data.

Logos can also be thought of as the text of the argument, as well as how well a writer has argued his/her point.

Think: Logos = “Logic”

Questions to consider

when identifying

Logos:Is the thesis

clear and specific?

Is the thesis supported by

strong reasons and credible evidence?

Is the argument logical and

arranged in a well-reasoned order?

Pathos

Appeal to the

audience’s emotions.

Ethos can also be thought of as the role

of the writer in theargument, and how

credible his/her argument is.

Questions to consider

when identifying

Pathos:

ARE VIVID EXAMPLES, DETAILS AND IMAGES USED TO ENGAGE THE READER’S EMOTIONS

AND IMAGINATION?

DOES THE WRITER APPEAL TO THE VALUES AND BELIEFS OF THE READER BY USING EXAMPLES READERS CAN RELATE TO OR

CARE ABOUT?

Claim• This is the main idea that

an argument is based on, usually seen in the form of the thesis statement.

Claims can be as simple as “Protons are positively charged and

electrons are negatively charged.”

Claims can also be as complex as “The end of the South African

system of apartheid was

inevitable.”

Once a claim is made, it must be followed by evidence that

supports it.

Warrant• A reason for making an

argument.• Used because it is important to

explain how and why the evidence supports the thesis.

• The warrant functions as a bridge between the data and the claim.

• Claim: Harry is a British subject.• Data: Harry was born in

Bermuda.• Warrant: Persons born in

Bermuda are British subjects.What? Harry is a

British subject.

Why?Harry was

born in Bermuda.

How? Persons born in Bermuda are British subjects.

Why?Harry was

born in Bermuda.

Deductive Reasoning

• A type of reasoning that draws specific conclusions from general ideas.

• The basic idea of deductive reasoning is that if something is true of a class of things in general, this truth applies to all members of that class. One of the keys for sound deductive reasoning, then, is to be able to properly identify members of the class, because incorrect categorizations will result in unsound conclusions.

3 Parts of Deductive Reasoning:Premise (statement)

EvidenceConclusion

Example:All men could die.

Billy is a man.Therefore, Billy could die.

Inductive Reasoning

• Induction supports a general conclusion by examining specific facts or cases.

General Conclusion

Induction comes from Latin for 'to induce' or 'to lead.'

Inductive logic follows a trail, picking up clues that lead to

the end of an argument.

Examples:

Say this: Not this:Look at how those people are behaving, they must be mad.

Those people are all mad.

All of your friends are good. You can be good too.

Be good.

Heating was XXX, lighting was YYY, parts were ZZZ, which adds up to NNN. Yet revenue was RRR. This means we must cut costs!

We need to cut costs, as our expenditure is greater than our revenue.

Table credit: http://changingminds.org/disciplines/argument/types_reasoning/induction.htm

EVIDENCE/DATA• Use of evidence is common in every day

scenarios.–When asking your parents to borrow

the car you may support your argument by reminding them of instances of your past trustworthiness.

• The available body of facts or information indicating whether a belief or proposition is true or valid.

• An effective argument must have claims that are backed up by evidence and data.

Every field has slightly different requirements for acceptable

evidence. Different audiences require different types of data

and verification. Although multiple types of evidence can be used, most effective arguments

only use a few strong styles.

LOGICAL FALLACIES

• Arguments frequently contain logical fallacies.

• Logical fallacies are fake or deceptive arguments that may sound reasonable or superficially true.

Types of Logical

Fallacies

Ad Homine

m

Begging the

Question

Doubtful Authority

Either-Or Reasonin

gFalse

Analogy

Hasty Generaliz

ation

Non-sequitur

Over-simplifica

tion

Ad Hominem

• Argumentum Ad Hominem: literally, "argument toward the man."

• Also called a “personal attack” or “poisoning the well”

•This is when one attempts to refute an argument by attacking the opposition’s personal character or reputation.•A corrupted negative argument from ethos.

EXAMPLE: “He’s so evil you can’t believe anything he says!”

This practice is fallacious because the personal character of an individual is logically irrelevant to the truthfulness of the argument itself.

Begging the Question• When writers assume as evidence

for their argument the very conclusion they are attempting to prove. Also, when one attempts to prove a point by rewording the same statement repeatedly.

Example: the statement “Women should not be permitted to join men's clubs because the clubs are for men only” does not explain why women should not be allowed to join men’s clubs.

The fallacy in which support for a standpoint is given by a well known or respected figure who is not well qualified in

the subject being discussed.

Example: “Olympic gold-medal pole-

vaulter Fulano de Tal uses Quick Flush

Internet-shouldn’t you?"

Doubtful Authority

Either-or Reasoning

• This fallacy occurs when a writer bases an argument on the idea that there are only two choices or possible outcomes to a situation when, in reality, there are several.

“Either we build a new school, or our children will never make it to college.”

“Either you drink our brand of soda, or you will have no friends or social life.”

EITHER

THISOR

THIS

FALSE ANALOGY

• The fallacy of comparing two unrelated things to another in order to draw a conclusion.EXAMPLE:

EmployeesAre like nails

Just like nails must be hit on the head to make them work

So must employees.

The analogy is only acceptable to the degree

a reader thinks that employees are similar to

nails.

Hasty Generalization

The fallacy of incorrectly applying one or two examples to all cases.

John’s new boss Joe is from Ohio. Joe is a complete jerk to John. John

concludes that everyone from Ohio is a jerk.

“Some college student was tailgating me all the

way up North Main Street last night. This proves that

all college students are lousy drivers, and we

should pull their driver’s licenses until they either grow up, learn to drive or

graduate!”

Non-sequitur

• The fallacy of offering reasons or conclusions that have no logical connection to the argument at hand

• Latin for “does not follow”• Can occur when a conclusion is

drawn by skipping a step in the argument.

Taxation is theft!

Oversimplification• The fallacy of deceiving an audience by giving

simple answers or slogans in response to complex questions, especially when appealing to less educated or unsophisticated audiences.

Sentence Structures

Basic Sentences

• Sentence with subject before verb– Verb can be followed by an adjective, adverb, or

noun– S-V: Jake poops.– S-V-Adj: Jake is lazy.– S-V-Adv: Jake is here!– S-V-Noun: Jake is my mom.

• Every sentence is formed from a subject- verb relationship such as these.

Interrupted Sentences• A sentence in which the author inserts his or her own

thoughts on the matter

• "Taylor, I'm really happy for you--I'll let you finish--but Beyonce had one of the best videos of all time!”

Interrupted Sentences continued

• Three ways to interrupt a sentence– Comma/Interjection• Jake, who really wants to be an astronaut, is going to

major in balloon making.

– Parentheses• Jake (the fat cow) likes to eat cucumbers.

– Em dash• Jake’s butterfly–beautiful and magical–flew away into

the sunset.

Inverted Sentences

• Sentence in which the predicate (verb) comes before the subject (noun).– Rarely has Jake eaten better food.

– Hardly ever does Jake wash his hair.

– “Never was seen so black a day as this.” (“Romeo and Juliet”)

Inverted Sentences Continued

• Yoda is the master of inverted sentences.– “Judge me by my size, do you?”

– “Lost a planet, Obi Wan has.”

– “Named must your fear be before banish it you can.”

– “Wars not make one great”

Listing

• When items are grouped together in a meaningful sequence.– Jake likes to stargaze, play Madden 2001, and

braid his Barbie doll’s hair.• A colon introduces a list– Jake went to the grocery store and bought several

items: coconuts, beetle juice, bell peppers, and a liter of Red Bull.

Enumeration

• An enumeration is a specific type of listing.• An ordered, numbered, listing:– First, Jake puts on his underwear, second, Jake

leaves his house, and third, Jake heads to Zumba class.

Cumulative/Loose

• Basic sentence followed by many details including phrases and clauses

• S-V-Modifiers/Details– Jake pretends to ride motorcycles in the barren

fields of Alaska, with the great grizzlies and fat lumberjacks.

– “Halfway between West Egg and New York City sprawls a desolate plain, a gray valley where New York’s ashes are dumped.” (“The Great Gatsby”)

Parallelism

• A balance within one or more sentences of similar phrases that have the same grammatical structure.– Balanced

– Antithesis

– Chiasmus

Parallelism (Balanced)

• A sentence consisting of two or more parts that are similar in structure and length.– “It was the best of times it was the worst of

times.” (“A Tale of Two Cities”)– “… -- that government of the people by the

people for the people, shall not perish from the earth.”

– Jake doesn’t like washing rabbits or doing drugs.

Parallelism (Antithesis)

• Opposition or direct contrast within a sentence• A counter proposition that is a direct contrast to

the original proposition.– “Give me liberty or give me death.” (Patrick Henry)– “We must learn to live together as brothers or perish

together as fools.” (Martin Luther King Jr.)– “Not that I loved Caesar less but that I loved Rome

more” (Brutus in “Julius Caesar”, William Shakespeare)

Antithesis Cont.

• Character foils can also be considered a form of antitheses

• Characters that compliment each other by contrast – Dumbledore and Voldemort – Romeo and Mercutio– Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde– Dimmesdale and Chillingworth

Chiasmus

• The figure of speech in which two or more clauses are related to each other through a reversal of structures in order to make a larger point; the clause displays inverted parallelism. The elements of chiasmus are often labeled in the form A-B-B-A where letters correspond to grammar, words, or meaning.

Chiasmus Cont.

• A – But many that are first B- Shall be last B- and the last A- Shall be first Matthew 19:30

• One should eat to live, not live to eat. –Cicero

• And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country. –John F. Kennedy

Sentence Types(Declarative)

• A sentence that ends in a period and makes a statement. – Jake won the Superbowl by himself.– “When in the Course of human events, it becomes

necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature’s God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to separation.” (“Declaration of Independence”)

Sentence Types (Imperative)

• A sentence that makes a command. • Use an implied subject.– Take the coffee.– (You) Take the coffee.

• Examples:– “You have been the veterans of creative suffering. Continue

to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. Go back to Mississippi, go back to Alabama, go back to South Carolina, go back to Georgia, go back to Louisiana, go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities…” (Martin Luther King Jr., “I Have a Dream”)

Imperative Sentences Cont.

• “You have been the veterans of creative suffering. (You) Continue to work with the faith that unearned suffering is redemptive. (You) Go back to Mississippi, (you) go back to Alabama, (you) go back to South Carolina, (you) go back to Georgia, (you)go back to Louisiana, (you) go back to the slums and ghettos of our northern cities…”

Sentence Types (Exclamatory)

• Sentences that communicate strong emotion or surprise.

• End in an exclamation point!– “I can’t believe it! Reading and writing actually

paid off!” (Homer Simpson)– Jake loves cats!– “We can dance if we want to!” (The Safety Dance,

Men Without Hats)

Sentence Types (Interrogative)

• Sentences ending in a question mark that ask a question. – “WHERE IS MY COFFEE?” (Mrs. Pearce)– “How did it get so late so soon?” (Dr. Seuss)– “O Romeo, Romeo, wherefore art thou Romeo?”

(“Romeo and Juliet”)– “If winning isn’t everything, why do they keep

score?” (Vince Lombardi)

Syntax/Sentence Structurecontinued….

Sentence Types

• The are several different types of sentences– Simple Sentence– Compound Sentence– Complex Sentence– Compound Complex Sentence

Simple Sentence

• A simple sentence consists of one independent clause.

Compound Sentence

• Sentence consisting of two independent clauses, joined using a conjunction, a semi-colon, or a colon.

Complex Sentence

• Sentence that includes an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses, joined using conjunctions or semi-colons.

Compound-Complex Sentence

• A sentence that includes two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses joined by conjunctions and/or semi-colons.

Omission

• Rhetorical devices used to achieve certain effects through the intended removal of certain words.– Ellipses– Asyndeton

Ellipsis

• The omission of two to three words that should be understood by the reader (they are implied), usually uses “…”

Asnydeton

• A rhetorical term for a style of writing that doesn’t use conjunctions.

Addition/Repetition for effect

• Anadiplosis• Anaphora• Epistrophe• Polysyndeton• Punctuation

Anadiplosis

• The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of one line or sentence at the beginning of the next.

Anaphora

• Rhetorical term for the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginnings of successive verses or sentences.

Epistrophe

• The repetition of a word or phrase at the end of successive verses or sentences.

Punctuation

• An important part or rhetoric, used to attain certain effects through the use of spaces, pauses, and interruptions. – Parenthetical Aside– Dashes– Colon– Semi-Colon

Parenthetical Aside

• Set off within or as if within parentheses; qualifying or explanatory.

• When there is a break in a sentence in a set or parentheses.

Dashes

• Occasionally used to set off and emphasis information within a sentence.

Colon

• Used to introduce lists, examples, and clarifications. Colons should always be preceded by a complete sentence.

Semi-Colon

• Separate certain elements of a sentence, but only to separate grammatically equivalent elements- for example, two closely related independent clauses.

Polysyndeton

• The repetition of conjunctions in a close succession for a rhetorical effect.