Overview: Making of Empire - University of Alberta 2012/lecture/sept 10... · The Taking of Constantinople and the Making of ... • Note: used Byzantine scribes (literate), ... Making

Part 1:Islam, Osman and the Early Ottomans (Sept. 10)

Part 2:The Taking of Constantinople and the Making of

Empire: Mehmet II (Sept. 12-14)

Part 3:Defining the State:Becoming, Being ‘Ottoman’ [15th

C.] (Sept. 17)

Part 4:Defining the State: ‘Suleiman the Magnificent’

(Sept. 19)

Overview: Making of Empire

Part 1:

Islam, Osmanand the

Early Ottomans

(Sept. 10)


“Great Events Demand Explanations – how can we explain world-shaking events like the rise of … the Ottomans?” [Quataert]

• Not an ‘event’, rather evolution• No single moment agreed upon as ‘birth of Ottomans’• No inevitable trajectory


Historical conjuncture linked to Byzantine empire:

• ‘eastern legacy’ former Roman Empire• Challenged commercially by Italians, Genoans• Attracted Crusaders with its wealth• Constantinople sacked, looted, plundered 1204


Also attraction for ‘Turcomen’ nomadic tribes from Central Asia:

• Focus on Anotolia ‘Frontier’• Rich agricultural land, pasture• Located between Mediterranean and Black Seas• Carrefour for commercial traffic (caravans)


Religions:

• Byzantines, including those in Anatolia: Orthodox Christian

• Mongols: (Central and Southern Asia) converting to (relatively) new religion of Islam by c.1200 – included grandson of Ghengis Khan



Ghazan, Mongol Prince, studying theQuran (left); his minted coins, showingIslamic (Arabic) decoration

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_in_Mongolia]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DiezAlbumsStudyingTheKoran.jpg

Turcomen nomads moving out of Central Asia:

• ‘shamanistic’: believed in priests or people with special powers, able to access non-human spirit world through altered states of consciousness

• Involved different ‘gods’ (polytheism), practices of sacrifice, drumming ceremonies

• Rooted in nature, totemism (attributing god-like power to particular animals, worshiping them)

• Suited to people who moved seasonally, sometimes over great distances



Shamanism of Khakas Turks: ritual of feeding the Ulugh Khurtuyakh Tas[Great Stone Mother of Mothers] (Askiz Region of Khakas Republic )

[http://passingelsewhere.tumblr.com/post/28222624144/shamanism-of-khakas-turks-ancient-idolatry-of]

http://weheartit.com/entry/33660004


Shaman’s Drum(early 20th Century):Cosmologicaldesign – note juxtaposition ofHumans, animals,nature

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tengrism]

As Turcomen/Turkmen nomads moved into Central Asia, came into contact with Islam, gradually began conversion

• Oghuz Turks among them• Under Seljuk dynasty, moved into Anatolia, established

‘fiefdoms’ (beyliks)• Intermixed, intermarried local Christians



[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transoxian]


Seljuk Dynasty, late 11th Century: incorporated Anatolia

[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Seljuk_Empire_locator_map.svg]

Islam:• Born in similar society of nomads – of the desert, rather

than of the steppe• Also polytheists, idolaters• Believed in mysticism, power of nature [gods elements

of nature]• Worshipped at the Kabba, Mecca annually• Society characterized by tribal warfare• Also by rise of commerce, urban centres – Mecca,

Medina



Mohammed and the Rise of Islam:Video: Islam-Empire of Faith. Pt 1 ‘The Awakening’

• New faith appealing to many:– Monotheism (‘there is but one God, Allah) might address

destructive, constant warfare between tribes– Concern for social welfare, plight of urban poor, women

prostitutes and abandonned wives, orphaned children, mistreated slaves

– Concept of ‘equality’ in the eyes of Allah– Mohammed ‘the Prophet’: charismatic, trusted


Important Concept:

• Wealth, power – ‘gifts’ from Allah• Those fortunate enough to be so recognized, had

responsibility to protect, assist the more vulnerable (slaves, poor, women)

• Corollary: the wealthy and the powerful were, according to Islam, favoured by Allah – therefore they should be respected and followed


New Faith attracted many followers:• Very success marked threat to those whose interests

threatened (wealthy merchants of Mecca, powerful local Bedouin Chiefs)

• Mohammed and followers forced to fight to protect integrity of new religion

• Withdrew to Medina (hijra), rallied army, successfully returned to Mecca: defeated enemies, Destroyed idols at Kabba


• Unlike ‘traditional’ warfare, did NOT loot, plunder and take slaves: incorporated those willing to follow

• Chiefs of surrounding tribes began to convert• Faith spread throughout region


Problem of Succession:• Following Mohammed’s death, no agreed upon

process of succession• Bedouin society: leader from important tribal family but

position would be contested – strongest, able to attract most followers would normally be successful

• Mohammed’s successor: from his immediate (blood) family?

• Or: from his tribe (one most able to attract support)?• Led to continued warfare• Ultimately, led to movement out of Arabian Peninsula



Expansion under Muhammad, 622–632/A.H. 1-11Expansion during the Rashidun Caliphate, 632–661/A.H. 11-40

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun_Empire

Islam evolves:

• [Map]: expansion into Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa produced competing states, regionalized forms of Islam

• This was ‘Islam of the Sword’: fought in context where power determined by tribal competition, warfare

• Warriors fought in name of Allah - ‘ghazzi’• Many equivalent of mercenaries but nevertheless,

successful conquering was in name of Islam


Movement into Central Asia:

• Intersected with Mongols, Turkomen and others• Turks are of interest here• [Quataert] notes that because of shamanism practised

by Turks, ‘Turco Islam’ unlike ‘Arab Islam’ [origins in Arabian peninsula]

• BUT tends to overlook (or underestimate importance of fact ) that ‘Arab Islam’ was itself born of society similar to Turkomen


Important concept:• ‘Islamization’ – means by which people, regions, states

‘become Muslim’ – is process• Even in its origins, Islam creation of ‘process’ – those

who ‘accepted’ new religion did so by understanding it through prism (framework) of their own religion

• Indeed, religion itself responded to needs of that society

• Important aspect of ability to ‘move’ into many different cultures, religions


Corollary:

• Attempts to restrict the fluidity, ability too ‘adapt’become problematic

• Will see this repeatedly in context of Ottoman Empire


Video excerpt: Islam – Empire of Faith Pt. III – ‘the Ottomans’


Significant points:• Among various Turkish beyliks (families) in Anatolia,

family of ‘Osman’ emerged more respected, more powerful than others

• Significance of ‘Osman’s Dream’: a myth, legend only written down in 15th century [see Additional Readings]

• Establishes ‘legitimacy’ of conquest and power in terms of alliance with Allah

• Also establishes ongoing ‘partnership’ between religion and warfare (between the ulamma and the ghazzi)


Expansion:• Initially, expansion limited to ‘west’ – eastern regions

now Islamic (Turks, Mongols)• ‘West’ was still (largely) Christian, wealthy• Taking of Bursa: watershed• Marked beginning of ‘sedentarization’ of nomadic

society• Note: used Byzantine scribes (literate), built on

Byzantine bureaucracy


• [narrator] speaks of new ‘Muslim Civilisation’ –deliberately associating it with ‘urban’, ‘literate’population

• Important: Ottomans [‘followers of Osman’] remain primarily traditional: nomadic, ghazzi BUT now developing new, sedentary lifestyle – urban, literate

• Question: where is religion centered? Who will speak for Islam – nomadic, rural mystics? Or urban, literate ulamma?

• Critical moment, critical questions


New Environment:• Surrounding beyliks (Muslim) remain potential rivals• Tradition would have them challenge for power on

death of Osman, his successors …or whenever they felt leadership was not in their interests

• New ‘Ottomans’ developed variety of relations with Christian neighbours: intermarriage, engaged as guides, shared religious ceremonies, celebrations


Also engaged as soldiers:• Sometimes determined by mutual interests, local level• As ‘state’ developed, became formalized• Devsherme system: recruitment of children from newly

conquered Balkans region [following on taking of Constantinople – see below]

• ‘system’ of taking (almost like taxation) young children from Christian families

• Schooled in Istanbul, become Muslim: enter various strata of Ottoman society


• All are ‘workers’ as stage in their training• Some then move into administration• Others move into warrior corps: Janissaries• For state, means of acquiring loyal ‘servants’ in

administration and army• For families of children taken into system, means of

assuring future for children• For society, means of allowing ‘movement’ between

classes, religions, regions: ultimately helped integrate new Christian conquest states


Janissaries:

• Turkish term yeniçeri means ‘new’ troops• Original ‘source’ from war captives soon supplemented

with ‘devshirme’ conscripts- Began under Murad I, late 14th c - response to warriors seeking autonomy in region of

Thrace - Fear of dependency on troops with local loyalties- tax levied on war ‘booty’ – 1/5th of slaves became

property of Sultan- Reportedly some 12,000 in 1473


- Highly trained, disciplined force, - First observed and admired by Europeans at conquest

of Constantinople [below]- called ‘the scourge of Europe’- During 14th-15th centuries: forced celibacy- Considered ‘elite’: class set apart



Impact:- Establishing of janissaries seen as ‘betrayal’ to

traditional powers- creating competition -- ultimately, replacement -- for

ghazi military power


Documents

Overview: Making of Empire - University of Alberta 2012/lecture/sept 10... · The Taking of Constantinople and the Making of ... • Note: used Byzantine scribes (literate), ... Making