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Reading Minds Mary ET Boyle, Ph.D. Department of Cognitive Science, UCSD

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Page 1: Osher-Theory of Mind - Division of Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/osher-lectures/osher-pdfs/06-OSHER...autistic brain grow quickly during the first two years of life but then

Reading Mindsg

Mary ET Boyle, Ph.D.Department of Cognitive Science, UCSD

Page 2: Osher-Theory of Mind - Division of Social Sciencespages.ucsd.edu/~mboyle/osher-lectures/osher-pdfs/06-OSHER...autistic brain grow quickly during the first two years of life but then

Complexity of Social CognitionComplexity of Social Cognition

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orrelaon across primate species between the size of their social group and the relative volume of neocortex

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unificationunification

MiAction perception

Action execution

MirrorNeuronsystemsystem

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i di id l bEach time an individual observes another individual performing an action, a 

f h d hset of neurons that encode that action is activated in the observer’s cortical motor system.

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Monkey see, Monkey doMonkey see, 

Monkey brain doMonkey doMonkey brain do

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Enables one to understand the  Understanding actions and intentions of 

gothers from the inside.

others. 

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Annual Reviews

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Annual Reviews

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Ventral premotor cortex(area F5)

‐ a monkey executes

Contains neurons a specific motor act

k bthat discharge when:

‐a monkey observesanother individual when:performing the same motor act.same motor act.

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The parieto‐frontal circuit containing mirror neurons: between area s F5. PFG  and AIP (the anterior intraparietal area )anterior intraparietal area.)

The parieto‐frontal circuit is under control of the frontal lobe (area F6 or pre‐supplementary motor area and the ventral prefrontal cortex (VPF)

Giacomo Rizzolatti and Corrado Sinigaglia, (2010) Nature Neuroscience Reviews

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There is convincing evidence that an actionThere is convincing evidence that an action observation–action execution mirror circuit also exists in humans. 

fMRI study: subjects either executed a grasp or observed afMRI study: subjects either executed a grasp or observed a video of grasping an object while having their brains scanned.Results: Same parieto‐premotor circuit is active in humans!  

This study is of great interest because the mirror mechanism of this area encodes body‐directed motor acts.  The function of mirror neurons is related to the motor properties of the area in which they are locatedwhich they are located.Rizzolatti & Sinigaglia (2010) Nature Neuroscience ReviewsGrézes, J (2003) Neuroimage 18, 928–937 (2003).

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The activity in area F5 (in monkeys) y ( y )related to the goal of the activity not of the specific motor action.

The implication: mirror neurons may encode theneurons may encode the goal of the motor acts of another individual!

Giacomo Rizzolatti and Corrado Sinigaglia, (2010) Nature Neuroscience Reviews

Downwards traces indicate that the hand closes, whereas upwards traces indicate that the hand opens. 

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Mouth Action:Mouth Action: Object related ‐ biting an apple

Mouth Action:Non‐object related ‐ chewing

This paper showed a marked difference between the activation during the observation of object‐related and non‐object‐related actions. 

Any time an object is the target of an action, the parietal lobe is strongly activated.

Bottom line:  

Buccino, G. et al. (2001) Action observation activates premotor and parietal areas in a somatotopic manner: an fMRI study

the same neural structures are active when the action is observed or executed!!

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Humans have a strong tendency toWhy imitate? Humans have a strong tendency to align their behavior with their fellows during social interactions.  (Lieberman 2007)

Why imitate?Perhaps it facilitates social interactions, increases connectedness and liking, gets g, gpeople closer to each other, and fosters mutual care.

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Good imitators should also be good atGood imitators should also be good at recognizing emotions in other people, which in turn may lead to greater empathy.y g p y

Recent data show that dysfunction of the mirror neuron system in humans might be a core deficit in autism.

Vs.Normal imitation activity ‐MNS Autistic imitation activity –

significantly lowered MNSDapretto, et al. Nature (2005)

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Imitation is the most widely used form of learning during development.

Marco Iacoboni and Mirella Dapretto (2006) Nature Neurosciene Reviews

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The higher the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule score the lower the activity in the MNS 

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Autism: Is the most severe childhood neuropsychiatric condition diagnosed today.neuropsychiatric condition diagnosed today.

• Speech and communication• Social functioning• imagination

abnormalities

• Repetitive • Restricted interestsbehaviors• Complex behavioral disability

• M:F ratio: 4:1• 0.6% population• appears during the first three years of lifepp g y

American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.), 

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Autistic Spectrum DisordersPervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD)

Childhood  PDD‐Not Autistic Disorder

Asperger'sDisorder

Disintegrative Disorder (CDD)

Rett'sDisorder

Otherwise Specified (PDD‐NOS)

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• Insistence on sameness; resistance to change 

• Difficulty in expressing needs; uses gestures or pointing instead of words 

• Repeating words or phrases in place of normal, responsive language 

• Laughing, crying, showing distress for reasons not apparent to others 

• Prefers to be alone; aloof manner 

• May not want to cuddle or be cuddled.

• Little or no eye contact.

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• Unresponsive to normal teaching methods 

• Sustained odd play 

S i bj t• Spins objects 

• Inappropriate attachments to objects.

• Apparent over‐sensitivity or under‐sensitivity to pain.

N l f f d• No real fears of danger

• Noticeable physical over‐activity or extreme under‐activityactivity.

• Uneven gross/fine motor skills.

• Not responsive to verbal cues; acts as if deaf although hearing tests in normal range.

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Language DevelopmentLanguage Development

Peculiar delayed  use of 

& deviant

sounds and

echolaliadeviant and 

wordswords

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Social DevelopmentSocial Development

Failure to develop social

Physical and emotional

develop social attachmentsiffi l i i

Lack of emotional distance from 

others

Difficulties in reacting to or 

i i

cooperative group playothers. recognizing 

other people’s f lifeelings.

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Intellectual DevelopmentIntellectual Development

Poor on b l

May verbal ability

yperform above

May be talented iny above 

average on talented in music or d25‐35% 

have IQ > 70memory or spatial tasks

drawinghave IQ > 70 p

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Diagnosing AutismDiagnosing Autism

New tests: 5 behaviors:b bbli (1 )Childhood Autism 

rating  scale • babbling (1 yr)• gesturing  (1 yr)• Single words (16 mo)(CARS)

Questionnaire

• Single words (16 mo)• Two‐word phrases (24 mo)• Any loss of social skill (any age)Questionnaire

Two year old i

Any loss of social skill (any age)

screening

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The savant is an individual with an islet of outstanding skill in one area, which can include calendar calculation, ,

musical or artistic competence, often in the 

presence of modest or evenpresence of modest or even low general intellectual 

ability.

C f b li iCommon reports of sensory abnormalities, which suggest heightened sensitivity to minute differences between stimuli be they in sounddifferences between stimuli, be they in sound, 

sight, taste or touch.

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term ‘autism’ is used to describe allindividuals on the autistic spectrumindividuals on the autistic spectrum

behavioral findings are based on high‐

anatomical studies of the brain in are based on high

functioning individuals

autism are based onlow‐functioning 

individuals

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• Leo Kanner (1943) 1st described • Hans Asperger (1944)1st described

• “Refrigerator mother”• GeneticExplanation: • Genetic• Environment

Explanation:

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The most consistent finding about the autistic brain to have emerged in recent years is that it is on average larger and heavier than the normal brain.

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Importantly, the increased i i t id t fsize is not evident from birth, but from ca. 2–4 years.  

A  reason for this increase could be a failure of the normal pruning process thatnormal pruning process that occurs several times during development after an initial wave of proliferation ofwave of proliferation of synapses.

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•Differential growth pattern:• The frontal cortex and temporal cortex of the autistic brain grow quickly during the first two years f lif b h h li l i i iof life but then show little or not increase in size 

during the next four years • The amygdala has an abnormal growth pattern:• The amygdala has an abnormal growth pattern:

• At 4 years of age – it is larger• At adulthood – it is normal size – BUT fewer  neurons

Growth pattern of lower order regions of the cerebral cortex – primary visual cortex and 

extrastriate cortex are relatively normal in the autistic brain.

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White matter problems tooWhite matter problems, too.

Volume of white Volume of whiteVolume of white matter containing 

h t

Volume of white matter 

short-range

axons wascontaining long‐

axons was increased

range axons lowerincreased lower.

Herbert , et al.  Annals of Neurology (2004)  and Courchesne, et. al. Neuron (2007)

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Theory of Mind deficit:A fault in one component of the psocial brain can lead to the inability to understand certain basic aspectsto understand certain basic aspects of communication.

mindblindness or 

t li i f ilmentalizing failure

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Children were shown that Sally had aChildren were shown that Sally had abasket and Ann a box.

Sally puts a marble in her basket and goes outside.

While she is outside, naughty AnnS ll ’ bl t h b k tmoves Sally’s marble to her own basket.

Sally then comes back in and wants toSally then comes back in and wants to play with her marble.

Children were asked, ‘where will Sally look f h bl ?’

Frith, U. “Mind Blindness  and the Brain in Autism”, Neuron, Vol. 32, 969–979

for her marble?’

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To a normally developing 4‐year‐old 

child, the answer is clear: Sally will look for her marble where she thinks it is and not

80% of children with autism, with a 

mental age she thinks it is and not where it really is now. Furthermore, the normally 

gequivalent to a 4 year‐old or above, failed to answer 

developing child can reason that Sally will look in her basket because this is where she put it and she does not 

this question correctly

know that it has been moved.

Baron‐Cohen, S., Leslie, A. & Frith, U. 1985Baron Cohen, S., Leslie, A. & Frith, U. 1985 Does the autistic child have a ‘theory of mind’? Cognition 21, 37–46.

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Individuals with autism do not activate the face area of the fusiform gyrus that is reliably activated by normal individuals 

bjwhen looking at faces as opposed to objects.

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Task A:Task A: Male  or Female?

T k BTask B:What is mental state?

Male                                                      Female

Results: High functioningHigh functioning autistic  and AS adults could not perform the task.They also showed less extensive activation in frontal regions and no activation in the

Male                                                      Female

activation in the amygdala.

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The slices containing the FG are highlighted in green and amygdala in red.

Right and left are reversed by radiological convention.

Because of DD’s expertise for individuating Digimon andhis deficit in individuatinghis deficit in individuating faces, there was hypoactivationof the FFA to familiar and 

f ili f ( dunfamiliar faces (comparedto objects) but Digimonelicited activity in the area of the FG that is normally yrecruited for faces.   The middle region of DD’s FG responded more toDigimon and masked DigimonDigimon and masked Digimonthan to familiar and unfamiliar faces and nonfaceobjects.

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Oxytocin isOxytocin is…

nine‐amino‐acid peptide 

synthesized in the hypothalamus

released into the bloodstream 

receptor binding sites in the limbic systemsystem

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Affliliative behaviors…

•Sexual behavior

•Mother infant• Mother‐infant• Adult‐adult pairing

•Separation distressp

• Feeding & Grooming• Feeding   & Grooming• Stress response

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Oxytocin knock‐out mice fail to recognize familiar conspecifics after repeated social exposures, despite normal olfactory and spatial learning abilities. 

Oxytocin treatment fully restores social recognition.   It was demonstrated that  oxytocin acts in the medial amygdala during the i iti l t f ilit t i l itiinitial exposure to facilitate social recognition.

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Intranasal oxytocin or placebo was administered to male university students playing “the trust game,” in which 

i i k d i i b f iparticipants make decisions about transferring money to an anonymous player; trusting the other player can lead to higher payoffs for both players because the money isto higher payoffs for both players because the money is tripled when transferred; but one runs the risk that the other player might violate one’s trust and not share his or p y g

her earnings.