Mary ET Boyle, Ph.D.Department of Cognitive Science

UCSD

Mental Performance

Neuronal circuits Molecular events

Neurotransmitters

Nootropic Drugs

Greek:Greek:noos – mind

tropein - toward

Memory

tropein toward

Smart DrugsMemory

Enhancing Drugs gDrugs

Enhancement time!Enhancement time!• Neurons and Glia• Nexus, Novelty, and Nutrition• Strong brain currencyg y

Thomas S Otis & Michael V SofroniewNature Neuroscience 11, 379 - 380 (2008)

SMARTENING UPBrain Enhancement Is Wrong, Right?By BENEDICT CAREYPublished: March 9 2008Published: March 9, 2008

Turbocharging the BrainGary StixScientific American, October 2009

Henry Greely Barbara SahakianPsychiatry

Stanford Law School

PsychiatryUniversity of Cambridge

Ronald C. KesslerJohn Harris Ronald C. KesslerDepartment of

Health Care Policy

John HarrisInstitute for Science, Ethics and Innovation

University of Harvard University

University of Manchester, Oxford

Michael GazzanigaSage Center for the

Study of MindPhilip CampbellN t P bli hiStudy of Mind

UCSBNature Publishing

Memories

Type Formation Disorder

Explicit memory

Implicitmemory

Stages of memory formation.

VisualCortexCortex

Association CortexCortex

Frontal Lobe

Alzheimer’s Disease

Cholinergic system.Acetylcholine is the

neurotransmitter.

presynaptic t i lterminal

Voltage-gated

Vesicles withneurotransmitter Na+

ions

Voltage-gatedCa++ channel

ions

Ca++

ions

postsynaptic receptors

spine

AcetylcholineAcetylcholine

Acetylcholinesterase

Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor(AChEI)

Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor(AChEI)

Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor(AChEI)

Acetylcholinesterase Inhibitor(AChEI)

Better cognitive performanceBetter cognitive performance

Donepezil(Aricept)

Rivastigmine(Exelon)AChEIs ( )

Galantamine(Nivalin, Razadyne, Reminyl)

Not too much data on healthy adults

Frontal Lobe

ADHDADHD

Dopamine

Reuptake transporter

Methylphenidatey p(Ritalin and Concerta)

x

Amphetamine(Adderall)

Amphetaminesp(Adderall)

Temporal Lobe

hippocampush ppocampus

Molecules in Long Term MemoryMolecules in Long Term MemoryPresynaptic

neuron

Postsynapticneuronneuron

NeuronNucleus

Synaptic vesicles

Presynapticneuron Glutamate

neurotransmitter

Postsynapticneuronneuron

Presynapticneuron

Postsynapticneuronneuron

Presynapticneuron

AMPAreceptor

NMDAreceptor

Postsynapticneuronneuron

Presynapticneuron

Postsynapticneuronneuron

Presynapticneuron

I fl f N +

Postsynapticneuron

Influx of Na+

into the neuron

neuron

Presynapticneuron

Postsynapticneuronneuron

Presynapticneuron

Postsynapticneuron

Influx of Ca++

into the neuron

neuron

Presynapticneuron

Signal

Postsynapticneuron

Signalcascade

neuronCyclic AMP

Presynapticneuron

Postsynapticneuronneuron

cAMP switches on CREB moleculesCREB molecules

Activated CREB

Presynapticneuron

Postsynapticneuronneuron

DNA

CREB acts on DNA to trigger synapse protein synthesis

Memory Enhancers…

Presynapticneuron

AMPAkinesAMPA

receptor

Postsynapticneuronneuron

Ethical IssuesUniversity campuses around the world, students are striking 

Ethical Issues

deals to buy and sell prescription drugs such as Adderalland Ritalin — not to get high, but to get higher grades, to provide an edge over their fellow students or to increase inprovide an edge over their fellow students or to increase in some measurable way their capacity for learning.

Prescription drugs are regulated as such not for their enhancing properties but primarily for considerations enhancing properties but primarily for considerations of safety and potential abuse.

Many of the medications used to treat psychiatric and neurological conditions also improve the performance of the healthy. 

It is too early to know whether any of these new drugs will It is too early to know whether any of these new drugs will be proven safe and effective, but if one is it will

surely be sought by healthy middle aged and elderly people contending with normal and accelerated

memory decline, as well as by people of all agespreparing for academic or licensure examinationspreparing for academic or licensure examinations.

h b h hA multitude of means of enhancing our brains through inventions such as written language, printing and the Internet.

We are all aware of the abilities to enhance our brains with adequate exercise, nutrition and sleep.

Should cognitive enhancers be viewed in the same general category aseducation goodsame general category as education, good health habits, and information technology?

The first concern is safety. Cognitive enhancements affect the most complex and important human organ, and the risk of unintended side effects is therefore both high and consequential.

The second concern is freedom, specifically The second concern is freedom, specifically freedom from coercion to enhance.

The third concern is fairness. Consider an examination that only a certain percentage y p gcan pass. It would seem unfair to allow some, but not all, students to use cognitive enhancements.