ObamaCare and Judicial Conservativism

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E c R. Cl is a professor at the George Mason University Shoo of Law.

Copyright 2011. Al l r ight s reserved. See www.Nat ionalAf fa i rs .com for more information.

Obamacare and the Limits of

Judicial Conservatism

Eric R. Claeys

Th Ptit Prtti rb r t o 2010, ofen called Oamacae, poses one o e gaves callengeso epulcan sel-govenmen snce e Cvl Wa. I esalses a vasaay o new enlemens, cos conols, and egulaons ove e ealseco a compses one-sx o e U.S. economy. And ases po-ound consuonal concens no only ecause o s see scope,u also ecause o e auoy clams o e edeal govenmen.

Wen Oamacae was enaced, opponens eleved ey ad only

one avenue o ecouse: campagn o ee yeas o oveun e law,and en make e 2012 elecon a eeendum on epeal. Ts sa-egy as ad a pomsng sa. Te 2010 mdem elecons swepno Congess many Repulcans wo ad campagned on eves-ng esden Oamas eal-cae agenda. In Januay 2011, e newRepulcan House pomply passed a epeal ll, and Oamacae e-mans que unpopula w e pulc.

Ye no one can say o sue a e legslave epeal saegy wllsucceed. One could adly lame Oamacaes opponens o seekng ooveun e law y oe, swfe, means. And n e pas sx mons,some o ese opponens ave come o eleve ey ave ound suc ameans: a su n edeal cou callengng e consuonaly o keypovsons o e law.

Aloug ee suc callenges ave oundeed, wo ave suc-ceeded n e edeal al-level cous. In Deceme 2010, Judge Heny

Hudson o e Easen Dsc o Vgna eld n Virginia v. Sebeisa a cucal povson o Oamacae e ndvdual mandae o
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pucase eal nsuance s unconsuonal. A e end o Januay,Judge Roge Vnson o e Noen Dsc o Floda wen ue, nForida v. United States Department of Heath and Hman Servies. Because

e ound e ndvdual mandae unconsuonal, Judge Vnson de-claed Oamacae unconsuonal n s eney.Tese ulngs ave emoldened Oamacaes opponens. Las yea,

wen columns Geoge Wll pleaded o engaged jusces wo wouldevew e laws consuonaly, adly anyone ook noce. Even a-e Judge Hudson ssued s ulng n e Virginia case, mos oes oOamacae connued o ocus on legslave epeal. I was only afe

Judge Vnson ssued s ulng n eForida case a ose seekng

epeal ecame opmsc aou e cous. A ew, lke Repulcan con-gessman Tom ce o Geoga, now speculae gddly a e cousae gong o lap us.

Aloug ce s moe opmsc an mos, s commens l-lusae ow a convenonal wsdom as sfed aou e lgaonsaegy. Accodng o a convenonal wsdom, once Oamacaeeaces e Supeme Cou, e ou elale leals Jusces SepenBeye, Sona Soomayo, Elena Kagan, and Ru Bade Gnsug wll

nd e ndvdual mandae consuonal. Te ou mos elaleconsevaves Jusces Samuel Alo, Anonn Scala, Claence Tomas,and Ce Jusce Jon Roes ae expeced o voe o declae e man-dae unconsuonal. I e convenonal wsdom s g, eeoe, enal ulng wll nge on Jusce Anony Kennedys voe.

Bu s convenonal wsdom s wong and adeng o couldpove gly counepoducve o Oamacaes opponens. I s wonglagely ecause assumes a e Roes Cous judcal consevavesae memes o a monolc loc. Bu n ac, consevave judges aeofen pulled n deen decons y wo compeng aacmens: oognalsm and o judcal esan. In consuonal cases a oucon quesons o edealsm, Jusce Tomas as geneally voed and ea-soned as a commed ognals. Jusces Scala and Alo, and Ce

Jusce Roes, oweve, ave ofen appealed o judcal esan o up-old acs o Congess a may e n enson w an ognals eadng

o e Consuon. One o moe o ese ee judcal consevaves maywell do e same w egad o Oamacae.Aloug one o e ndvdual-mandae callenges may succeed, o

couse, Oamacaes opponens mus consde seously e possly


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a ese agumens may no even muse ou voes n e SupemeCou. Tey mus avod aggng a e cous wll ns o eaen oecon and Aodale Cae Ac, les ey sow complacency

among memes o Congess and e vong pulc. Aove all, eymus keep e ocus on 2012 and e polcal and polcy goundgames. In e end, a legslave epeal sgned y a pesden wo sup-pos emans e sues way o undo Oamacae.

th M t t h titti

os o e lawsus callengng Oamacae ave ocused on Secon1501 o e saue, known colloqually as e ndvdual mandae o

nsuance mandae. Ts secon, wc goes no eec n 2014, wlleque nealy evey Amecan czen ee o manan eal-cae cov-eage o o pay an annual penaly sumed w s ax eun. In moscases, e penaly wll e aound $750, sujec o naon adjusmens.

Te nsuance mandae s asoluely necessay o e acecueo Oamacae; wou , all o e eoms e law envsons wllunavel and so wll e mecansm o payng o em. Oamacae

wll esc e aly o nsuance companes o consde eal sks

wen seng nsuance pemums. Snce coveage wll us cos ouglye same o people wo ae sck and people wo ae ealy, ealyAmecans wll ave lle eason o pucase nsuance unl ey gesck. Bu only e sck pucase coveage, nsuance companes wllno e ale o uld nancal eseves om ealy cusomes wo aeno lng clams n ode o nance coveage o e sck cusomes woae. In e asence o sk ang, e only way o ng ealy peopleno e sk pool s y compellng em o pacpae. Indeed, Secon1501 sel calls s compulson essenal o e opeaon o e law.

Bu does e Consuon eally allow e Uned Saes govenmeno compel people o uy nsuance? Te mos commonly ced auoyo e ndvdual mandae s e commece clause, locaed n AcleI, Secon 8, o e Consuon. Ts clause gves Congess powe oegulae Commece...among e seveal Saes. And a gan, nun, auozes Congess o egulae wo geneal elds o acvy. One

consss o e nsumenales o commece suc as e pone lnes,waeways, oas, als, and an cas y wc nesae ade s con-duced o spped. Te oe consss o e goods and sevces a aeaded nesae.


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Nee o ese caegoes coves e ndvdual mandae. Tepucase o nsuance s no an nsumenaly o ade, lke a oad-and cale. oeove, eal nsuance need no e and mos o s

no pucased acoss sae lnes. Because nsuance s egulaed y esaes, mos Amecans can pucase coveage only n e own saes.To e sue, sel-nsued companes (lke some lage copoaons adecly nsue e employees ae an pucasng ousde cove-age on e eal) can oe coveage acoss sae lnes. By and lage,oweve, ee s lle o no nesae trade n nsuance.

Longsandng Supeme Cou commece-clause docne, oweve,les Congess egulae a d caegoy o acves local acves a

susanally aec nesae commece. Tecncally, s powe owsno om e commece clause sel u om a sepaae consuonalpovson, e necessay and pope clause, also n Acle I, Secon8. Ta clause gves Congess supplemenal powe o make all Laws

wc sall e Necessay and ope o cayng no Execuon allo e oe powes a e Consuon explcly gans o e na-onal govenmen ncludng e egulaoy powe ganed n ecommece clause.

Te necessay and pope clause plays an mpoan ole n com-pleng Congesss powes unde e commece clause. Fo example, makes clea eyond any dou a Congess may esals penaleso admnsave scemes o enoce s egulaons, and a Congessmay egulae segmens o an nesae ansacon a say wn econnes o a sngle sae. Ye as also een ced o auoze manyoe edeal laws and nsuons n ccumsances n wc e con-necon o nesae commece s a less clea.

Fo example, n e s 40 yeas afe e Consuon was aed,Amecan saesmen deaed vgoously wee e necessay andpope clause auozed Congess o esals e Bank o e UnedSaes. Hamlonan Fedealss and en Wgs ook a naonals

vew, agung a suc a ank was necessay and pope o nancnggovenmen oowng and encouagng nesae ade. JeesonanRepulcans and en Jacksonan Democas agued a e ank was

nee sucenly necessay no pope n elaon o enumeaed ed-eal powes. (Te Fedealss and Wgs geneally won e agumenunl esden Jackson nsed e ank o o good y veong seauozaon n 1832.)


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In conempoay pacce and consuonal docne, e naonalsappoac as pevaled. Indeed, e necessay and pope clause s cedo jusy naonal laws and polces a moe expansve an any soug

y Hamlon o e Wgs. Dawng on a nume o Supeme Coupecedens, many judges and consuonal scolas oday ague a, Congess as a aonal ass (a s, a mnmally plausle eason)o concludng a a local acvy susanally aecs nesae ade,Congess may egulae a local acvy on e gound a dong so snecessay and pope o cayng no eec s powe o egulae ne-sae commece.

Congess eled on a undesandng wen enaced e ndvd-

ual mandae, as one can see y consulng e congessonal ndngs ae egnnng o Secon 1501. Tose ndngs ague a, wen nsu-ance companes cove eal-cae expenses, ey uy many goods andsevces a ow n nesae commece om eleconc medcalecod-keepng o pescpon dugs. I moe Amecans wee com-pelled o uy nsuance, e mandae would ncease nesae nsuancepucases o suc eal-cae poducs and sevces wle also makngnaonal nsuance companes moe nancally solven. Taken ogee,

ese consequences ae sad o aec nesae ade susanally, andeeoe o enale e mandae o mee e Supeme Cous sandadso consuonaly.

PrM rt Prt

I sould e noed a ese ndngs and legal asseons meely as-sume an expansve eadng o e elevan pecedens and apply aeadng o e Amecan eal-cae seco. Bu oug s eadng as

some suppo n Supeme Cou decsons, no Supeme Cou decsonreqires , and oe decsons povde easons o ndng e ndvdualmandae unconsuonal.

Te Supeme Cou exended e eecve eac o e commececlause ues n a sees o cases decded dung e New Deal ea.Consde, o nsance, e 1942 decson n United States v. Wrightwood

Dairy Company. In 1937, Congess ad passed e Agculual akeng

Ageemen Ac, wc amed o peven mlk om ecomng oo ex-pensve wen was oug and sold acoss sae lnes. Te seceay oagculue ed o enoce a egulaon ssued unde s acs auo-y agans e Wgwood Day Company, an Illnos mlk andle.


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Wgwood Day agued a e ac could no e appled o s wokecause oug and esold mlk poduced and aded only wnIllnos. In ejecng e companys agumen, e Cou deeed o

Congesss deemnaon a e makeng o nasae mlk wccompees w a spped nesae would end seously o eakdown pce egulaon o e lae. And ecause Congess planly aspowe o egulae e pce o mlk dsued oug e medum onesae commece, e Cou agued, e necessay and pope clausegave evey powe needed o make a egulaon eecve.

In e same peod, e Cou developed e aonal ass andsusanal eecs ess o clay wen edeal laws o admnsave

polces wee necessay and pope n elaon o nesae commece.Tese ess wee aculaed mos clealy n anoe 1942 case, Wikardv. Fibrn. Te Agculual Adjusmen Ac o 1938 deced e sece-ay o agculue o se poducon quoas n e ope o nceasngaveage cop pces. One ame, Roscoe Flun, planed and avesedmoe wea an e was allowed unde a edeal quoa. He alleged ae was no gong o sell any o e excess wea: He would only eed o s own cckens and lvesock. Bu e laws acecs conended

a enoug ames evaded e edeal quoas as Flun ad, wenose ndvdual volaons wee aggegaed, e consequences wouldundemne edeal poducon and pce ages and susanally a-ec commece.

Te Cou ageed. Snce Congess ad a aonal ass o elevngese asseons, e Cou deeed o Congess. Bu wa Congessad used a deeence o expand s jusdcon nappopaely? InWikard, e Cou answeed: [E]ecve esans on [e edealcommece powes] execse mus poceed om polcal, ae anjudcal, pocesses. In oe wods: I you don lke , complan oCongess, no us.

I one assumes a Congess as e powe o conol e pces andvolumes o nsuance and eal-cae goods and sevces a ae adednesae, Wrightwood Dairy and Wikardpovde some juscaon oCongess o mandae a czens uy nsuance. Te mandae can e

poayed as makng eecve e nesae conols Congess wans o se.Bu ee s a cucal deence eween ese cases and e ndvdualmandae e dsncon eween ndvdual acvy and nacvy.Even oug e Wgwood Day Company dd no uy mlk n an


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nesae ansacon, dd uy mlk. Roscoe Flun may no avesode wea e agued was eyond Congesss edeal jusdcon, u esll planed, gew, and used wea. Oamacaes ndvdual mandae,

on e oe and, apples nsuance egulaon o people wo avedone nong and wan o do nong o oan any nsuance aall. Fuemoe, e necessay and pope clause les Congess com-pel people o ene no commecal conacs agans e wll, sad o see wa lms ee ae o Congesss powe a all.

Oe, moe ecen pecedens make clea a an nepeaon oe commece and necessay and pope clauses canno e coec suggess a e Consuon does no lm Congesss powe n any

meanngul way. In e 1995 case United States v. Lopez, Alonso Lopez,a 12-gade suden, was aesed a a Texas g scool o cayng aconcealed .38-cale andgun and ulles. Fedeal auoes cagedm w volang e Gun-Fee Scool Zones Ac o 1990, wc made a edeal oense o possess a eam wn 1,000 ee o a scool.Lopez agued a e mee possesson o a gun ad no elevale ela-on o any sceme o nesae commecal egulaon. In esponse, egovenmen agued a someone soos anoe peson n o nea

a scool, e vcms njues geneae coss, and nsuance companesmus daw e unds o pay o em om naonwde nsuance pools.Te ou leal jusces en on e Renqus Cou oeed a smlaagumen: Gun possesson leads o gun volence, gun volence cllsclassoom leanng, poo n-class leanng undemnes e anng ouue wokes, and pooly aned wokes make ad poducs and po-

vde poo sevces. Ee way, e govenmen and e Cou dssenesagued, Congess ad a aonal ass o concludng a gun volencesusanally aecs nesae ade.

On eal o a ve-voe majoy (ncludng Jusces Tomas, Scala,and Kennedy), Ce Jusce Wllam Renqus eld a ese agu-mens wen oo a and a e Gun-Fee Scool Zones Ac exceedede scope o Congesss consuonal powes. I e Cou acceped egovenmens agumen, Renqus waned, would e ad pessed opos any acvy y an ndvdual a Congess s wou powe o egu-

lae. I e Cou acceped e dssenng jusces agumen, e waned,we would ave o ple neence upon neence n a manne a wouldd a o conve congessonal auoy unde e Commece Clauseo a geneal polce powe o e so eaned y e Saes. Renqus


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conceded a some o ou po cases ave aken long seps down aoad, gvng gea deeence o congessonal acon. Even so, nLopez,e majoy dew a lne:

[W]e declne ee o poceed any ue. To do so would equeus o conclude a e Consuons enumeaon o powesdoes no pesuppose someng no enumeaed . . . and a eeneve wll e a dsncon eween wa s uly naonal and

wa s uly local. . . .Ts we ae unwllng o do.

W s concen n mnd, e Cou dsngused s ulng nLopez

om Wikardand oe expansve cases on e gound a ose ealecases nvolved economc acvy n a way a e possesson o a gunn a scool zone does no.

Lopez sengens e callenge o e ndvdual mandae. Sncee mandae seems a consuonal pon o no eun, also ea-ens e pncple a e Consuons enumeaon o powes. . .pesuppose[s] someng no enumeaed. To e sue,Lopez does noeque a oldng agans e ndvdual mandae, o does no an-

nounce any explc dsncon eween acvy and nacvy. Bu sdsncon s que conssen w waLopez does say. I a majoyo e Roes Cou vews e ndvdual mandae as a pon o noeun, may easly ce a dsncon o poec e oade suc-ual pncple a Congess does no ave a powe o egulae waeve wans n e name o e geneal welae. Indeed, s s e coe oe agumen on wc Judges Hudson and Vnson eled o declae endvdual mandae unconsuonal.

t ii rtiM

Te convenonal wsdom now olds a Ce Jusce Roes andJusces Scala, Alo, and Tomas wll ew o e geneal logc o eLopez decson, and wll ollow Judges Hudson and Vnson n applynga logc o e ndvdual mandae. Ts s aken y many oseves oe e consevave appoac o e sujec. Bu s undesandng

makes sense only we assume a judges smply decde cases polcally.Unde s eoy, judges deemne ow conollng law and pecedenlm e dsceon, and en decde cases wn ose lms o po-moe e own polcy peeences.


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Bu s eoy s nave. Seous judges do no explcly am o ad-vance ee e pasan neess o e Repulcan o Democacpaes o e own deologcal vews aou e pos and cons o va-

ous polcy alenaves. Insead, judges conceve o judgng n elaono ougul accouns o adjudcaon and nepeaon. Consevavejudges and scolas ae called consevave ecause ey geneally ad-ee o a pacula accoun o judges pope nsuonal oles. Bu aaccoun s mulaceed, and deen judcal consevaves empaszedeen elemens o , wc can lead em o seveal deen ap-poaces o judgng. Tese appoaces ofen doveal w one anoe,u ecause ey do no doveal n evey case, consevave judges and

scolas somemes splne ove legal ssues wen e leal coune-pas do no.

To undesand conempoay judcal consevasm and samgues, s elpul o desce as a sees o eacons agans elvng Consuon appoac a was employed y e Waen andBuge Cous om e ealy 1950s o e 1980s. Te Waen and BugeCous anded down many landmak decsons declang new consu-onal gs elang o aoon, compulsoy scool negaon, paye

n scools, e pocedual gs o cmnal deendans, and e deapenaly. Accodng o s ccs, e lvng-Consuon appoac e-eced n ese decsons msakenly downgaded e ognal meanngo consuonal ex, eaed peceden oo casually, and encouagededeal cous o usup e legmae dsceon gven o polcal o-ces o make sensve polcy judgmens.

Tese ee ccsms algned and ovelapped as appled o eWaen and Buge Cous majo decsons. Ye ese ccsms dono convege n evey case. Tey dvege especally wen e ssues no a new g declaed y e Cou u an ac o Congess asans e Consuons sucue. In suc a case, sould a consevavejudge nvoke e judcays powe o poec e Consuons og-nal meanng o woy a suc powe oces m o second-guessCongesss polcal coces?

Ove e pas 25 yeas, judcal consevaves ave soed emselves

y ow ey ave appoaced ese quesons. In e deal om o oneappoac, ognalsm, a judge places ges poy on ollownge Consuons ognal pulc meanng. Jusce Tomas n pac-ula aspes o s appoac. In a 2008 lecue, e sad: [T]ee ae


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eally only wo ways o nepe e Consuon y o dscen ases we can wa e ames nended o make up. No mae owngenous, magnave o aully pu, unless nepeve meodolo-

ges ae ed o e ognal nen o e ames, ey ave no moeass n e Consuon an e laes ooall scoes. An ognalsdeves s undesandng o adjudcaon om s nepeaon o eConsuon. To decde wa knd o judge e sould e, e consulsAcle III o e Consuon and all e elevan socal and ne-peve maeals a elp explan ow Acle III expecs e judcalpowe o e execsed y e judges wo ae vesed w .

Te deal om o e second appoac, judcal esan, places

e ges poy on lmng e polcal dsceon o judges even wen dong so nvolves suodnang an ognals nepeaon.Jusce Scala gves judcal esan poy ove ognalsm moe ofenan mos Cou-waces ealze. He s, o couse, an ognals n manyespecs; s majoy opnon n e 2008 caseDistrit of Combia v. Heer(wc deemned a e Dscs sc lms on gun ownesp vo-laed e Second Amendmen) was e mos conscenous and oougaemp y a Supeme Cou majoy eve o sele a case y applyng e

ognal pulc meanng o a consuonal clause. Neveeless, n oecases, Scala as nepeed consuonal ex o avod avng o cooseeween ognal meanng and naow judcal dsceon and e aseven eused o enoce e ognal meanng o clauses e ecognzesas conollng. Fo example, n e 1989 case Mistretta v. United States,Scala conceded a e non-delegaon docne (wc olds a noanc o govenmen may delegae s explcly assgned consuonalpowes o anoe anc) s a undamenal elemen o ou consu-onal sysem. Neveeless, e also announced a e would no yo upold a docne, on e gound a s no an elemen eadlyenoceale y e cous.

Te Cous consevaves ae eeoe no a uned loc wen comes o assessng majo, conovesal legslaon y Congess.Aloug Jusce Tomas as no always appled ognalsm wpeec conssency, s opnons n cases nvolvng edealsm make

clea a e wll nd e ndvdual mandae o e unconsuonal. Byconas, no only Jusce Scala u also Jusce Alo and Ce JusceRoes ae occasonally swayed away om ognalsm y judcal-esan agumens. Suc agumens wll complcae eos o pesuade


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ose ee jusces o voe agans e ndvdual mandae. To see wy, s wo consdeng ow Jusce Tomas wll lkely analyze e n-dvdual mandae, and en examnng seveal concens a may gve

pause o adeens o judcal esan.th riiit ri ti

any consevaves wo ae no consuonal scolas assume a anognals analyss o e ndvdual mandae sould cene on e TenAmendmen, wc saes: Te powes no delegaed o e UnedSaes y e Consuon, no poed y o e Saes, ae e-seved o e Saes especvely, o o e people. Bu s s no e case.

Unde a oougly ognals nepeaon, e Ten Amendmensmply enoces a concluson e Consuon aleady makes clea: TeConsuon wolds om Congess e powes doesn explclygve o Congess.

Te Consuon lms Congesss powes mplcly, smply y vueo eng a wen documen. As Ce Jusce Renqus explaned n

Lopez, wen e Consuon spells ou a Congess and oe edealacos ave cean enumeaed powes, e documen pesuppose[s]

someng no enumeaed. And e s senence o e Consuonafe e peamle makes s pon explc: All legslave powes eenganed sall e vesed n a Congess o e Uned Saes, wc sall con-ss o a Senae and House o Repesenaves. I a powe s no eenganed, e Consuon doesn gan a all. In so, Congess passesa ll dealng w an ssue a e Consuon does no expessly gve legslave powe o addess suc as eal nsuance Congess sunconsuonally aogang powe o sel.

Only ee enumeaed powes could concevaly e oug o au-oze e ndvdual mandae (none n ac does so n accodance we ognal meanng o Acle I, Secon 8). Te s, e commececlause, canno supply suc auoy. To an ognals, ee ae eeundamenal polems w an appeal o e commece clause n scase: Fs, as noed aove, laws coveng n-sae nsuance pucasesdo no egulae Commece...among e seveal Saes. Second, a

mandae s no commece. And d, mposng a mandae doesno egulae. A e naons oundng, as Jusce Tomas osevedn a concung opnon n Lopez, commece conssed o sellng,uyng, and aeng, as well as anspong o ese puposes. To


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speak o uyng and sellng pesumes o a wllng uye and awllng selle. I an nsuance pucase s mandaed y e govenmen, eeoe does no consue uyng, sellng, o commece. And

consuonally, e govenmen would no e egulang commeceeween volunay paes compelled one pay o uy a sevceom anoe unde poes.

Te second possle auoy s e axng clause ound n AcleI, Secon 8, Clause 1 wc vess n Congess e owe o lay andcollec Taxes . . . o pay e Des and povde o e common Deenceand geneal Welae o e Uned Saes. In e Virginia case, Oama-admnsaon lawyes eamed e ndvdual mandae as a $750 ax

on evey peson wo does no pucase e mnmum level o coveagespeced n e legslaon. Judge Hudson, oweve, explaned convnc-ngly wy Secon 1501 dd no ceae a ax. Ta secon calls e $750levy a penaly no a ax. Ts usage s no an accden: Oe pov-sons o Oamacae mpose wa ae expessly laeled axes and epenaly language n Secon 1501 eplaced daf language a ad ea-le called e $750 levy a ax. In Secon 1501, Congess clealy nendedo apply no s powe o ax u s powe o egulae commece.

Te las possle auoy s e necessay and pope clause. AsWrightwood Dairys and Wikards oldngs llusae, s clause can eas-ly e used o oleae e Consuons delneaon o paallel edealand sae planes o jusdcon. To avod a possly, a seous og-nals would consue necessay and pope only o complemenand complee, no undemne, e edeal-sae sucue se o nmoe specc consuonal povsons lke e commece clause. Fonsance, Jusce Tomas dssened om e Cous decson n e 2005case Gonzaes v. Raih, n wc e Cou uled a, unde e com-mece and necessay and pope clauses, e edeal govenmen maycmnalze e poducon and use o majuana gown a ome even sae law pems . In s dssen, Tomas ead e em pope oauoze a law only caes an enumeaed powe no eec w ameans a s no poed y e es o e Consuon. Ta law,e sad, mus also e geneally conssen w e lee and sp o

e [C]onsuon.Accodng o a es, e ndvdual mandae s no consuonallypope. To llusae wy, consde agan e dsncon eween ne-sae and n-sae nsuance sales. Te commece clause allows Congess


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o egulae nesae nsuance sales, and o pe-emp sae laws egula-ng nsuance sales among e seveal saes. A e same me, oweve,y speccally assgnng o Congess e powe o egulae nesae

nsuance sales, a clause eseves o e saes jusdcon o egu-lae nsuance sales wn e own odes. Because e ndvdualmandae clams o egulae n-sae nsuance sales, asses local egu-laoy powes nconssen w e edeal-sae alance delneaed ye commece clause. Anyone wo ces e necessay and pope clauseo suppo e mandae s cng ndeemnae language n e leeo a consuonal acksop povson o undemne o e leeand e sp o a clea pmay povson.

In so, unde a pue ognals analyss, e ndvdual mandaeexceeds Congesss powes. Ta concluson ases one moe queson:Does e mandaes unconsuonaly mean a e ene law sunconsuonal? In e Virginia case, Judge Hudson concluded no.In eForida case, oweve, Judge Vnson concluded yes. Hee, JudgeVnson coecly appled a pncple called sevealy. Wen a coudeemnes a one o a ew povsons o a law ae unconsuonal, sould declae vod only e unconsuonal povsons unless ey

seem nexcaly newned w e es o e law. Judge Vnson wasg no o seve e ndvdual mandae om e es o Oamacae.Te ndvdual mandae does ceanly seem o oow Vnsonsmeapo e mos mpoan spng n a nely cafed wac wmoe an 450 peces. olcally, nsuance companes poaly wouldno ave acquesced n Oamacaes new sk-ang escons and cov-eage expansons ey ad no een assued a ey would e aleo nance e expansons w new coss-susdes om e ndvdualmandae. Admnsavely, e mandae s declaed nvald, s ex-emely dcul o magne ow Oamacaes new coveage expansons

wll e nanced. On a ass, s que lkely a Jusce Tomas,e Roes Cous mos oouggong ognals, wll ollow JudgeVnson and nd Oamacae unconsuonal n s eney.

ii r tr it th iii Mt

Bu s possle a Jusce Alo, Jusce Scala, o Ce Jusce Roesmay ecol om one o moe eaues o s agumen.To egn, ecall a judcal esan makes many judcal conseva-

ves wan o ollow peceden. Jusce Tomass appoac unseles a


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lo o peceden, and some o s consevave colleagues ave povedunwllng o do e same. Tomass vew o e commece clause wass desced y Ce Jusce Jon asall ack n e 1824 opnon

Gibbons v. Ogden. Bu wen a lgan ced Gibbons o deend saesgs n a 2005 oal agumen, Ce Jusce Roes elced laugeom e galley y ojecng: Well, e elaon eween e saesand e edeal govenmen as canged a lle snce Gons vesusOgden. Evdenly, Roes nends o espec New Deal pecedens one commece clause o a geae degee an Tomas.

O couse, as Judges Hudson and Vnson ave sown, ee s a wayo declae e ndvdual mandae unconsuonal wou volang

any conollng peceden. Neveeless, s a leas possle a Scala,Roes, o Alo may ead e New Deal pecedens moe oadly aney wee ead y e majoy n Lopez. any consevave Cou-

waces seem o ave ogoen a Jusce Scala voed noto ndunconsuonal e an-majuana edeal posecuon callenged n

Raih. In s concung opnon, Scala declaed a e was ollowngCou nepeaons o e necessay and pope clause n Wrightwood

Dairy and n oe cases gong ack as a as e 1830s.

Recall also a judcal esan makes many judcal consevavesexemely elucan o susue e judgmens o Congesss on ques-ons o polcy. Te Roes Cous consevaves splneed on sssue n e Cous mos ecen edealsm decson, e 2010 case UnitedStates v. Comstok. Te case pesened a callenge o a edeal law aallowed auoes o nsuonalze edeal nmaes afe e psonems ended, ose ome psones wee lkely o e sexual peda-os o clden. Ta callenge agued a e Consuon dd nogan Congess any enumeaed powe o lm any longe e ley oome nmaes wo ad aleady pad e des o socey. Accodngo Tomas n a dssen joned y Scala no consuonally enu-meaed powe pems Congess o deal w sexual pedaos, andCongess could no use e necessay and pope clause o oosapone. Ye Ce Jusce Roes joned a Cou opnon, and Alo woea sepaae concung opnon, deeng o Congesss saed polcy.

To e sue, Roes and Alo may no dee o Congess on e n-dvdual mandae. Oamacae asses on Congesss eal a powe oesan e ley o an exemely oad goup o Amecans, and eseAmecans ave no evealed any endency o endange e negos


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as e ex-nmaes ad n Comstok. Ye Oamacaes suppoes wllague a e eal-cae law addesses a naonal css lack o ac-cess o eal cae muc geae an e dange o sexual pedaon.

Jusce Tomas ad an answe o s agumen n Comstok: [T]eConsuon does no ves n Congess e auoy o poec soceyom evey ad [polem] a mg eall . Bu y deeng as eydd n Comstok, Roes and Alo compomsed e aly o ely onTomass answe wen ey consde a callenge o Oamacae.

Fnally, judcal esan movaes many judcal consevaves oavod ndeemnae nepeaons o consuonal clauses. As anexample, consde e 2004 case Tennessee v. Lane, egadng Secon 5

o e 14 Amendmen. Ta secon cones on Congess e powe oenoce e es o e 14 Amendmen y appopae legslaon, andnLane e Cou consdeed wee e Amecans w DsalesAc was an example o suc appopae legslaon. Supeme Coupeceden consues e em appopae o mply a conguence andpopoonaly es muc lke e lee and sp es Tomas ap-ples o deemne wa s pope unde Acle I, Secon 8. InLane, ave-voe majoy (conssng o e Cous leals and Jusce Sanda

Day OConno) agued a, unde s sandad, e Amecans wDsales Ac was a consuonally appopae meod o enoc-ng e 14 Amendmens gs guaanees. In a dssenng opnon,

Jusce Scala complaned a e conguence-and-popoonaly esceaed a sandng nvaon o judcal aaness and polcy-dvendecsonmakng. In s concung opnon n Gonzaez v. Raih, wenScala ollowed Wrightwood Dairys necessay-and-pope oldng, esuely dd so n lage pa o avod e judcal aaness e c-czed nLane. I s us a leas possle a Scala wll decde a

would e oo aay o e Cou o nss a e ems necessayand pope mply e dsncon eween acvy and nacvy cen-al o e callenges ased agans e ndvdual mandae.

To e sue, ee ae also easons o nk a Scala mg see endvdual mandae deenly. In e pas, e Cou as managed odsngus olealy well eween sae acon and sae nacon.

Fo example, n e 1989 caseDeShaney v. Winnebago Conty Departmentof Soia Servies, a moe sued a Wsconsn couny allegng a ssocal-sevce wokes negleced wanngs a e ae o e cld

would ause m. Te Cou eld a e 14 Amendmen dd no gve


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e a g o old e couny accounale o mee noneasance as, a alue o do moe o poec e son om an aggesso. In oelnes o necessay-and-pope-clause docne, Congess as een

aed om commandeeng a s, mandang sae oceso mplemen edeal polces as ey wee admnsave oces oe naonal govenmen. eaps Scala wll ecognze n Amecanczens e same eedom om edeal mandaes a exsng docnegves o saes.

All e same, n pevous necessay-and-pope-clause cases, Scalaas eused o dee o Congess only wen Congess as ed o com-mandee sae oces, o make saes lale o damage judgmens

n edeal cou, o (as nLopez and Comstok) o egulae ndvdualconduc w no elevale elaon o economc egulaon. Toseexcepons ae aly naow and clea-cu. A dsncon eween nd-

vdual acvy and nacvy may no e nealy so clea o easy o keepwn manageale lms. I s eeoe possle a Scala o Alo,o Roes may euse o consue pope o se o a judcallyenoceale dsncon n Oamacae lgaon. And Scala, Alo,and Roes ae no sue es o vod Oamacae, en e lkelood

a e law wll e declaed unconsuonal mus e lowe an 50-50.

th t r brh

Opponens o Oamacae may ojec: eaps memes o Congessand e pesden ae no leaned enoug n e law and ae oo pasano ollow e Consuon, u judges can and sould e expeced odo ee. Ts ojecon s undesandale. Legally, Acle VI o eConsuon esalses s Consuon no any judges pesonalopnons aou e advanages o judcal passvy as e supemeLaw o e Land. Neveeless, paccally, s ojecon als o con-sde wo sgncan lmaons on adjudcaon.

Fs, s ojecon s no sympaec enoug o ow dcul s o a judge o sf e decon o case law as undamenal as eCous commece-clause juspudence. Wen e New Deal Coudecded Wrightwood Dairy, Wikard, and smla cases, legslaos and

Supeme Cou jusces wee exemely enusasc aou cenal-zed naonal admnsaon. Te aen oecon and AodaleCae Ac exends a same enusasm o eal cae. Wen JusceKennedy as seen o agee w e Renqus and Roes Cous


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consevaves, e esulng Cou majoes ave ound ways o lme New Deal cases and gadually undemne e case laws naon-alsc polcy oenaon.Lopez conms as muc. Neveeless, s

case-y-case meod s unsasyng. Lopez lmed Wrightwood Dairyand Wikardy appealng o a acual dsncon eween economcand non-economc acves wen e eal deence eween edecsons wen o s pncples. Ye jusces always decded casessolely n elaon o s pncples, e Cous case law would e evenmoe unsale and polczed an s now.

By conas, sae and edeal legslaos ae muc ee o ake newlaws enaced unde e auoy o e commece clause n a deen

decon. W 70 yeas ndsg, legslaos may consde weecenalzed New Deal pogams ave elped o amed Amecan eco-nomc le and en coose no o ollow old docnes ecause ocanged ccumsances. Deen Congesses may esals deenconsucons o e same consuonal clause a deen mes, o ndeen elds o egulaon. In judcal decson-makng, suc nconss-ences ae emaassng; n polcs, ey ae ease o undesand andexcuse. And ecause legslaos do no smply answe o Supeme Cou

peceden (as Judges Vnson and Hudson do), lawmakes eman mucee an mos judges eleve emselves o e o econsde old pec-edens om s pncples. esden Jackson poned s ou wen e

veoed e eauozaon o e Bank o e Uned Saes n 1832. Evenoug e Supeme Cou ad ound e ank consuonally neces-say and pope n e 1819 decson MCoh v. Maryand, Jacksondeclaed e would gve e Cous opnon only suc nuence as eoce o [e Cous] easonng may deseve and decded o consuenecessay and pope moe scly.

Second, e ule o law we expec om cous s only as ous as edeemnaon o e eleced ances o enoce wc s o say,only as ous as e czenys nssence a eleced ocals espece ule o law. Fedeals No. 78 sands as one o e eales and mosaculae deenses o consuonal judcal evew. Ye also ecog-nzes a, o e ances o govenmen, e judcay wll always e

e leas dangeous o e polcal gs o e Consuon. Afe all,

Te Execuve no only dspenses e onos, u olds e swodo e communy. Te legslaue no only commands e puse,


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u pesces e ules y wc e dues and gs o eveyczen ae o e egulaed. Te judcay, on e conay, as nonuence ove ee e swod o e puse; no decon ee

o e seng o o e weal o e socey; and can ake noacve esoluon waeve. I may uly e sad o ave neer no i , u meely judgmen; and mus ulmaely de-pend upon e ad o e execuve am even o e ecacy os judgmens.

Ts powelessness maes vey muc n elaon o Oamacae.Wrightwood Dairy and Wikardae leadng pecedens on e commece

clause n lage pa ecause, n 1936, esden Fankln Roosevel wona mandae 61% o e popula voe y unnng agans a SupemeCou a ad declaed nvald e Naonal Indusal Recovey Ac, anda leas ee oe acs o e s wave o e New Deal, on e eoya ey exceeded e scope o e commece clause. any eleced pol-cans and nees goups ave oo muc a sake o acquesce eSupeme Cou wee o esuscae pe-1937 consuonal edealsm.

To e sue, as Judge Hudsons and Judge Vnsons opnons sowed,

judges need no assaul e New Deal onally o nd e ndvdualmandae unconsuonal. And polcally, ecause Oamacae s al-mos as unpopula now as pe-1937 consuonal edealsm was n 1936,a ulng vodng e ndvdual mandae would un w e gan opopula opnon, no agans .

All e same, consevaves on e Supeme Cou may woy aoupoecng e Cous polcal capal long afe e pulc as ogo-en aou Oamacae. Wen Jusce Scala especs peceden, dees oCongess, o eans om consung ndeemnae ex, e does soa leas n pa o peseve e Cous sandng n elaon o Congessand e pesden. InLane, e ound ll advsed o e Cou oadop o adee o consuonal ules a ng us no consanconc w a coequal anc o Govenmen. In e 1995 case Patv. Spendthri Farm, e ndcaed a e pees g walls and cleadsncons n sucual consuonal law ecause low walls and

vague dsncons wll no e judcally deensle n e ea o ne-anc conc. Dependng on ow e eads e elevan pecedensand e em pope, Scala (o Alo, o Roes) may decde ae eoy ollowed y Judges Hudson and Vnson yelds walls oo low


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and dsncons oo vague. Even a ulng agans e mandae ddno povoke a css o a polcal acklas om Oamacae suppoesn e so em, ese consevaves mg woy aou s eecs on

nedepamenal elaons ove e long em.Opponens o Oamacae may dslke s possly, u would euneasonale o em o lame any judge wo sows judcal esann elaon o Oamacae. Afe all, even esaned consevaves ave aa geae nees n consevng e Consuon an do e legslaosand e pesden wo enaced Oamacae. Te mos consucve ngopponens o Oamacae can do s o pesuade e Amecan people oelec moe pulc ocals wo wan o conseve e Consuon, oo.

titti Piti

Ts s no o say a was counepoducve o ng Virginia,Forida,and oe legal callenges o e ndvdual mandae. Aloug esecases ae no que oss-ups, Oamacaes opponens do ave a vey ealcance o pevalng.

A leas as mpoan, e lawsus ave een mmeasualy elp-ul n advancng e polcal eos o ose seekng o epeal e

law. Oamacae does no ye seem a seled mae o e Amecanpeople. Judges Hudson and Vnson ave elped o keep peceponsunseled, o ey ave aug e couny a e ndvdual man-dae expands e naonal govenmens powe ue an any elevanSupeme Cou peceden allows. And ey ave umled some oOamacaes mos aden suppoes. Back n 2009, wen a epoeasked en-House speake Nancy elos wee Oamacae was au-ozed y e Consuon, e dsmssve esponse was: Ae youseous? Bu one yea afe e laws enacmen, ome congessmanAnony Wene a New Yok Democa and one o e laws ggescampons conceded: I nk ees a pey good cance a eSupeme Cou wll ske down e mandae.

Gven ese eales o e encouagng and esoeng wee sould campons o epeal go om ee? Fou keypncples can seve as useul gudes.

Fs, ee sould e no aonal exueance aou e Virginia andForida decsons. Wle consuonal callenges ae pendng n e ed-eal cous, would e a msake o anyone o oas a e SupemeCou wll lap Congess and vod Oamacae. Rae, opponens o


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e law especally ose n Congess sould acknowledge caeullya no one knows o sue ow e Cou wll ule. Tey sould enpoceed o nsuc and emnd e pulc a e ndvdual mandae

exceeds any edeal auoy ganed y e Cou o dae.Second, Oamacae opponens sould no despa e SupemeCou voes no o declae e ndvdual mandae unconsuonal.As Claemon cKenna College polcal scens Cales Kesle asnoed, e Amecan people and (especally) sae and edeal legsla-os ave acqued e ad a o eexvely deeng o e Couon quesons o consuonaly. We would e muc ee o we

wee n e a o especng Cou opnons as esden Jackson

suggesed, y gvng em only suc nuence as e oce o eeasonng may deseve.

Teeoe, d, opponens o Oamacae mus ancpae wa osay e Supeme Cou voes no o declae e ndvdual mandaeunconsuonal. In a suaon, Oamacaes suppoes wll almosceanly y o ake advanage o e ad as Kesle as desced.Bu opposng legslaos and canddaes undesand judcal esanas explaned ee, wll e easy o em o espond. any o e mos

elevan Cou cases explcly encouage legslaos o ake ownesp oe consuonal ssues n queson. Wikard v. Fibrn, as noed aove,saes a eecve esans on [e commece clauses] execse muspoceed om polcal ae an judcal pocesses. I e SupemeCou ollows ose decsons, lawmakes wo oppose Oamacaesould ce em as well and explan a e Cou as placed alle moe esponsly on e eleced ances o ensue a e laws conssen w e Consuon. Tey sould welcome a deae n

wc ey and Oamacaes suppoes make e es consuonalcases o e Amecan people and en le e people decde a enex elecon.

Fnally, legslaos and canddaes wll need o ague agansOamacaes consuonaly lae, ey mg as well sa now.And ee, ey sould consul e opnons o Jusce Tomas. In eRepulcan esponse o esden Oamas 2011 Sae o e Unon

addess, Congessman aul Ryan sad: Lmed govenmen alsomeans eecve govenmen. Wen govenmen akes on oo manyasks, usually doesn do any o em vey well. As nepeed y

Jusce Tomas, e commece clause emodes e same vson o


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a lean and eecve edeal govenmen. In Tomass opnon, eConsuon oces Congess o ocus on seng geneal and unomules o nesae ade. By woldng om Congess e powe o

egulae n-sae ansacons suc as, say, nsuance pucases oe povson o medcal cae e Consuon poecs Congessom eng ovewelmed y e esponsles o egulang all nsu-ance and eal cae povded naonwde. I also ees Congess ome knds o polcal pessues a led o e sde deals employed oound up enoug voes o Oamacae lke e Lousana ucaseand e Conuske Kckack o a ave led o e selecve

waves e edeal govenmen as een ganng n admnseng

Oamacae snce ook eec.In yng o pesuade e couny o elec a coalon deemned

o epeal Oamacae, e laws opponens sould ask: How canOamacae clam o egulae nesae commece wen e acmandaes a czens pucase a sevce ey do no wan o uy? Howcan Oamacae clam o e pope unde e necessay and popeclause wen loas and conspaes e naonal govenmen? Andow s pope o dve egulaon o eal cae and nsuance om

e sae and local govenmens a ae moe accounale and espon-sve o e Amecan people?

Wen Oamacaes opponens ecome adep a askng quesons lkeese, ey wll make e case o epealng e law even moe com-pellng an s now. I e Amecan people agee n Noveme 2012,ey wll ave aken e geaes sep n ou lemes o e-awaken andsengen ou consuonal culue. And ey wll no ave needed aSupeme Cou opnon o do .

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