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Motivation
Dr. Len Elovitz
Chapter 11 in Owens & Valesky
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 20072
The Meaning and Patterns of Motivation
Motivation deals with the explanation of why people do the things they do.
The motivational patterns are evident in human behavior: Direction of decisions
Choices that individuals make when confronted with an array of alternatives
Persistence With which one pursues the chosen course
Intensity With which one tends to doing something
Motivation at Work
3
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 20074
The Extrinsic-Intrinsic Debate There are two major approaches to motivation:
Extrinsic views (behaviorist approach)—people are motivated by external rewards and punishments; this is also called the carrot and stick approach.
Intrinsic views (cognitive or humanist approach)—people are motivated by internal capacities, such as aspirations, perceptions, attitudes, or thoughts that can be motivating or demotivating.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 20075
Individual and Group Motivation When individuals act in an organization, they act as
members of a group. Groups are dynamic social systems that establish
interdependent relationships between and among people.
These dynamics give rise to basic assumptions and values that are the essence of group climate and culture.
Group norms have the power to motivate or demotivate people.
Mob Rule --- Unions?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 20076
The Western Electric Studies Revisited These studies are also called the Hawthorne
Studies (from the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric).
The term Hawthorne effect comes from these studies.
Hawthorne effect is defined as a direct relationship between behavior and psychological phenomena caused by unusual conditions in which people may be placed.
The Relay Inspection Group Studies The experimental group was consulted on changes in
the work environment. Output rose even though working conditions returned
to earlier circumstances. Findings included:
The workers were involved in the new form of supervision in which their opinions mattered.
The group had been transformed by this experience and developed a distinctive esprit.
They were empowered through participative decision making.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 20077
Impact of the Studies Many misread the results of these studies when
applying them to organizations. The Hawthorne effect does not simply mean that if you pay attention to someone and change conditions, their motivation will improve.
The Hawthorne experiments resulted in motivated employees through participative leadership in which people were part of a team that made important decisions for the organization.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 20078
Individual Differences Leaders must understand and accept diversity
between and among people in a non-judgmental way. This means that leaders create environments that: Foster and enhance growth and development of
participants in terms of their own perceptions, needs, aspirations, etc.
Accept the fact that not only do individuals differ, but that this diversity can be a source of great strength to the organization.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 20079
David McClelland (1961, 1965, 1985)
Achievement motivation theory The need to accomplish hard tasks, to overcome difficulties
and obstructions and to excel High nAch
Strong desire to assume personal responsibility Set moderately difficult goals Have a strong desire for performance feedback
Feels that achievement motivation is learned at an early age strongly influenced by parents
Others believe it is developed later Application to teacher? Students?
Cognitive Views of Motivation (continued) David McClelland (The Achieving Society) took these
ideas a step further indicating that high n Ach people contribute to economic growth.
He believed high n Ach can be taught in home and school through attitudes, skills, and habits.
People varied in their need to be successful
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200711
Cognitive Views of Motivation John Atkinson views motivation as driven by two
characteristics: The desire to achieve success (n Achievement or n Ach). The desire to avoid failure.
In some circumstances, low n Ach individuals may become highly competitive, i.e., those who seek to avoid failure can be highly motivated.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200712
Cognitive Views of Motivation (continued)
Matina Horner’s work (1968) demonstrated that women were different than men in motivation, and she added a third form of motivation: fear of success.
She believed this to be based on fear of losing the social/cultural norm of femininity.
This is not just a female issue, as men are also motivated by fear of success, e.g., bright students may not want to appear to be successful by being singled out as a high achiever.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200713
Abraham Maslow (1970) Clinical Psychologist not a researcher Hierarchy of Needs:
Basic Physiological Needs: food, water, shelter. Security and Safety: physical and financial. Social Affiliation: love, belonging, acceptance. Esteem: self-respect, dignity and recognition. Self-actualization: self-fulfillment.
Prepotency: one cannot be motivated by a higher need until the lower needs are met. Higher-level needs become activated as lower-level needs become satisfied.
This does not mean that one level of need has to be totally satisfied before higher level needs emerge
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200714
Structure and Authority
Maslow Deficiency Needs –
The first 4 Until met, people find it difficult to respond to
higher order needs Growth Needs
Are never met They Expand
Maslow How can the hierarchy be applied to Teachers What about students? What does the research say
Mixed results, not many studies Trusty & Sergiovanni (1966) –
Largest deficiency for educators – esteem and self-actualization
Teachers have more esteem needs deficiencies than administrators
Chilsom (1980) – Teachers have more need deficiencies in all 5 areas
Application to Work Motivation Lyman Porter adapted Maslow’s theory to the
workplace. He added Autonomy, or the need for
individuals to be involved in making decisions that affect him or her.
Porter and others were interested in how individuals in jobs experienced either: Need satisfaction. Need deficiency.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200718
Porter’s Model
Application to Work Motivation (continued)
Thomas Sergiovanni led studies that found teachers, as a group, had satisfied lower-order needs. They were ready to respond to higher-order needs.
Younger teachers were most concerned with esteem. Older teachers’ levels of aspiration dropped since they
become resigned to things as they are. Application of these finding would indicate that job
security, salary, or benefits have little likelihood of motivating teachers, but fulfilling higher-order needs would be motivating.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200720
Needs and Worker Satisfaction
HerzbergHerzberg found five factors in particular that were strong determiners of job satisfaction: achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, and advancement. These motivators (satisfiers) were associated with long-term positive effects in job performance while the hygiene factors (dissatisfiers) consistently produced only short-term changes in job attitudes and performance, which quickly fell back to its previous level.
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (1982)
Motivational Factors: these can lead to satisfaction. On a continuum from satisfaction to no satisfaction (but
not necessarily dissatisfied).
Maintenance Factors: these are required to be satisfied before motivational factors can work, and lack of which can lead to job dissatisfaction. On a continuum from no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction
(but not necessarily satisfied).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200723
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (continued) Maintenance Factors (dissatisfiers; originally called hygiene
factors): e.g.: work environment (climate), supervision, salary, job
security, attitudes of administration and policies. Motivators (satisfiers):
e.g.: achievement, advancement, work itself, growth, responsibility, recognition.
Motivators, when present, can act to increase job satisfaction. However, absence does not necessarily lead to job satisfaction,
Maintenance factors when not present can increase job dissatisfaction, but when met do not necessarily result in job satisfaction
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It is not possible to motivate teachers through maintenance factors
However, they are a prerequisite to motivation
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory of Motivation (continued)
Herzberg suggested three ways to practice his theory: Enrich the job: redesign work to tap potential, making job
interesting, challenging, and rewarding. Increase autonomy: more participation in decision making
about the work. Expand personnel administration: administration should be
concerned about motivational factors, not maintenance factors.
Research in school settings has generally supported Herzberg’s motivation-maintenance theory.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200726
Autonomy The desire to have choice in what one does
and how he/she does it Richard de Charms (1976, 1983)
Origins – those with self-determination Pawns – those with other-determination When people feel more like Origins than pawns,
they have higher self-esteem, feel more competent and perform at higher levels
Teachers? Students?
TRUE OR FALSE WHAT GETS REWARDED GETS DONE
WHAT IS REWARDING GETS DONE
WHAT IS GOOD GETS DONE
The Paradigm Shift in Education What comprises intelligence? Traditional definitions of intelligence.
Reason, problem solve, comprehend ideas. Can be measured accurately. Is a unitary whole. Is fixed and unchangeable.
Alfred Binet—developed with Theodore Simon the first intelligence test, Binet-Simon scale. In 1905.
MA/CA X 100 = IQ
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200729
IQ is Normally Distributed
The Paradigm Shift in Education (continued)
Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray (1994). The Bell Curve. Controversial, yet scholarly, treatise on
intelligence. Brought attention to topic of intelligence.
The achievement gap has racial overtones. Lake Wobegon Syndrome
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200731
Multiple Intelligences Theory The following individuals paved the way for Gardner’s work
on Multiple Intelligence Jean Piaget—learning is a progressive growth process
during which – over time and with proper stimulation and guidance – the individual builds on the simpler processes that were learned in earlier years by integrating higher-order logical processes.
Jerome Bruner—professed a “constructivist” philosophy of learning. Learning is an active process in which students construct new understandings upon a base of their existing knowledge
Daniel Goleman—used the term “emotional intelligence” – important competencies in life included self-awareness, self-discipline, persistence, and empathy. These are more important than IQ and can be taught to children.
Human Intelligence Howard Gardner explained that there are 7 kinds of
intelligence that are independent of one another Linguistic – ability to understand words and how they are
combined Logical-Mathematical – ability to see patterns, order and
relationships Musical – ability to discern pitch, melody, tone, rhythm
and other musical qualities Spatial – ability to perceive and think in terms of visual
qualities and demensions
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200734
Kinesthetic – ability to control one’s bodily motions and to handle objects skillfully
Intrapersonal – ability to assess and understand the inner self: feelings, reactions, aspirations
Interpersonal – ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals: moods, temperaments, motivations
Carl Jung, as student of Freud suggested that motivation varied among people. His work laid the foundations for the concept of personality types.
About 75% of the population is thought to have extraverted attitudes. Westerns culture tends to sanction the outgoing, sociable
and gregarious. Many non-Western cultures are more supportive of those
who turn their energy inward. Individuals are not either-or in terms of being introverts or
extraverts. This is a dimension in which individuals are on a continuum, mostly one, but may have qualities of the other.
Learning Styles
Four Basic Dimensions of Human Personality Carl Jung indicated that three dimension existed:
Introversion-extroversion. Sensation-Intuition. Thinking-Feeling.
Myers and Briggs added: Perceiving-Judging.
Myers and Briggs developed the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator instrument (MBTI).
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200739
Introversion-Extraversion About 75% of the population is thought to have extraverted
attitudes. “Western culture seems to sanction the outgoing, sociable
and gregarious temperament.” Many non-Western cultures are more supportive of those
who turn their energy inward. Individuals are not either-or in terms of being introverts or
extraverts. An individual is mostly introverted or extraverted, but may have qualities of the other.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200740
Intuition-Sensation Individuals are either one or the other. Individuals who use sensation must gather
information from their senses. Whereas, people who are intuition perceive the world
through the unconscious. These two different types may have trouble
empathizing with one another. The sensing person is detail-oriented. The intuitive person will not worry about the facts so
much, and be impatient with others who do.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200741
Thinking-Feeling decision-making (judging) functions both used to make rational decisions, based on the data r
eceived from information-gathering functions (sensing or intuition)
Those who prefer thinking tend to decide things from a more detached standpoint, measuring the decision by what seems reasonable, logical, causal, consistent and matching a given set of rules.
Those who prefer feeling tend to come to decisions by associating or empathizing with the situation, looking at it 'from the inside' and weighing the situation to achieve, on balance, the greatest harmony, consensus and fit, considering the needs of the people involved.
Perceiving-Judging This fourth preference pair describes how
people like to live their outer life— what are the behaviors others tend to see? Do you prefer a more structured and decided
lifestyle (Judging) or a more flexible and adaptable lifestyle (Perceiving)?
This preference may also be thought of as orientation to the outer world
I’m INTJ Introvert iNtuitive Thinking Judging You have moderate preference of Introversion
over Extraversion (56%) You have moderate preference of Intuition over
Sensing (38%) You have moderate preference of Thinking over
Feeling (31%) You have distinctive preference of Judging over
Perceiving (67%)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200744
MBTI Statistics 2006
ENTP 2.33% ESTP 2.68% ESFP 4.65% ENFP 8.64%
ENTJ 3.57% ESTJ 11.71% ESFJ 12.14% ENFJ 7.53%
INTJ 5.19% ISTJ 10.56% ISFJ 9.39% INFJ 7.11%
INTP 2.99% ISTP 2.07% ISFP 2.84% INFP 6.61%
Introversion (I)-Extraversion (E)Intuition (N)-Sensation (S) Thinking (T)-Feeling (F)Perceiving (P)-Judging (J)
Team BuildingIntroversion (I)-Extraversion (E)Intuition (N)-Sensation (S) Thinking (T)-Feeling (F)Perceiving (P)-Judging (J)
The Star Trek Team Mr. Spock Dr. McCoy Scottie Uhuru Sulu Checkov Yeoman Rand
Alan Vince Storm George rry Dottie
47
The Star Trek Team Mr. Spock Dr. McCoy Scottie Uhuru Sulu Checkov Yeoman Rand
Frank Alan Vince Storm George Gerry Dottie
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 200748