History of Educational FinanceChapter 3 in Guthrie

Dr. Len Elovitz

9/19/13

A. OBJECTIVES -TLWDTAT;

Describe the history of educational finance Illustrate policy issues and operating

practices that support the emergence of “modern” education finance

Specify what distinguishes “modern” finance from past paradigms

THREE THINGS WILL BECOME APPARENT AS WE LOOK AT THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION

1. SCHOOLS HAVE INCREASINGLY TAKEN OVER ROLES THAT WERE ONCE THOSE OF THE FAMILY, CHURCH AND COMMUNITY

2. THE SCHOOL CONTINUES TO SERVE AS A FOCAL POINT FOR LARGER ISSUES OF SOCIETAL NEEDS.

3. THERE IS LITTLE CONSENSUS ON THE MOTIVES FOR SCHOOL REFORMS.

4 Peabody College Series. Copyright ©

Allyn & Bacon 2009

Education Finance’s Three Historic Phases

Phase 1: Building a School System Phase 2: Building a Scholarly Base Phase 3: Seeking Equality

COLONIAL ERA

OLD WORLD INFLUENCE 1. EDUCATION OF ARISTOCRACY ONLY

2. MANY WENT TO EUROPE FOR COLLEGE

3. INCREASINGLY BEGAN TO STAY IN U.S. AS COLLEGES OPENED

• HARVARD 1636, RUTGERS 1766, PRINCETON 1746

• MODELED AFTER OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE

Getting Started: the colonial models New England Purpose of schooling

– Achieve literacy for comprehension and interpretation of biblical scripture

– Preserve law & order– Benefit industry and the economy– Further the Declaration of Independence’s call

for equality and equity

New England

Massachusetts act of 1642– The colonists needed to be educated to understand the

written religious and secular codes of the colony– Required parents and masters to tend to the educational

requirements of the colony’s sons.– “The child is to be educated, not to advance his personal

interest, but because the state will suffer if he is not educated.”

– Sons and servants learned to read and understand religious principles while they received training in “learning and labor”

Boys (10-16) were also instructed in “ye exercise of arms, as small guns, halfe pikes, bowes & arrows”

Girls stayed home and learned household tasks and embroidery

Selectmen were to ascertain if parents and masters were attending to “training in learning and labor and other employment”

New England cont’d

Formalized, legislated commitment to providing education to citizens– Massachusetts’ Ye Olde Deluder Satan Act

(1647) to keep the devil away

Ye Olde Deluder Satan Act (1647)

• Settlement of > 50 hoiusrehods required to hire a reading teacher and pay him what citizens deemed appropriate

• Settlement of > 100 required to establish and support a grammar (secondary) school to prepare students for university attendance

• Property owners were taxed to fund these schools– Land was considered to be a a valid measure of wealth

• Towns were fined for non-compliance

New England cont’d

Schools – Compulsory– Lay controlled– Financed by levied property taxes

• Property was considered a valid measure of wealth

– Education for public good is foundation of the system

NEW ENGLAND ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS TAUGHT BY ELDERLY HOWSWIFE OFTEN

A WIDOW AND WERE CALLED DAME SCHOOLS

FEW SUPPLIES AND TEXTBOOKS ACCEPT FOR THE NEW ENGLAND PRIMER WHICH COMBINED THE TEACHING OF READING WITH RELIGION, OBEDIANCE AND CITIZENSHIP

MEMORIZATION COPYING TEXT TAKING DICTATION ONE ROOM SCHOOLHOUSE UNGRADED COED

LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS

A. NOT COEDUCATIONAL

B. SONS OF ELITE

C. ENTERED AT EIGHT AND STUDIED THERE FOR 8 YEARS

D. STUDIED CLASSICS

Precedents Set

– Compulsory education– Lay controlled– Financed by levied property taxes

• Still pays the greatest percentage of local school budgets – Abbott effect?

– Education for public good is foundation of the system

AFRICAN AMERICAN EDUCATIONA. INFERIOR QUALITY

B. SEPARATE FROM MAINSTREAM PUBLIC SCHOOLS

C. ROBERTS V. CITY OF BOSTON1. 1846

2. SCHOOL COMMITTEE HAD THE RIGHT TO ESTABLISH SEPARATE EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES - PRECEDENT

MIDDLE COLONIES

MUCH MORE DIVERSE AND EDUCATION REFLECTED THAT DIVERSITY

A. QUAKERS - HUMANE EDUCATION

B. BEN FRANKLIN1. UTILITARIAN & SECULAR RATHER THAN

RELIGION & THE CLASSICS

2. PEOPLE SHOULD BETTER THEMSELVES THROUGH EDUCATION

FRANKLIN CONT.

3. HIS IDEAS FOR THE ACADEMY BECAME THE PROTOTYPE FOR PRIVATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN THE MID 19TH CENTURY

4. CURRICULUM SHOULD BE CONCERNED WITH MASTERYOF PROCESS AND NOTROTE LEARNING AND SHOULD INCLUDE READING WRITING PUBLIC SPEAKING ART AS A MEANS OF UNDERSTANDING CREATIVE

EXPRESSION UTILITARINAN SUBJECTS – MATH, HISTORY, GEOGRAPHY,

POLITICS, NATURAL HISTORY (BIOLOGY), FOREIGN LANGUAGES

The Middle Colonies

Purpose of schooling:– Develop a leadership class– Only the basics funded through property taxes– Churches and parents funded further education

Middle Colonies cont’d

Formalized, legislated commitment to providing education for some of its citizens– 1779 Bill for the More General Diffusion of

Knowledge• Gifted are educated through public monies from

grammar to university level

SOUTHERN COLONIES –

EDUCATION WAS FOR THE UPPER CLASS 1. TOOK PLACE AT HOME ON THE

PLANTATION

2. TUTORS

3. CLASSICAL STUDIES FOR BOYS

4. MUSIC AND DANCING FOR GIRLS

5. SONS WERE OFTEN SENT TO EUROPE OR NORTHERN COLLEGES TO FINISH THEIR EDUCATION

6. Slaves were not educated – it was a crime to do so after Nat Turner’s revolt

7. Only the basics funded through property taxes

8. Churches and parents funded further education

THOMAS JEFFERSON

1. BEST SAFEGUARD FOR DEMOCRACY WAS A LITERATE CITIZENRY

2. PROPOSED FOR VA. FREE PUBLIC EDUCATION FOR THREE YEARS TO STUDY READING, WRITING & ARITHMATIC

3. ALL COULD THEN ATTTEND A GRAMMER SCHOOL BY PAYING TUITION TO STUDY LATIN, GREEK, ENGLISH GARMMER, GEOGRAPHY & MATHEMATICS FOR 2 OR 3 YEAR

4. 1 STUDENT FROM EACH ELEMENTARY SCHOOL COULD ATTEND FREE

JEFFERSON, CONT.

5. THE BEST WOULD BE SELECTED TO CONTINUE STUDIES FOR 4 MORE YEARS.

6. EACH GARMMER SCHOOL WOULD THEN SELECT 10 OF THE BEST STUDENTS TO ATTEND WILLIAM & MARY FOR FREE.

7. HIS PROPOSALS WERE REJECTED AND EDUCATION REMAINED A PRIVATE MATTER FOR YEARS IN THE SOUTH

Constitution

Silent on Education 10TH AMENDMENT -

“THE POWERS NOT DELEGATED TO THE UNITED STATES BY THE CONSTITUTION, NOR PROHIBITED BY IT TO THE STATES, ARE RESERVED TO THE STATES RESPECTIVELY, OR TO THE PEOPLE.”

Federal Funding

Land Ordinance of 1785 – a part of the each new township in the Western Territories (16th section) to be sold to fund education.

Northwest Ordinance of 1787 also provided land grants for education and called for each state to support education

Followed by a number of similar acts

INDUSTRIALIZATION

1. 1820-1860 industrial revolution begins

2. Migrants and immigrants flock to urban areas to work in factories

3. Little education for the masses

4. High level of illiteracy

HORACE MANN

A. Mass., 1837

B. Lobbied for a state board of ed.

C. The first secretary (11years)

D. Worked for the establishment of free public education

E. Established first normal school in Lexington, Mass - 1839

OPPOSITION TO SCHOOL TAXES

1. PEOPLE WITHOUT CHILDREN

2. PRIVATE SCHOOL PARENTS

3. CATHOLICS THOUGHT THEY WERE PROTESTANT PLOT – STARTED THEIR OWN

– BY 1860 SUPPORT FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLING BECAME PREVALENT

– SECONDARY WAS FOR PRIVATE ACADEMIES

– EDUCATION FOR GIRLS WAS BECOMING MORE PREVALENT

Morrill Act -1862

Authorized the states to use public land grants to establish and maintain agricultural & mechanical colleges

28 yrs. Later Morrill Act II supported college teaching

Early Taxation Patterns

By 1890, all states in the union had tax supported public education.

About 25% supported ½ or more of the costs

Other sources (gifts, lotteries, bequests, etc.) began to vanish as taxation took over. (Oklahoma)

US Dept. of Ed.

Established by congress in 1867 Downgraded to Office of education in 1868 Became part of the Department of Health

Education and Welfare (HEW) 1953 Became a cabinet post in 1979 Reagan tried to downgrade it again

URBANIZATION

Turn of the century Large influx from southern & eastern

Europe Settled in cities to work in factories Schools began to teach socialization and

hygiene

Post WWI

Smith-Hughes Act – 1917– Provided the states with funds for vocational

education– Vocational Rehabilitation Act to help returning

soldiers – 1918– Act to Provide for Further Educational Facilities

– 1919 – Gov’t could sell surplus machine tools to schools for 15% of their original cost to acquire equipment for “real world” training

PROGRESSIVE IMPETUS ( 1900 – 1914)

1. JOHN DEWEYA. MEANINGFUL, INTERESTING

LEARNING

B. ACTIVE LEARNING – HANDS ON

C. INTEGRATION OF SUBJECT MATTER

D. TEACHER AS FACILITATOR OF LEARNING

G. STANLEY HALL

A. CHILD CENTERED REFORM

B. EDUCATION MUST TEND TO THE NEEDS AND INTERESTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL CHILD

EDWARD L. THORNDIKE

A. SOCIAL ENGINEERING REFORM

B. DETERMINE ABILITIES AND TALENTS THEN DEVELOP THEM

THE PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL

1. PRIOR TO 1875 RELATIVELY FEW STUDENTS ATTENDED PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOL MOST IN PRIVATE ACADEMIES

2. COMPULSORY EDUCATION LAWS AND THE RIGHT TO LEVY SCHOOL TAXES LED TO A PROLIFERATION OF PUBLIC HIGH SCHOOLS BY TURN OF CENTURY

PROBLEM OF WHAT TO TEACH

A. CLASSICS Vs. MODERN SUBJECTSB. COLLEGE ENTRANCE

REQUIREMENTS DIFFEREDC. PREPARATION FOR LIFE Vs.

TRADITIONAL EDUCATIOND. CORE Vs. INDIVIDUALIZED

CURRICULUM

COMMITTEE OF TEN –

A. FORMED BY NEA (1892)

B. CLARIFY THE PURPOSE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

C. CHAIRED BY CHARLES ELIOT – PRES. HARVARD

D. PURPOSE TO PREPARE STUDENTS FOR THE DUTIES OF LIFE

E. MODERN ACADEMIC COURSES BE AWARDED SAME STATURE AS TRADITIONAL

COMMITTEE OF TEN

F. CREATED FIVE MODEL CURRICULA

1. CLASSICAL AND MODERN LANGUAGES

2. ENGLISH

3. MATHEMATICS

4. HISTORY

5. SCIENCE

COMMITTEE OF TEN

G. RECOMMENDATIONS ACCEPTED BY NEA’S COMMITTEE ON COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS – ALL STUDENTS SHOULD STUDY THIS CORE OF SUBJECTS

H. CARNEGIE FOUNDATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF TEACHING - ADOPTED THE SAME CORE CURRICULUM – CARNEGIE UNITS

I. MISSING WAS ANY THOUGHT OF VOCATIONAL EDUCATION.

CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION (1918)

A. PROGRESSIVE RESPONSE TO COMMITTEE OF TEN

B. NEA’S COMMISSION ON THE REORGANIZATION OF SECONDARY SCHOOLS

CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATIONMAIN GOALS OF SECONDARY EDUCATION

1. HEALTH

2. COMMAND OF FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES

3. WORTHY HOME-MEMBERSHIP

4. VOCATION

5. CITIZENSHIP

6. WORTHY USE OF LEISURE

7. ETHICAL CHARACTER

CARDINAL PRINCIPLES OF SECONDARY EDUCATION HELPED IN DESIGNING EDUCATIONAL

PROGRAMS FOR NON-COLLEGE BOUND

Depression 1930s

Federal Surplus Commodities Corporation – distributed food for school lunches

National Youth Administration and Civilian Conservation Corps were established to provide work and training for young people

Public Works Administration provided grants and loans for school construction

Agricultural Adjustment Act – 1935

Became the National School Lunch Program

During World War II

Focus was on funding the war effort

Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1944

POST WORLD WAR TWO

1. GI BILL OF RIGHTSA. PROVIDED 16 MILLION OPPORTUNITY

FOR HIGHER ED.

B. RESULTS OF ARMY TESTING

C. JUST REWARD

D. AVOID MASS UNEMPLOYMENT

E. OPENED UP HIGHER EDUCATION – ACCESS

F. CRITICS – STANDARDS WILL FALL

POST SPUTNIK (1957)

A. NATIONAL COMMITMENT TO IMPROVE EDUCATION PARTICULARLY SCIENCE AND MATH

B. NATIONAL DEFENSE EDUCATION ACT (NDEA - 1958) – funding for math, science, foreign language

C. RETURN TO EARLIER STANDARDS – IF THEY EVER EXISTED.

Manufactured Crises?

US could have launched first Eisenhower did not want to launch first due to

fear of starting a war with USSR Khrushchev & China propaganda that US

schools were inferior & communism was better Scientific community used the opportunity to

convince congress to increase funding for education and research

Eisenhower got on board in a speech on November 13, 1957

Made claims that were exaggerated about Soviet education & called for– Nation-wide testing of high school students– Incentives for high aptitude students to study science– Programs to stimulate good quality teaching of math

and science– Measures to increase the output of qualified teachers

MID 1960’S

A. SHIFT BACK TO PROGRESSIVE

B. VIET NAM – EVERYTHING IN QUESTION

C. HIGHER ED CRISIS

D. PROLIFERATION OF ELECTIVES

3. MID 1960’S

E. SIGNIFICANT EXPERIMENTATION1. OPEN CLASSROOMS

2. NEW MATH

3. FLEX-MOD

4. STUDENT CENTERED EDUCATION

5. SUMMERHILL

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA, 1965)

– funded primary and secondary education, while explicitly forbidding the establishment of a national curriculum

– the funds were authorized for – professional development– instructional materials– resources to support educational programs, and– parental involvement

– Title 1– Provides supplemental school program grants for

children of low income families

ESEA

Amendments in 1972 and 1978 increased funding and made minor modifications in programs funded.

Education Consolidation and Improvement Act (ECIA) 1982 Changed Title I to Chapter I Eliminated many categorical programs i.e.

Title IVB Replaced with block grants

Hawkins-Stafford School Improvement Amendments 1988 ECIA was repealed Created a program for G & T students, HS

basic skills, dropout prevention, etc.

Goals 2000:Educate America Act & Improving America’s Schools Act -1994

Reauthorized ESEA

Help states meet 8 goals determined to be in the National Interest

Provide funding for Title I and other compensatory programs (Reading First)

President Clinton - 1997

State of the Union called for an educational bridge to the 21st Century with a 10-point program that went no where with congress,

63

No Child Left Behind

The reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965 (ESEA).

Signed by President George W. Bush on January 8, 2002.

Signified a clear shift in federal role toward policy maker and reformer.

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NCLB (continued)

Three goals of NCLB:– Closing the achievement gap for disadvantaged students.– Improving the preparation of teachers and increasing their

compensation so as to have every classroom in America staffed by a “highly qualified” teacher by the end of the 2005–2006 school year.

– Instituting closely monitored systems of accountability for students, teachers, and schools.

NCLB mentions research 116 times, giving rise to controversy over the operational definition of scientifically-based research.

CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT

1. PLESSY V. FERGUSON - 1896A. LAW OF SEPARATE BUT EQUAL

B. REMAINED A GUIDING PRINCIPLE OF LAW UP THROUGH THE 1950’S

C. NAACP BEGAN TO FIGHT FOR INTEGRATION IN THE 1930’S

2. BROWN V. TOPEKA

3. OTHER CASES

4. DE FACTO V. DE JURE

Developmental Stages of School Finance

1. Emphasis on Local Responsibility

2. Early Grants and Allocations

3. Foundation Program Concept Emergence

4. Foundation Program Concept Refinement

5. Power Equalization

6. Shift of Emphasis and Influence

Emphasis on Local Responsibility

School were first established on a local basis and finance should be a community problem

Original colonies used rate bill or tuition Early on towns in New England began to use

property taxes to help finance education Tax support was used in some southern and mid-

Atlantic states to support pauper schools Permissive property tax funding graduallybecame

mandatory during the late 1700s to early 1800s

Westward expansion increased the number of school districts and property taxes became the mainstay of finance

By 1880 all states were using property taxes in many cases supplemented by revenue from land grants and other sources

Problems occurred due to varying community wealth

Emphasized by the Great Depression in the 1930s

Early Grants and Allocations By the turn of the 20th century, most schools

acquired their current structure (12 grades, 9 month year)

Translated into greater costs for taxpayers Cities were more able to raise funds than rural

areas States had to step in to assist Flat grants – uniform amount of funds per pupil,

per teacher

Concerns with flat grants– Increase state funding could lead to more state

control– Funds could be used to supplant rather than to

supplement local funding– Disequalizing

Foundation Program Concept Emergence

(1920s) Each district must provide a legislated level

of educated defined as cost per pupil Rich districts receive no aid Poor districts receive the amount of aid to

reach the foundation Districts may tax themselves to spend over

the foundation

Foundation Program Concept Refinement(1920s & 30s)

Minimum aid developed for districts that received no state funds under foundation

Question of recapture Grants used in conjunction with foundation Many variations experimented with Districts of different funding capacities

continued to have unequal ability to exceed the foundation

Power Equalization

Aimed at equalization of educational opportunity

Districts would be able to spend the same at the level that they wish to tax

State makes up the difference

Shift of Emphasis and Influence

Growth of suburbs The influence of the courts Search for an equitable, efficient system of

school funding Call for greater accountability as funding to

cities increases Search for alternative systems of education

Which of These Inputs Matter?

Books in the Library Teacher salary Books in the library Number of computer stations Class Size Racial mix

Which hypothesis is correct?

There is a strong positive relationship between school quality and student achievement

Or There is a very weak relationship between

school characteristics and student outcomes» Sadovnik

Equality Of Educational Opportunity The Coleman Report 1966 SES mattered most Peer group associations matter Other inputs were weak

Top New Jersey High Schools 2008: By Rank http://njmonthly.com/articles/towns_and_sc

hools/highschoolrankings/top-new-jersey-high-schools-by-rank.html

NJ Monthly -All High Schools.84

Scattergram

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NJ Monthly -Minus Magnets.89

Scattergram

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DO SCHOOLS MATTER?

1. EDMUNDS (1979)

A. EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS RESEARCH

B. CORRELATES

2. LAZOTTE

National Commission on Excellence in Education. A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform.(1983)

“… THE EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS OF OUR SOCIETY ARE PRESENTLY BEING ERODED BY A RISING TIDE OF MEDIOCRITY THAT THREATENS OUR VERY FUTURE AS A NATION AND A PEOPLE. WHAT WAS UNIMAGINABLE A GENERATION AGO HAS BEGUN TO HAPPEN – OTHERS ARE MATCHING AND SURPASSING OUR EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENTS.

IF AN UNFRIENDLY POWER HAD ATTEMPTED TO IMPOSE ON AMERICA THE MEDIOCRE EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE THAT EXISTS TODAY, WE MIGHT WELL HAVE VIEWED IT AS AN ACT OF WAR. AS IT STANDS, WE HAVE ALLOWED THIS TO HAPPEN TO OURSELVES.”

EFFECTIVE SCHOOLS RESEARCH

� SAFE ORDERLY ENVIRONMENT

� A CLEAR SCHOOL MISSION

� STRONG PRINCIPAL – INSTRUCTIONAL LEADERSHIP

� CLIMATE OF HIGH EXPECTATIONS

� A CONCENTRATION ON INSTRUCTIONAL TASKS

� MONITORING OF STUDENT PROGRESS

� POSITIVE HOME SCHOOL RELATIONS

What will be the next Wave

Shift Happens