MODULE 3:Writing

1Copyright December 2008

Learning Objectives:

Review the writing process of prewriting, drafting, and revising.

2. Describe the process for development of a thesis in writing.Identify campus resources for assisting with writing skills and

compositions.

Initiate use of the APA format for citation.

Describe the elements of academic integrity and the copyright and fair

use law.

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During the course of graduate study,students write many papers. Successful and

effective writing is dependent upon knowledge of grammar and composition skills, conducting a comprehensive literature review, APA format, principles of academic integrity,

and copyright and fair use laws.

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What does it take to produce an excellent paper?→ Communicate your ideas in a

clear, direct and logical way.This means more than just good

grammar and correct documentation.

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Think of writing in steps called “The Writing Process”:

Prewriting•Listing•Brainstorming•Notetaking•Focused free writing•Thinking about

purpose and audience

•Discussing with others

Drafting•Outlining•Clustering•Creating “Working

Thesis”•Paragraphs•Topic Sentences•Transitions•Ordering Sources

Revising•Editing•Proofreading

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The Writing Process: Prewriting, Drafting, RevisingTry to tackle these steps one at a time. ◦ Often students start writing with an introduction and end

with a conclusion, but never look back during the process. Reread your assignment carefully. ◦ Ask your instructor questions before you get started.

Consider your audience...◦ Who are they? ◦ What are you trying to communicate? ◦ What is the level of formality required? ◦ What do they already know about your topic? ◦ What do you want them to learn from your paper?

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The Writing Process: Prewriting

In this stage, you are brainstorming ideas. Don’t worry yet about the final paper or about spelling, references, etc. You must begin with a strong focus born of serious critical thinking about your topic. You can also do some focused free writing as a prewriting exercise—simply write, without stopping, for ten minutes. This may serve to reduce the confusion in your head about the topic and may help you formulate a “working thesis.”

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The Writing Process: Prewriting

If you are doing research, it is in the prewriting stage that your research begins to fit together. If you have been keeping an organized bibliography (quotes, summarized or paraphrased notes), you may stop occasionally to free write about where you think the paper is heading. This may help you feel more confident about the paper’s shape and focus. Truly understanding your topic makes the final stages in the editing process easier. It will also help you rely less on sources and more on your own thoughts.

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The Writing Process: Prewriting

Look over your lists, notes, and free writing. Can you see a main idea or main point emerging? This main point is your thesis, but at this stage it’s only a “working thesis” because there is still time to shape, change and add to it. Deciding on a “working thesis” will help guide your planning and writing through the rest of the writing process.

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The Writing Process: Drafting

Before even writing a sentence, you may find it helpful to create an outline, especially for a long research paper. This does not have to be a formal outline—it is simply an ordering of your ideas. This can help you feel some control over your project and lessen stress about the actual writing. Write your “working thesis” at the top of your page to keep you on track. If your outline goes in another direction from what you planned, reshape or change the thesis.

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Reasons to make an outline:

You can see your paper in a logical form.You begin to see relationships between parts of your sources as evidence. You get a mini-view of the finished paper.You may feel more in control of all the research you’ve done or all the ideas you are trying to harness.

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The Writing Process: ClusteringSome writers prefer to make a visual to contain notes and

help think about organizing and ordering.

Working Thesis

Paragraph 2-3: Recent discoveries

Paragraph 4:

Controversy about this

topic

Paragraph 5-6:

Results of my own research

Paragraph 7: Conclusion

Paragraph 1: IntroductionBackground information

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Beginning to formulate a thesis

The thesis is simply your main idea that you support with evidence from sources throughout your paper. Know the difference between a fact and an opinion.Your thesis is an opinion. The better your thesis, the better and richer your paper. A “working thesis” will guide you as the paper takes shape, but may change before you finish.

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Understanding the thesis:

The thesis should be limited enough to be developed within the required length of your assignment—but broad enough to include all ideas you will develop in your essay.

Too broad: Graduate school is very challenging.Better: Graduate school is challenging because it requires me to be organized, take risks, and believe in myself.

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Consider facts vs. opinions in formulating a good thesis:

Fact: Robert Frost is a well-known American poet.

Opinion: Robert Frost is one of the greatest modern poets.

What would be the next step in supporting the opinion?

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Formulating a thesis:Possible thesis: Robert Frost is one of the greatest modern poets because he accurately describes the alienation and entropy of life in the modern era with stark images, detail and precise language in his poem “After Apple Picking.”

The details of this thesis can be argued as it is not just a general opinion of Frost’s “greatness.” With this thesis, a reader would expect to see lines from this poem and real examples that support Frost’s ability to describe life in the modern era through his poetry. Others may not think Robert Frost does these things or that “After Apple Picking” is the best example of modernism of all of his works. It is an opinion.

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Thesis for an argument paper:

Argument papers must contain a thesis that is a debatable point, not merely a fact or a description.

Ex. Pollution is bad for the environment. (non-debatable)Ex. At least twenty-five percent of the federal budget should be spent on limiting pollution. (debatable)

OREx. America's anti-pollution efforts should focus on privately owned cars. (debatable)

Ex. The Cinderella story exists in many versions. (non-debatable)Ex. The Cinderella story exists in many versions, but the Walt Disney version is the most important by far. (debatable)

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Thesis for an argument paper:

Sometimes the assignment requires providing a viewpoint on a particular controversial topic—one that you will prove.Your thesis: “All children should be vaccinated.” Though a good beginning, this is a big topic. The thesis must be more complete and offer a more narrowed point of view. A better thesis might be “Since the threat of Autism due to preservatives in vaccines has been greatly exaggerated and disproven, all children should be vaccinated in order to prevent a re-emergence of diseases like small pox in the United States.” This can be argued. If this is your thesis, the rest of your paper should prove it by offering evidence in the form of published research.

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Contrast/compare thesis:

Compare/contrast thesis often used by students: The two short stories have similarities and differences.This statement is too vague, factual, and, thus, notargumentative.

What is significant about the similarities and differences?What is still needed for an effective argument?

Better: The two short stories share similar features, such as their first person narration and their use of flashback; however, they differ in regard to the characters’ complexities.

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Writing Skills - Parts of the essay:

Conclusion

Body paragraphs

Introduction (contains thesis)

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Introduction

Capture the reader’s interest and provoke attentionEstablish the importance of your topicClearly define the focus of the essay in a thesis statement

The introduction can begin broadly but must become more specific as you work toward your thesis, which is most often the last sentence of the introduction. If you have difficulty writing an introduction and that seems to keep you from writing the rest of the paper, consider writing it last—once you know what your idea has covered. Don’t let that blank page stop you from jumping into your second paragraph and starting to write about the details that support your thesis.

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Avoid the following in introductions:This essay is about…In my essay I will discuss…Although I don’t know much about this topic…I might not be an expert…

Instead:Begin with an anecdote, a surprising statement, a question, a definition, a contradiction…

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Body paragraphs:

This is where your thesis is taken apart and supported by details. Each body paragraph begins or ends with a topic sentence and should be connected to the next paragraph by transitional words and sentences.Look at your outline or cluster. How have you ordered your information?What are the most important things about your topic that you want to communicate to your reader? What are the details you need to include? What do you need back up in the form of references? Paragraphs can be constructed in deductive or inductive order. Deductive order begins with the topic sentence; inductive order ends with it. It depends on your style and your topic.

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Body paragraphs: Frame quotationsIn body paragraphs, writers use others’ words from references to enhance their own points and to provide examples to the reader. These must be integrated properly or they lose the impact they can have on a paper. Quotes, paraphrases and summaries must be introduced and analyzed by the writer to be effective, not simply popped in and expected to speak for themselves. Remember, it’s your writing. Quotes enhance what you’ve said. Quotes can’t speak for themselves.

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Transitional words

These words create a link between ideas and help to move your reader from one sentence to the next.They can be helpful in setting the tone for understanding.Transitions are words like:

However (signal contrast)Moreover (signal addition)Therefore (signal cause and effect)Similarly (signal comparison)Consequently (signal a result)

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Conclusions:

Restate the topic’s significance Call for further research Suggest/recommend a solutionOffer an anecdoteEnd with a provocative quotationAsk a question

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The Writing Process: Revising

This is sometimes the hardest step. Revising and editing/proofreading are not the same. Revising literally means “re-seeing” - you must view your paper with fresh eyes. You are looking at logic, clarity, and how the parts of the paper fit together. It might be best to leave time between the drafting and the revising stage to gain some objectivity about your rough draft.

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Tips for editing/proofing

Build in some time to breathe. Objectivity and clarity in revising and proofing increases with breaks in the process.Read your paper aloud to yourself. You may stumble on repeated words, concepts and misuse of words.Read each individual sentence backwards—not each word, but each sentence. This will isolate each one and allow you to look at each as a grammatical unit to find incorrect use of punctuation. A word about spell-check: This is a very useful tool, but some words in spell-check's lexicon might not necessarily be the word you want. For example - economic inflammation (instead of inflation). The word is not misspelled. It is simply the wrong word, but spell-check is not aware. You must be the quality control on spelling.

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Revising checklist:

Have I stated my main point clearly?Have I explained it adequately?Is my thesis an argument (opinion) that is supported and proven by the rest of the paper? Have I given my reader examples to demonstrate theory? Have I included analogies, quantitative data, quotes, paraphrases summaries? Is there a part I have written that I don’t really understand? Have I explained the meanings of any unusual terms or jargon?Is there a part that’s vague and needs more explanation?Do I need to do any more research or re-check my sources?Have I been careful of accidental plagiarism by attributing quotes, paraphrases and summaries to the original sources?

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Editing checklist:

Do my paragraphs focus on one single idea as introduced by my topic sentence?Do my sentences move freely from one to the other with help from transitions where appropriate?Have I used punctuation correctly?Are words spelled correctly?Do subject/verbs and pronouns agree? Have I used a consistent point of view?

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Carlow University graduate programs use a Graduate Writing Assessment Guide (accessed under Course Documents for this Bb course), which you may use as part of your self assessment. In addition, other valuable resources are offered to students to assist with writing assignments.The Center for Academic Achievement on the Oakland campus and the Regional Learning Alliance - Writing and Research Center on the Cranberry campus both offer assistance with writing assignments.

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The Center for Academic Achievement (CAA) is a resource for all Carlow students who want to become stronger and more independent learners or want to improve their academic skills and strategies. Through individual tutoring, study groups, and workshops, the CAA can help students become more confident and successful in their coursework. The CAA can assist with writing assignments to: ◦ Work on writing techniques and grammar◦ Review research paper formats◦ Increase critical reading comprehension in order to write more

effectively

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The CAA also has an online resource center, available to all current Carlow students, staff and faculty. For tip sheets, self-assessments, and links to other great resources, simply go to http://blackboard.carlow.edu and "enroll" in CAA Resources.Stop by their welcome desk in Grace 427, email caa@carlow.edu, or call 412-578-6146. For individual appointments, contact them at least a day or two in advance.

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For graduate students attending classes on the Cranberry campus, the Regional Learning Alliance also provides a Writing and Research Center.The following services are offered at no cost:◦ Editing services◦ On-site interlibrary loans◦ Access to space to work on papers and group projects, with resources on

hand for advice◦ Access to a skilled writer for style, format, construction, and other advice◦ Assistance with appropriate citing of sources and referencesStop by Room 2121 on M or W from 10-4, F from 10-2, or anytime by appointment; call them at (724) 741-1000, or email them at writingcenter@therla.org.

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Knowledge of the APA format for citations is required during graduate work. The following reference is essential for students:◦ American Psychological Association. (2001). Publication Manual

of the American Psychological Association, 5th Edition. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association.

◦ http://www.apastyle.org/Although the style manual is the authoritative resource, some other abbreviated resources are offered online: ◦ The Ohio State University:

http://library.osu.edu/sites/guides/apagd.php◦ The OWL at Purdue University:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

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Other resources are also provided via the internet; Using Mozilla Firefox browser, access kart00 and on the kart00 page, type in APA style. Kart00 is a different type of search engine and will provide different options and resources. http://www.kartoo.com/Zotero.org is a free reference management tool -http://www.zotero.org/◦ Zotero provides one-click downloads of research references

in APA style◦ It is fully compatible with Microsoft Word◦ This service may save you time in formatting references in

APA style when you are using references that are online.

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Students should be knowledgeable of the tenets of academic integrity and the elements of the copyright and fair use laws.

The graduate programs are committed to establishing an environment of academic integrity among faculty and students, promoting a love of learning and a respect for the learners. Students are also responsible and accountable for their personal commitment to academic integrity and high standards of learning.

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Carlow University has a policy on Academic Integrity for students and faculty online: http://www.carlow.edu/.The following definitions are provided:◦ Plagiarism: Copying or paraphrasing another writer’s words or to use her/his

ideas without giving credit to her/him ◦ Cheating: Stealing examinations or receiving stolen examinations, giving or

receiving information relevant to the content of examinations, and using unauthorized books, notes or papers during examinations

◦ Forgery: Signing another’s name to examinations or academic papers ◦ Fraud: Misuse, alteration or falsification of official documents, seals, logos and

transcripts◦ Theft: Stealing another’s work without appropriate permission or to steal

intellectual property to pass it off as one’s ownStudents who participate in acts of academic dishonesty are subject to disciplinary and/or legal actions.

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Remember - appropriately crediting the original author prevents plagiarism, but it still may be copyright infringement if a substantial amount of material is used.Copyright protection is the legal right granted to anyone who creates an original work fixed in any tangible medium of expression from which it can be perceived, reproduced, or otherwise communicated, either directly or with the aid of a machine or device. The author/owner is guaranteed the right to be compensated for and control the use of their work for publication, production, sale or distribution.

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U.S. copyright law is found in Title 17 of the United States Code: http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#107. Key points according to the Copyright Law:

◦ Copyrightable work must be tangible. ◦ Copyright protects the particular way an author has expressed

himself; it does not extend to any ideas, systems, or factual information conveyed in the work.

◦ No publication or registration or other action in the Copyright Office is required to secure copyright.

◦ Copyright is secured automatically when the work is created, and a work is “created” when it is fixed in a copy or phonorecord for the first time.

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What is copyright protected?

literary worksmusical works, including any accompanying wordsdramatic works, including any accompanying musicpantomimes and choreographic workspictorial, graphic, and sculptural worksmotion pictures and other audiovisual workssound recordingsarchitectural works

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What is not copyright protected?◦ Works in the public domain, such as all works authored by the federal

government or those freely offered to the public by the owner◦ Works that have not been fixed in a tangible form of expression ◦ Titles, names, short phrases, and slogans; familiar symbols or designs;

mere variations of typographic ornamentation, lettering, or coloring; mere listings of ingredients or contents

◦ Ideas, procedures, methods, systems, concepts, principles, discoveries, or devices, as distinguished from a description, explanation, or illustration

◦ Works consisting entirely of information that is common property and containing no original authorship – such as standard calendars, height and weight charts, tape measures and rulers, and lists or tables taken from public documents or other common sources

◦ After a very lengthy period of time, works pass into the public domain

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Did you know?

◦ Items posted on the internet are not considered public domain

◦ Items on the internet are protected by copyright law, unless the works are authored by government employees or offered to the public by the owner.

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What is Fair Use? How can you use copyrighted material legally?◦ Section 107 sets out four factors to be considered in determining

whether or not a particular use is fair:

purpose and character of the use, including whether such use is of commercial nature or is for nonprofit educational purposesnature of the copyrighted workamount and substantiality of the portion used in relation to the copyrighted work as a whole effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the copyrighted work

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According to the U. S. Copyright Office: ◦ The distinction between “fair use” and infringement may

be unclear and not easily defined. ◦ There is no specific number of words, lines, or notes that

may safely be taken without permission. ◦ Acknowledging the source of the copyrighted material

does not substitute for obtaining permission.◦ The safest course is always to get permission from the

copyright owner before using copyrighted material.

WHEN IN DOUBT, ASK PERMISSION!

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References:

◦ Carlow University Graduate Writing Assessment Guide. Access under Course Documents.

◦ U.S. Copyright Office (July 2006). Copyright Law of the United States of America and Related Laws Contained in Title 17 of the United States Code. Circular 92. Retrieved on May 1, 2008, from: http://www.copyright.gov/title17/92chap1.html#107.

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