Language Contact: Bilingualism and Code Switching

Readings:JohnsonZentella

Language Contact A situation that arises when

two or more languages are spoken in the same or adjoining regions

And when there is a high degree of

communication between the people speaking them

Can result in Language loss or even language death Bi- / multilingualism Language change

Bilingualism (Multilingualism)

Individual Bilingualism – the use of two (or more) languages by an individual E.g., an individual who speaks both English

and Spanish as described by many of the informants in the Hinton article

Societal Bilingualism – the use of two (or more) languages within a given community E.g., the bilingual setting in India, Canada,

Switzerland, Malaysia, etc.

Societal Bilingualism

Identify a community here in California that you are familiar with.

From your impressions, what languages are used? In what domains?

Describing Individual Bilingualism & Multilingualism The term ‘bilingualism’ may mean

different things to different people. To the average person, bilingualism can

be loosely defined as: the use of two languages or the native-like control of two

languages.

What it means to be bilingual …75% of the world’s population speak two or

more languages.Not all bilinguals speak two languages at the

same level.By the age of 2.5, a bilingual child begins to

make choices in language use, usually the majority language.

Parents who want their children to retain their heritage language must work at it.

In the U.S. immigrants are strongly urged to assimilate and discourages from retaining their heritage language.

That is a national loss.

Describing Individual Bilingualism

Bilingualism has often been defined in terms of language competence. But a definition of bilingualism must also account for the impact of social, psychological and cultural variables on the bilingual individual.

How did you (or someone you know) become bilingual? What is your (their) proficiency in each

language? When do you (they) use each language?

Describing Bilingualism & Multilingualism

Is someone bilingual who: has a slight non-native accent in one or

both languages? makes occasional errors of syntax in one

or both languages? doesn’t always know the right word to use

in one or both languages? speaks both languages fluently but is

culturally comfortable in only one language?

Describing Bilingualism & Multilingualism

Five important variables in relation to bilingualism:1] degree of bilingualism2] context of bilingual language acquisition3] age of acquisition4] domain of use of each language5] social orientation

Degree of Bilingualism - Definitions

Bloomfield (1933): native-like control of two languages (maximalist)

Mackey (1962): the ability to use more than one language (minimalist)

Weinriech (1953): the practice of alternately using two languages (minimalist)

Haugen (1953): the point where a speaker can first produce complete meaningful utterances in the other language (minimalist)

Maximalist approach: describes the ideal bilingual (not reality)

Macnamara (1969): need to discuss the degree of bilingualism / competence in sub-components (LSRW)

Degree of Bilingualism -

Rate your own bilingual abilities (1 = weak; 5 = excellent) in your two languages

Lg A Lg B Listening Speaking Reading Writing

Degree of Bilingualism – Balanced Bilinguals

Individuals fully competent in both languages (Lambert et al. 1959) Almost impossible to achieve (Baetens

Beardsmore 1982) Sociolinguistic forces demand that

bilinguals organize their languages in functionally complementary spheres. No society needs two languages to perform the same set of functions. Balanced bilingualism entails the death of bilingualism. (Fishman 1972)

Degree of Bilingualism – Dominant Bilinguals

Individuals who are dominant in one language. Less dominant language = ‘subordinate.’ Dominance does not apply to all

domains. One may be dominant in the

subordinate language in some domains.

Degree of Bilingualism – Passive / Recessive Bilinguals Individuals who are gradually losing

competence in one language, usually because of disuse. common among immigrant groups often loose productive skills while

retaining receptive skills

Degree of Bilingualism – Semilinguals / Limited Bilinguals Individuals who appear to have limited

proficiency in both languages. Deficit in six language competencies: size of vocabulary correctness of language unconscious processing of language

(automation) language creation mastery of the functions of language (e.g.,

emotive, cognitive) meanings and imagery

Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition

Individual who are labeled as ‘limited bilinguals’ are usually from lower SES groups. Their language proficiency is the result of their SES and not some cognitive deficit.

Can you think of individuals you know who might fit into some of the categories listed above?

Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition

Primary context / natural bilingualism: situations in which a child acquires both languages in a naturalistic setting without any structured instruction

Secondary context / school bilingualism: situations in which a child acquires one of the languages in a structured setting, usually school.

Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition

Naturalistic fused setting: no separation of context for both languages; child is exposed to both languages in the same context.

Naturalistic separate setting: one parent, one language model; but also applies to other interlocutors, i.e., siblings, peers, grandparents, etc.

Context of Bilingual Language Acquisition Elective bilinguals: individuals who

have some element of choice about learning a second language.

Circumstantial bilinguals: individuals who have no choice about learning a second language; indigenous colonized or minority groups.

Distinction is important especially with respect to how bilinguals are measured.

Age of Acquisition

Sensitive age for language learning (from Lenneberg’s 1967 ‘critical period’): We have a superior language learning capacity early in life which will disappear or decline with maturation. evidence for exceptions no clear cut-off age

Important references on age & acquisition: Birdsong, D. 1992. Ultimate attainment in second

language acquisition. Language 684: 706-755 Birdsong, D. 2005. Interpreting age effects in

second language acquisition, In J. Kroll & A De Groot, eds., Handbook of bilingualism: Psycholinguistic approaches. New York: Oxford University Press.

Age of Acquisition

Possible factors: neurological aptitudes attitude identity and motivation nature of exposure

What is a ‘native speaker’?

Age of Acquisition

Rate your competence in your first language in the four macro skills (LSRW). Are you equally competent in all skills? What would be considered ‘native-like’ proficiency for a learner of that language? What levels of competence do you expect native speakers to have?

Who would you rule out as a native speaker? What standards of norms do you use in your assessment? (Consider someone brought up in India or the Philippines who speaks English as a first language. Would you consider that person a native speaker?)

Domains of Use

Domains: the different spheres of influence in a speaker’s life – Family Friendship Religion Education Employment etc.

Domains of Use

Interlocutors: a language relationship tends to evolve naturally. And once established, it is usually not easy to alter

Place or Location: work vs. home; physical location like neighborhoods

Topic: language of technical discourse or cooking, gardening, etc.

Social Orientation

Attitudes of bilinguals toward their bilingual status;

Attitudes toward the larger community;

Attitudes of the larger community toward them and their bilingual status.

Additive vs. Subtractive Bilingualism

Subtractive bilingualism / differential bilingualism: Without first language support, the learning of a new language may entail the loss of that first language.

Additive bilingualism: an environment conducive to the development of the first language as well as the development of the second language results in the maintenance of both.

Code Switching – The case of Spanglish Ana Celia Zentella

Code switching: The juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems (Gumperz 1982)

Lexical borrowing: Words from one system adapted phonologically and morph-syntactically and used regularly in another system and

Why switch? ‘On the spot’ variables

The linguistic proficiency of the person(s) to whom one is speaking

The language requirements of the setting, i.e., speak the language that is spoken to one

Why switch? ‘In the head’ variables

Where to switch Switch at turn points Switch within a turn

Switch to co-construct a unique identity Footing (re-alignment)

Speaker to quoter; friend to protector; narrator to evaluator

Clarification Check for approval, attention, or hearer’s

knowledge

Why switch?‘Out of the mouth’ variables One’s own language proficiency

Lexical limitations Syntactic constraints

Zentella’s conclusions

English-Spanish switching is a creative style of bilingual communication To negotiate meaning with each other To construct a unique identity To realign footing To clarify To emphasize a message To control the interlocutor

Code switching was a way of saying that one belongs to both worlds

Discussion

Code switching is especially noticeable to those who don’t speak one of the languages involved in the switching, yet even monolinguals engage in style shifting, moving from one style or variety of their language to another (for example, when a minister or politician who is speaking Standard English switches to a regional or ethnic dialect for humor or to make a point). When do you shift styles? Why? Can you give an example?