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Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author.
KAPIJA
A case study of a Bosnian community's initiative for re-building peace
A dissertation presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
m Social Anthropology
at Massey University, Palmerston North,
New Zealand
Bemard Jervis
2007
ABSTRACT
During 1 992-95 the Serb ian estab l ishment i n Serbia and Bosnia-Herzegovina executed a
pol icy of ethn ic-cleans ing against the Musl im and Croat population in Bosnia
Herzegovina. On 25 May 1 995 the town square in Tuzla was she l led by a Bosn ian Serb
art i l l ery unit k i l l ing seventy-one people and i njuring many others. The aim was to div ide
the Musl im, Croat and Serb community of Tuzla i nto taking sides in a confl ict that saw
atrocities committed on a scale not seen in Europe s ince the Second World War. This
study is about peace and conflict and gives some insight into how this commun ity dealt
with violence. The decis ion to bury those ki l led together in a common burial s ite
i rrespective of ethnic background was made in the face of external re l igious and pol i tical
oppositicm. In tak ing th i s action, these fami l ies re inforced the long-held trad it ion in
Tuzla vf being a tolerant mult i-ethnic community. Those buried together were buried as
friends not d iv ided by re l i gion and national ism. As such, the burial site i s the s ingle
most important symbol of peace in this commun ity.
Other key findings from th is study show the enorm ity of personal loss and grief for the
fam i l ies of those k i l led; the impact of this inc ident on the whole community; questions
about j ustice; trans-generat ional trauma; ethn ic identity; mixed-marriages; and a changed
demographic make-up of the town 's population due to an increase of displaced persons.
11
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study could not have been undertaken without the agreement and co-operation of
those people I interviewed during my periods of fieldwork in Tuzla during 2004 and
2005. For the fami l ies, community and rel igious leaders, and others who recalled what
happened in Kapija Square on 25 May 1 995 it was a painfu l memory . Often the
interv iews were very emotional and upsetting and I was mindfu l of th is at a l l t imes.
Therefore I am grateful to these people for giving me their time and stories which I hope
in some smal l way may have served some cathart ic value for them. They seemed to be
appreciative of me talk ing to them about what had happened and the value of the
research. I was mindfu l , too, of the stress that this could put on the two interpreters I
used, E ldin Omerovic and Amira Kovcic, without whom I could not have conducted the
interviews. In addition, valuable assistance was provided by Jasmina Redzepagic at
Peace F lame House and Maida Berbic from the local radio station, Kameleon Radio .
Their local contacts and networks made my task a lot easier. Other valuable information
within th� national context was provided by Mirsad Tokaca, the President of the Research
and Documentation Centre, in Sarajevo.
Ethical approval for my research was obtained from Massey University Human Eth ics
Committee, and the Association of Social Anthropologists of Aotearoa!New Zealand I nc .
I am grateful for the financial contribution provided by the School of People,
Environment and Planning and the Doctoral Committee of Massey University that
al lowed me to complete my fieldwork.
Ill
KAPIJA
Com posed by Asim Horozic
Dedicated to those k i l l ed and injured in
Kapij a Square, Tuzla, Bosnia-Herzegovina
on 25 May 1 995
Sarajevo Phi lharmon ia P laying t ime: I 0.24 minutes
IV
CONTENTS
Abstract ( i i )
Acknowledgements ( i i i)
Dedication ( iv)
Chronology ( ix)
I 1 1 ustrat ions (x i i )
Chapter I OBJECTIVES, M ETHODOLOGY, ETH ICS, F IELDWORK AND THE STRUCTURE OF THI S STUDY
1 . 1 Research objectives, methodology and ethical i ssues
1 .2 Choosing the research topic 3
1 .3 Two phases of fieldwork 5
1 .4 Basic account of what happened on 25 May 1 995 8
1 .5 Conceptual framework 1 1
1 .6 Confl ict flow-chart 1 3
1 . 7 Observations 1 4
1 . 8 Personal considerations 1 7
1 .9 Reflections on the fieldwork experience 1 8
1 . 1 0 The structure of the study 1 9
Chapter 2 SEEK IN G AN EXPLANATION FOR THE ETHN IC
VIOLENCE THAT OCCURRED IN BOSNIA-HERZEGOVINA
DURING 1 992-95 23
2. 1 H i story of ethnic identity, rel igion and language 23
2.2 . Modern h istory 26
2 . 3 The contemporary pol itical s ituation 30
V
Chapter 3
Chapter 4
Chapter 5
Chapter 6
2.4 Post -con tl ict accounts of what happened
during 1 992-95 33
2 . 5 Genocide and crimes against human ity 35
2 .6 Pol itical and m i l itary structure i n Bosn ia-Herzegovina
during 1 992-95 39
2 .7 Casualt ies of the war and outstanding issues 42
2 . 8 Conclusions 43
RESTORING THE PEACE: THE ANTHROPOLOGY O F PEACE-BU ILDING 46
3 . 1 Anthropology of peace 46
3 .2 The mean ing of peace 47
3 . 3 Social justice, freedom and human rights 5 1
3 .4 War crimes tribunals 53
3 . 5 Restorative princip les 55
3 .6 Peace by peacefu l means 57
3 .7 Peace processes 59
3 . 8 Conclusions 63
INTERVIEWS WITH A FAM I LY MEMB ER OF SOMEONE
KI LLED IN KAP IJA SQUARE
4. 1 List of interviewees
4.2 Conclusions
INTERVIEWS WITH COMMUN ITY AND
REL IG IOUS LEADERS
5 . 1 L ist of interviewees
5 .2 Conclusions
INTERVIEWS WITH SIGN I F ICANT OTHERS
6. 1 L ist of nterviewees
6.2 Conclusions
VI
65
67
1 1 6
1 1 7
1 1 8
1 44
1 47
1 47
1 94
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Appendices
TRUTH AND RECONCIL IAT ION
7.1 Account of what happened i n Kapija Square
on 25 May 1995
7.2 The graves
7.3 Ethnic background
7.4 Mixed-marriages
7.5 The importance of each part icipant 's ' story'
7.6 Trans-generational trauma
7. 7 Three basic facts/statements that arose from the
interviews
7.8 Support of community and rel ig ious leaders for
this project
7.9 Justice
7.10 M i l itary service
7.11 Displaced persons
7.12 Peacebui ld ing
CONCLUS ION
I. Project: Information sheet
196
197
198
200
202
205
206
207
207
209
211
213
214
217
227
2. Project: Participants consent form 233
3. Project: Interview questions 234
4. Eth ics review of ethics meet ing 2004 237
5. Project: Interpreters confidential ity agreement 239
6. Summary guidel ines for fieldwork 240
7. Restorative framework: Core values, guidelines and principles 242
8. B i ljena Plavsic addresses the international crim inal tribunal for the former Yugoslav ia at The Hague 2002 244
9. UN Convention on Genocide (1948) 248
VII
I 0. I n augural speech of publ ic prosecutor to war crimes chamber, Sarajevo, Bosn ia-Herzegovina 25 I
11. Names of those buried at A leja Mladosti cemetery 254
1 2 . N ames of those buried i n graves e lsewhere 256
11. UNPROFOR i nvestigat ion report on the she l l ing of Kapija Square 257
References 259
V Ill
61h -7th Centuries
869
I Oth Century
1159
Late 12th ·century
1219
1235-1265
1346
1353
1389
1453
1459
1483
CHRONOLOGY
BOSNIA AND SERBIA
Ancestors of South S lavs enter the Balkans (from Poland and the Ukraine)
Death of Saint Cyri l , symbol of the Christian izing of the South Slavs :
[a ] Dalmatia and Croatia came with in the domain of Charlemagne's Roman Catho l ic F rankish Empire
[b] Serbia and Macedon ia came with in the Byzantine Empire and Orthodox Christian ity
De Administrando Imperio first mention of Bosnae, as part of Serbia
Stefan Nemanja founds Serbia as an independent k ingdom
Independent state of Bosn ia
Saint Sava becomes the first Archb ishop of the Serbian Orthodox Church
War with Hungary. Bosnia defeated.
Founding of the Patriarchate of Serbian Orthodoxy
Trvtko is crowned King of Bosnia, Serbia and the Western Lands (extended to Serbia and the Dalmatian coast)
Death of Lazar at the batt le of Kosovo (Serbia defeated by Turkey)
Ottomans take Constantinople and change its name to Istanbul
Last Serb stronghold at Smederevo fal l s to the Ottomans (Serbia now part of the Ottoman Empire)
Ottomans take control of al l Bosnia and Herzegovina
IX
1 53 1
1 5 5 1
1 556
1 5 57
1 804
1 8 1 8
1 829
1 847
1 864
1 878
1 903
1 9 1 4
1 9 1 7
1 9 1 8
1 9 1 8
1 939
1 93 9
Gazi Husrev Beg Mosque constructed in Sarajevo, the major mosque in Bosnia
Coloured Mosque of Foca is constructed
Construction of the great Mostar bridge
Construction of the Drina River bridge at Visegrad
Karadjordje ' s revolt against Ottoman rule
Assassination of Karadjordje by rival Mi los Obrenovic, founder of the first modem Serbian dynasty
Treaty of Adrianople : Serbia gains autonomy under M i los Obrenovic
Njegos publ ishes The Mountain Wreath
Death of Yuk Karadzic, col l ector of Serb poetry and lore
Treaty of San Stefano: Ottomans cede Bosn ia to Austro-Hungarian Empire
Descendants of Karadjordje establ ish a new dynasty in Serbia
F irst World War commenced fol lowing the assassination of the Grand Duke of Austro-Hungary by a Serb national ist in Sarajevo. Serbia joined Great Britain, France and Russia against Germany, the Austro-Hungarian Empire of which Bosnia was a part, and Turkey
Un ion of South S lavs is declared
End of First World War: Germany, Austro-Hungarian Empire and Turkish Ottoman Empire defeated
Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and S lovenes ( later to be cal led Yugoslav ia) is estab l i shed under the authority of King Peter I of Serbia
Yugoslav ia reorgan ized : Bosn ia d ivided between Croatia and Serbia
Second World War commenced : Great Britain, France and Soviet Un ion (formerly Russia) against Germany, Japan and I taly
X
1 940
1 940
1 945
1 945
1 98 1
1 990
1 99 1
1 992
1 995
1 999
2003
2003
2006
2006
2006.
Yugoslav ia occupied by Germany
Independent Croatian state declared with German 'puppet' government establ i shed
End of Second World War: Germany, Japan and I taly defeated
Tito declares a federation of Yugoslav ia with 6 republ ics and 2 autonomous regions with in a soc ia l i st ideology (Commun ism)
Marshal Tito dies
S loven ia breaks away from Yugoslavia
Croatia-Serb ia war
Secret agreement between Serbia and Croatia to attack Bosnia and d iv ide the country between them withi n a pol icy of ethn icc leansing
Dayton Peace Agreement brokered by the Un ited States ends the war in Bosn ia. The country i s partit ioned into two entities determined by majority ethnic identity ( i .e . Federation of Mus l ims and Croats, and the Republ ika Srspka)
Death of President Franjo Tudj man of Croatia
Bosnia appl ies for membership of the European Un ion
Death of President Al ija I zetbegovic of Bosnia-Herzegov ina
Death of Slobodan Mi losevic, former President of Serbia from a heart attack while in custody at the Internat ional Crim inal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia at The Hague on charges of genocide and crimes against humanity
Referendum in Montenegro votes for i ndependence from union with Serbia
Serbia' s app l ication for membership to the European Union i s presently suspended
Source: Michael A. Sells (1996), The Bridge Betrayed (Religion and Genocide in Bosnia), University of Cal i fornia Press.
Additional material from 1 992-95 onwards: Bemard Jervis.
XI
ILLUSTRATIONS
KAPIJA SQUARE I MM EDIATEL Y A FTER 25 MAY 1 995 . Photo: ZLOCIN publi shed by
Bi H War Crimes Commission, 1 995
KAP IJA SQUARE 2004. Photo: Bernard Jervis
MEMORIAL IN KAPIJA SQUARE.1 Photo: Bemard Jervis
PLAQUE MARKING W H ERE THE SHELL EXPLODED. Photo: Bernard Jervis
BURYING THE DEAD A FTER 25 MAY 1 995. Photo: ZLOC IN publ i shed by BiH War
Crimes Commission, 1 995
IND I V I DU A L GRA YE IN ALEJA M LADOSTI CEMETERY. Photo: Bernard Jervis
THE GRA Y ES . Photo: Bernard Jervis
A LEJA M LA DOSTI CEMETERY. Photo: Bernard Jervis
I 0 TH ANNI VERSARY COMMEMORATIONS 2005. Photo: Bernard Jervis
REMEMBRANCE WALL FOR A L L 800 PEOPLE KI LLED IN TUZLA DURING 1 992-95 . Photo: Bernard Jervis
1 Trans lation of poem on Memorial:
'One does not l ive here only in order to l ive
One does not l ive here only in order to die One dies here in order to l ive.'
X I I