Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
WRITING AND THE WEB: THE CHANGING NATURE OF TEXT AND COMPOSITION
JENNIFER DEYENBERG
Bachelor of Education, University of Alberta, 2002
A CapstoneSubmitted to the School of Graduate Studies
of the University of Lethbridgein Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATIONLETHBRIDGE, ALBERTA
March 2012
WRITING AND THE WEB: THE CHANGING NATURE OF TEXT AND COMPOSITION
JENNIFER DEYENBERG
Approved:
Supervisor: Lorraine Beaudin, Ph.D. Date
Assistant Dean of Graduate Studies and Research in Education: DateKerry Bernes, Ph.D.
Abstract
The way we read, write, and analyze text is changing. The web is forever changing how we compose and share our writing. Digital media such as images, audio, video, interactive elements and game interactions are changing the way we look at stories and how we share writing to entertain, educate and inform. The immediacy and read/write nature of the Internet is opening up new audiences, new tools, and new ways to publish and relate with audiences. The digital workflow is different. People interact with digital media in a different way than with traditional written text. As we create text we must be aware of the elements which can be incorporated with technology. This brings a new element to writing which must be considered as we teach writing. Exposing emerging writers and to non-traditional texts will build understanding of decoding and creation of these new forms of literature. We need to address the changing nature and therefore the changing instruction of writing at both the higher education and the K-12 level.
iii
Table of Contents
Table of Contents iv
Tables and Figures vi
Introduction 1
The Changing Nature of Text 1
Definitions of Changing Text 3
Digital Story 4
Transmedia 4
Transliteracy 4
Multimodal Text 4
New Media Text 6
Digitally Integrated Text/Webtext/Media Infused Text 6
Ebook 6
The Creation of Meaning with Digital Text 7
Gaming in Education and Text Creation 11
Digital Text in Higher Education 13
Blogs 15
Virtual Learning Environments 17
Wikis 19
Facebook 19
Twitter21
ePortfolios 22
Digital Text in the K-12 Classroom 23
The Task 23
Planning 24
iv
Writing 25
Analyze 27
Revise 28
Link/Remix/Media 28
Share/Feedback 29
Examples of Digital Texts 32
2009 32
A Million Penguins 33
Twitter34
Project 1968 36
Pine Point 36
Lure of the Labyrinth 37
Blabla 38
Inanimate Alice 38
Conclusion 38
References 41
iv
List of Figures
1. Design Elements of Multimodal Text 5
2. Persuasion Map from Read, Write, Think 24
3. Planning and Writing Using Prezi 27
4. Wordle for Writing Analysis 28
vi
1
Introduction
As text and writing change and more digital media becomes a vital part of composition,
this changes what it means to be literate. As we consider how composition should be
characterised and instructed at the K-12 and Higher Education level the changing nature of what
it means to write, to create, and to be literate are evolving and incorporating more visual, audio,
web-based and interactive elements afforded to use through the use of technology.
No longer can we study text based poetry and prose and consider this a well-rounded
look at literature and writing. What are the new literacies? What needs to be included in our
instruction of writing and literacy?
The Changing Nature of Text
In Scotland, progressive new skills-based, not content driven curriculum, called the
Curriculum for Excellence (2009), defines text in the context of education:
It follows that the definition of ‘texts’ also needs to be broad and future proof. Therefore,
within Curriculum for Excellence:
A text is the medium through which ideas, experiences, opinions and information can be
communicated.
Texts not only include those presented in traditional written or print form, but also orally,
electronically or on film. Texts can be in continuous form, including traditional formal
prose, or non-continuous, for example charts and graphs. The literacy framework reflects
2
the increased use of multimodal texts, digital communication, social networking and the
other forms of electronic communication encountered by children and young people in
their daily lives. It recognises that the skills which children and young people need to
learn to read these texts differ from the skills they need for reading continuous prose. (p.
20)
This definition allows for a wide range of diversity and creativity in the way text is
presented, interpreted, and created. As pointed out in the preamble, it also allows for future
proofing. The definition provides allowances for printed, digital, and real time text found in
communication mediums.
The National Council of Teachers of English (2009) in the United States also recognizes
that literacy and text is changing with their definition of digital literacies:
Literacy has always been a collection of cultural and communicative practices shared
among members of particular groups. As society and technology change, so does literacy.
Because technology has increased the intensity and complexity of literate environments,
the twenty-first century demands that a literate person possess a wide range of abilities
and competencies, many literacies. These literacies—from reading online newspapers to
participating in virtual classrooms—are multiple, dynamic, and malleable. As in the past,
they are inextricably linked with particular histories, life possibilities, and social
trajectories of individuals and groups. Twenty-first century readers and writers need to
• Develop proficiency with the tools of technology
• Build relationships with others to pose and solve problems collaboratively and cross-
3
culturally
• Design and share information for global communities to meet a variety of purposes
• Manage, analyze, and synthesize multiple streams of simultaneous information
• Create, critique, analyze, and evaluate multimedia texts
• Attend to the ethical responsibilities required by these complex environments. (p. 1)
This definition recognizes the emergent skills which come along with the new forms of
text being created and consumed by learners.
Couros (2011), a district principal and edublogger, wrote an insightful blog post
(http://georgecouros.ca/blog/archives/2118 ) about how defining literacy should not be about
21st century literacies, but just literacy, as literacy is an evolving, dynamic concept.
Literacy should transcend medium, but as the medium is evolving and changing it is
important to address and be conscious of the mediums we are now choosing to include when we
are teaching literacy in our classrooms. When looking at the changing nature of text, writing, and
composition and the texts with digital content infused the naming of the genre is confusing and
disjointed. “Literacy is the flexible and sustainable mastery of a repertoire of practices with the
texts of traditional and new communications technologies via spoken, print, and multimedia”
(Luke & Freebody, 2000, p. 9)
Definitions of Changing Text
Many terms and genre defying categories are emerging. Below are the definitions of the
areas that I will be referring to in this paper:
4
Digital Story
A generic term for stories produced and shared by digital means. It tends to include
image and audio, not just a word processed version of the story.
Transmedia
Stories which cross genre, medium, and type. For example a television show which has
some of the plot developments play out on a website, or in a game. The term was described by
Jenkins (2003) in his work Transmedia Storytelling which looked at the perspective of
Hollywood and the media and how they can build a depth of character development and use it as
a marketing opportunity to build a franchise.
Transliteracy
“Transliteracy is the ability to read, write and interact across a range of platforms, tools
and media from signing and orality through handwriting, print, TV, radio and film, to digital
social networks.” (Pullinger, 2012)
Multimodal Text
Multi-modal texts are those that rely on the processing and interpretation of print
information, which blends with visual, audio, spoken, nonverbal, and other forms of expression
produced through a range of different technologies and methods (Anstey & Bull, 2006).
5
The model of multimodal text below from the New London Group (1996, p. 24)
recognizes the bringing together of different modes of creating meaning to produce a more
meaningful text.
Figure 1: Design Elements of Multimodal Text (New London Group, 1996, p. 24)
Anastopoulou, Baber, & Sharples, (2001) examine the difference between multimodal
and multimedia systems and point out the importance of interactivity to activating and using the
senses which the multimodal genre requires. A true multimodal text should be interactive to truly
engage all of the modes of the reader/consumer.
6
New Media Text
New media is a reference less to literature and more to the instant access sharing,
publishing shift which the connectivity of the Internet provides. This new mode of
communication allows for the rise and overlap of composition, art, media, and other mediums.
Design writing and sharing forums, such as blogs and wikis, which exist because of the form of
new media, provides a platform for writing, composition, and styles of literacy that fit the new
media medium.
I think we should call "new media texts" those that have been made by composers who
are aware of the range of materialities of texts and who then highlight the materiality;
such composers design texts that help readers/consumers/viewers stay alert to how any
text–like its composers and readers–doesn’t function independently of how it is made and
in what contexts. Such composers design texts that make as overtly visible as possible the
values they embody. (Wysocki et al, 2004, p. 15)
Digitally Integrated Text/Webtext/Media Infused Text
These terms have been used to describe text that has components of image, audio, video,
or other media added or integrated.
E-book
This term is usually associated with electronic book readers, such as the Kindle or iPad. It
tends to reflect a screen based version of a static text, not a text infused with media.
7
Carr (2010), points out, “We need to take advantage of the medium and create something
dynamic to enhance the experience. I want links and behind the scenes extras and narration and
videos and conversation…you change what it is and you change, as well, the experience of
reading it……the book’s migration to the digital realm would not be a simple matter of trading
ink for pixels” (p. 103).
The Creation of Meaning with Digital Text
Writing and creating meaning through the interplay of modes is deepens engagement
with text, therefore making more connections, and ultimately more learning. Digital means open
up new doors and opportunities for combining media to add richness and depth to imagination,
creativity, and ideas. It is important to get at the heart of creating rich digital, multimodal text by
stressing the selection and reasoning process as part of creation. Creating image, audio and
written text and the choosing a powerful interplay between them has the potential to create
dramatic works. It is vital to get beyond remixed, simple, recreations and really get to the art of
choice and artistic creation. Digital tools to create, share, and get feedback on works are limitless
and in a constant state of flux and creation.
In this context literacy, defined as our ability to read and write, is analysed as part of a
multimodal design where meaning is created through the interplay between different
modes. Digital media can, for example, make it easier to combine writing and pictures to
create multimodal texts. (Skaar, 2009, p. 37)
Skaar, 2009, argues that this choosing from a menu style for the creation of text means
that students don’t get the same level of learning that they do with traditional writing and text
8
creation. He argues that it is just about choosing, and not about creating. This oversimplification
of creating digital works by simply choosing pictures is a dangerous dismissal of a powerful and
progressive form of literature. Skaar recognizes the engaging nature of new media, but dismisses
its creation as not as sophisticated as traditional writing. Video production, the interplay of
sound, image, text, and multisensory modes mean more consideration to the audience. It’s akin
to the difference between a basic line drawing and a major motion picture. The story comes
alive. The process of bring a text to life with sound, image, and interactivity and more as
technology and imagination allow is complex and demanding on learners. This complexity is not
recognized by Skaar’s criticisms of digital text production.
The essence of the DJ’s art is the ability to mix selected elements in rich and
sophisticated ways. In contrast the ‘cut and paste’ metaphor . . . that suggest that selected
elements can be simply, almost mechanically, combined, the practice of live electronic
music demonstrates that true art lies in the ‘mix.’ (Manovich, 2001, p. 135)
The creation of digital text is more than making traditional text richer or more visually
appealing, it is about a new genre of writing which engages more modes, senses and levels that
flat traditional text and launches writing into a new realm of creativity and complexity. There is
much potential, one must just look beyond the traditional!
The digitization of text opens up new potential for interactive and multimodal
experiences. A text simply transferred to an e-reader with page like flipping and colours to make
it look exactly like a page in a book isn’t engaging the potential and promise of what could be
provided as a digital experience.
9
Young emerging readers can use a site such as Starfall (http://www.starfall.com/) to
practice and match sounds to learn words, then immediately put those words into use in a text.
They can click on words to have them read orally to them, and interact with the pictures as they
change and animate with the words they read. This combination of traditional text, phonics
instruction, video, and sound provides an engaging medium which appeals to different learning
styles. Some students like to read the text out loud, some need hard words read to them. The
students choose what they needed and wanted to engage with.
An example of a more traditional alternative would be Reading A-Z
(http://www.readinga-z.com/). The site is full of levelled readers and fantastic books to progress
students through reading. The text comes in pdf (portable document format) format. You can
print, project, or view on a screen, but you can only view. You can’t interact, it just simply
moves forwards and backwards. Three is a place for static prose and reading, but when text is
digitized, why not add multimodal elements such as audio or interactivity to increase
engagement and access to different learning styles. Text simply scanned in and on a screen might
not achieve the same level of engagement or differentiation.
Own Your Space (http://www.ownyourspace.net/) is a digital book, produced by
Microsoft, all about online safety, your digital footprint, and safe social networking. It is a very
comprehensive visually appealing, and well produced resource. Unfortunately, it is only
available in two formats, pdf, and xps (open fixed document), so it is static and not interactive.
You can click on a hyperlink, if you have the correct version of the software, but there is no
opportunity to participate in exploring, finding more information, engaging more senses, or
drawing the reader into the text.
10
Contrast this digital text with a multimodal, interactive text such as Smokescreen.
Smokescreen (http://www.smokescreengame.com/) is an online simulation. You have to read,
listen, watch, play, interact, and create as you learn all about the real dangers and consequences
of using social networking mediums. The immersive world, while still full of text, is much more
about creating an experience and having users interact with the material, not just consume. Users
are drawn into an episodic interactive experience, instead of just consuming a static text, even if
that text is in a digital format.
Luce-Kapler and Dobson (2005) found that when readers contrasted experiences of
reading traditional prose versus hyperfiction (their term for mulitmodal text) they had to let go of
familiar notions about the structure of text. The story was not necessarily sequential or linear in
nature and “it was only when they could give up those expectations and find meaning in each
individual node that they could begin to develop an overall sense of what the hyperfiction might
mean. It seemed they had to be prepared to be lost in the text, something these readers were not
used to being” (p. 13). Being lost in text could be exactly what our learners need. A sense of
exploration and finding their own path of learning through a text allows them to take ownership
of the story.
Hegarty (2004) reminds us that digital text is not just about the style of the text, but also
about the content which is trying to be delivered, and the skills needed to interpret and construct
meaning from the content being presented.
…we need more attention to what is to be learned in a given situation and the abilities
(especially internal visualization abilities) that learners bring to the situation in order to
improve our understanding of how dynamic media can be best used in the educational
11
process and how the educational process itself must adapt to the availability of new
media. (p. 349)
Gaming in Education and Text Creation
When examining multimodal and interactive genres of text and text creation examining
the ultimate interactive experience, video gaming, must be included. Videogames are text rich,
interactive, inspiring pieces of literature. Videogames are a mainstay of our culture and in the
lives of learners. Educators are starting to recognize the potential of this tool to bring
informational, narrative, and multimodal writing into our classrooms. “A pedagogy of play
emphasizes active participation, leading to the production of rhetorical texts for a gamespace
community” (Colby & Colby, 2008, p. 301) Colby & Colby (2008) give this example of the
potential for games to lead to writing:
For instance, as a result of playing WoW (World of Warcraft) students could design
forums, blogs, websites, and various gamespace guides. This feature of the emergent
class also means that its predominant feature is not just analysis of a cultural artifact.
Although some analysis can still serve an emergent pedagogy, this analysis is in service
of helping students produce actively used, rhetorical texts within and for the game
community. Consequently, through playing and discussing the game in class, students are
more apt to feel they have the expertise to move beyond what others have written because
they are writing for those who are as invested in reading the material they produce .(p.
305-306)
12
Writing is more than just about reflecting on an experience, it is part of the experience. With a
game, writing can serve to enhance the game or the understanding of the game for others.
Learning to write in an online forum or writing instructions are important skills to develop.
Alexander (2009) point outs, “…many such games are also textually rich and require
quite a bit of reading, writing, and critical thinking. Indeed, at the most basic level, gaming
involves complex use of multiple modes of writing and a need to develop a sense of how text and
visuals interact” (p. 36). An example of a textually rich, complex game is Professor Layton and
the Curious Village on the Nintendo DS. Professor Layton is trying to find Flora and solve the
mysteries of St. Mystere. The gamer has to read, meet the characters, and solve puzzles. It is a
fantastic text to use with upper primary students. You have to use a touch interface to read and
move through the game and you have to use visuals, interactivity, and text to uncover the
answers to the mysteries. Using this kind of game teachers could ask students to create a new
character and write dialogue or a puzzle for the character to present to Professor Layton or Luke
(his assistant) to solve. Students could create a walkthrough or puzzle problem solving site, or
even follow Professor Layton’s twitter account.
Educators should consider using complex computer games as primary “texts” in
composition courses as a way to engage with students a more provocative and productive
examination of contemporary literacy practices. Bring a modern take on what a text could be into
the classroom to incite debate and a broader awareness of what text could be. (Alexander, 2009)
13
Digital Text in Higher Education
Higher Education is seeing an influx of tools to enhance learning and infuse technology
into classes. Instructors and professors are shifting their pedagogical approach to include tools to
allow students to share, collaborate, reflect, and create online. “…students noted that they expect
a university education to include the use and instruction of important technologies in academic
and non-academic settings,” (Gustafson, 2004, p. 38).
Spatially and conceptually writing is changing in how, where, and why students choose
to compose. “In Web 2.0, writing and researching activities are increasingly integrated both
spatially and conceptually. It can be argued that, with this integration, Web 2.0 technologies
showcase how research and writing together participate in knowledge production,” (Purdy, 2010,
p. 48). These tools are varied in style, format, and settings. Some formats such as blogs are
personal and open for comments. Other formats are open only to class members. There are as
many combinations and permutations in settings within various platforms as there are thoughtful
contributions and discussions taking place in these online learning environments. “Through the
use of ePortfolio and other Web 2.0 tools, students implement critical digital literacy skills as
they learn how to write for real audiences and find an authentic voice,” (Klages & Clark, 2009,
p. 34).
When weighing the possibilities and limitations of the various platforms to provide
students and teachers an online space to communicate, collaborate, and learn, it is important to
weigh the goals of learning, limitations of tools, and learning curve of the new technologies.
Although many students come with a strong technological base, many do not, or are not familiar
with all tools and platforms. (Pearce et al., 2010). This was confirmed by Gustafson (2004) when
14
students expressed frustrations with assignments which required advanced technical skills.
Students in this cased requested advanced notification of the basic skills required so they could
master the required technical components to complete the assignment. A common platform
across an institution, such as an LMS may be advantageous in this manner as students use the
same skill set from course to course instead of having to start fresh with each new instructor. At
the same time exposure to a wide range of online tools allows students to build a more
transferable set of skills, as they are asked to try new things and push their range of familiarity.
Liang (2007) also noted that some students felt the course became one about “online learning”
instead of “English learning,” (p. 2874). This is a concern, as the focus must remain on the
intended content and pedagogy to deliver that content, not the delivery tool. Purdy (2010),
warned that faculty cannot automatically assume that students have the skills to use Web 2.0
technologies and “that Web 2.0 technologies offer particular affordances is not enough; teachers
need to help students develop the perceptual lenses with which to use these affordances
productively for work in the academy” (p. 56). Students need to able to differentiate between
research texts that are unfinished and those that have been vetted and are reliable.
Purdy (2010) summarizes the potential of Web 2.0 in a higher education institution”
Web 2.0 asks users to write as they are researching and can encourage more active
written response to texts. Students have a space in which to make their contributions
visible, and these contributions can have a hand in changing texts or research practices…
their voices matter. (p. 55-56)
15
Blogs
A Blog is a chronological journal platform. Blogs are conversational, personal, and
creative. They allow for people to post openly and instantly on the open internet. The friendly,
open nature of blogs allows for comments and feedback from classmates and beyond. Blogs are
organized by date with the newest post on top of the stack, and older posts further down the
page. You can give posts categories and tags to organize and make previous writing searchable.
You can sign up for email, text, or RSS (Really Simple Syndication) alerts of new posts or
comments, making a blog easy to follow and track. Posting and commenting features are
simple and very similar across various types of types of blogs, without menus full of choices and
confusion, making blogs friendly and non-threatening. “As an online arena where error, language
play, and invention are not only accommodated but actively incorporated, blogs are a
surprisingly straightforward way to negotiate the tensions of error” (Smith, 2008, p. 37).
Students in Farmer, Vue, and Brooks (2007) found that blogging was a real world
communication platform. An idea would take off in the class and become a self-generating
conversation instead of an assigned task. It was a cultural practice which related to the world
outside of the classroom and the institution. Students can experiment with writing style without
the pressure of a formal academic structure to find their voice.
Ferdig and Trammell (2004) defined four pedagogic benefits of blogging for students:
1. Assisting students to become subject matter experts through a process of regular
scouring, filtering and posting.
2. Increasing student interest and ownership in learning.
16
3. Giving students legitimate chances to participate and enculturating them into a
community of practice.
4. Providing opportunities for diverse perspectives. (p. 124)
The online nature of blogs mean there is an “…ease of editing in this digital format,
encourag[ing] more writing, and the archiving features of the blog kept a long-running history of
the exchanges” (Banister, Ross, & Vannatta, 2008, p. 3619). You can add a twitter stream, a
social network features, or a more traditional discussion forum with the customizable features of
blog platforms. Blogs allow for personal control and ownership of content for students. Blogs are
a very reflective. Students can delve into their learning by writing and sharing thoughts,
challenges, and goals. Finding a voice and audience for writing is very motivating. Blogging
makes writing accessible, easy, and gives it purpose. With this voice and purpose come student
ownership, pride, and a sense of community. “Blogging enabled my students to bounce ideas off
one another and develop new trains of thought that they might not have considered on their own.
It also helped them think about how they communicate in different arenas and to various
audiences” (Smith, 2008, p. 45).
The conversation is not a descriptive writing challenge, it is an academic challenge.
Learners have to go back through their thinking, revisit instruction, and build on their
knowledge. The process helps to scaffold and support learners with personal reflection and
community feedback. “It was a way to express my own views…which gave me a sense of
freedom” while another said, “It shows how I do develop my knowledge by posting my thinking
in a written method” – A Student Comment from Sheetz and Curcher, 2008 (p. 1258).
17
Virtual Learning Environments
Learning Management Systems (LMS), Virtual Learning Environments (VLE) or Course
Management Systems (CMS) are centralized, institution controlled, closed Internet portals to
share ideas, upload and download course materials and interact with other course members. They
are on the Internet, so they can be accessed outside the classroom and the institution, but they are
closed networks. Only the people the university and the individual course instructors are
permitted into each course can interact and view material.
Liang (2007), found that, “In comparison to centralized learning management system
(e.g., Blackboard), blogs can empower learners to actively manage their blog content,
communicate their learning goals, and maintain interpersonal relationships in a community” (p.
1687).
Valdes-Corbeil and Corbeil (2008) outlined the limitations of traditional learning
management system discussion boards:
1. inflexible organization and display of discussion threads
2. plain and visually unappealing text-based interface
3. inability of participants to upload avatars or photos of themselves
4. compartmentalized discussions that require readers to go in and out of threads, which
can disrupt the flow of conversation. (p. 1318)
Through new advances and design elements in new Learning Management Systems many
of these limitations are being overcome. Blackboard and Moodle are emerging as two dominant
choices with Blackboard recently acquiring both WebCT and Elluminate, it is incorporating the
18
best features from multiple platforms to create a more modern, more versatile tool. The open
source alternative Moodle is also updating and changing with the recent release of Moodle 2.0.
The new release incorporates more Web 2.0, social media tie ins, and works well with the open
source e-portfolio system Mahara. Moodle does take a lot of work to create attractive design
elements and customization of features to develop a system that meets the needs of the
institution. Other learning management systems (LMS) such as Frog, Glow, and Desire to Learn
are also being used, but with more uptake at the K-12 education level.
In their study comparing blogs to traditional discussion forums, most often found in
LMS, Valdes-Corbeil and Corbeil (2008) discovered that undergraduate students reported the
following
[T]he blog has more of a ‘discussion’ sense of feeling than the discussion board.
Participating in this blog has enabled me to present my interpretation of a topic and give
my reasoning for what I think. I also get to read others’ opinions and deduce what I agree
or disagree with. Thus, this type of atmosphere coincides more accurately with the term
‘discussion.’ In the discussion board, I don’t feel like I am participating in a discussion,
but rather, submitting responses to an instructor’s questions or prompts. (p. 1322)
Blogs move beyond institutionalization into more authentic, personally controlled open
writing and reflection. Part of this personal control is the choice to have blogs open or closed. In
a first year English course for students learning English, Sheetz and Curcher (2008) found 30%
of the emerging English writers shared their blog only with the instructors, 40% with close
friends, classmates and colleagues, and the final 30% had them full open. This measure of
control allows students to make their own choice about the sharing of their writing.
19
Wikis
Wikis are websites which are easily created to provide a collaborative space to create,
write, and share. Pages are easy to create. Videos, media, image, and interactive content are easy
to insert with embeddable HTML code or through an add image interface. Wikis are a
collaborative group sharing space, more than the individual, chronological blog. A wiki is more
like a traditional webpage, but it can be edited and modified very easily by multiple users.
Anzai (2008) used a wiki for collaborative writing in a higher education first year English
class, and found, “82.1% of the students responded positively, of which 32.1% responded that
they strongly agreed and 50% responded that they agreed. On the other hand, 3.6% were
negative, and 14.3% were neutral. Thus most of the students perceived that a wiki enhanced
collaborative learning in English writing” (p. 549)
Facebook is a massive social network, originally designed for use by higher education
students. The concept is that you create a profile. “The creation of an online social networking
profile is in actuality a complicated exercise in self-representation that requires a great deal of
skill in composition, selection, manipulation, and appropriation (Perkel, 2006, p. 9)” Then you
can connect with friends and family, and share updates, photos, play games, and communicate in
real time chat. Pages for companies, groups, and institutions can also be created with a message
board, groups of members, and a place to share and communicate.
Facebook is such a dominant tool in the lives of students being present in this social
networking world helps to guide, advise, model, and teach responsible use. Burying your head in
20
the sand and pretending they don’t exist does more of a disservice. “Kemp pointed out that
student initiative will be key—not only desirable but imperative—for an “interactive
environment,” because these environments are effective only when students actively write and
post. Obviously, if faculty are to “guide” learning, they must be there to guide it, whether that
means being physically present in a classroom or virtually represented in online spaces including
Facebook or MySpace” (p. 27)
Selwyn (2010) examined the Facebook use of 909 higher education students, five themes of
use emerged from the data:
1. recounting and reflecting on the university experience
2. exchange of practical information
3. exchange of academic information
4. displays of supplication and/or disengagement
5. exchanges of humour and nonsense. (p. 8)
If a tool such as Facebook is already such a dominant presence in the social lives of
students, why not repurpose the tool to use it in the higher education environment? Ordinary
users have taken to social networks making them mainstream, and worthy of examination and
scrutiny. For example, Dr. Fogg’s Psychology class at Standford (https://docs.google.com/View?
docid=dcqn4jpj_156gr5kp9c8) not only studies Facebook, but uses it in class as a tool to share
and communicate. Many LMS and discussion forums that are put out there by Higher Education
institutions are just trying to match the user experience already in a social networking space such
as Facebook. Create a group in Facebook, an environment students are familiar with and have
21
students post questions and discussions in a space where they know how to use it and can focus
on content instead of logging into yet another space and learning a new interface.
Twitter is an online, open, microblogging tool. Users share 140 character snippets of
information which can be sent to an open audience, directed at a specific or small group of users,
or private messages can be sent. In this manner twitter users can communicate with specific
individuals or can interact with all users. On twitter users choose to follow other users and they
can see on their main page a feed of the ‘tweets’ sent out by those they follow. Conversely,
anyone who follows a twitter user will have their ‘tweets’ populate their twitter page. A user can
follow a narrow, specialized group, or a wide range of users sharing about different interests and
topics.
Junco, Heiberger, and Loken (2011) found that when using twitter in a first year course
for pre-health professional majors, the students who used the microblogging, social networking
platform Twitter had, on average, achieved a GPA in the course which was a half a grade point
ahead of the control group. They also found an increase in engagement scores in the
experimental group. The research found that there was more interaction between students and
faculty when twitter was used as a communication medium in the higher education courses.
Graduate students also seem to see Twitter as a potential tool for increasing their engagement in
courses, “I never was able to benefit from the insights of my classmates using the paper/word
document format…with twitter however, I was able to follow the presentation, read my
classmates insights and evaluate my own thoughts at the same time” (Beaudin & Deyenberg,
2011, p. 6).
22
Twitter can be used to facilitate rapid, as needed, conversation. Students can send
enquires out to specific classmates, instructors, or to the general public. This provides a targeted,
but diverse audience for students to share ideas, acquire assistance, and bring their students to a
collaborative audience.
ePortfolios
An Electronic Portfolio or e-portfolio is an online place to store, share, and critique work.
The work can be text, image, or multi-modal. Through selection, critique, and commenting the e-
portfolio platform can be a reflective and powerful tool for assessment and development. “The
use of portfolios in language learning should contribute to learners taking more responsibility for
documenting and assessing their language abilities,” (Godwin-Jones, 2008, p. 10).
E-Portfolios are more personal and customizable than most Web 2.0 platforms.
Individual users take ownership and responsibility for choice, development, and style.
“Potentially, well-designed and expandable e-portfolios offer to the MySpace generation a more
inviting environment than the rigid confines of the traditional learning management system”
(Godwin-Jones, 2008, p. 9).
Students compose and receive feedback digitally, which is new. But, within the context
of composition studies, students are attentive to questions of audience and the
development of writing in ways that are similar to a paper portfolio’s function in a
writing course. ePortfolios serve as an ideal bridge between traditional, essayistic literacy
pedagogies and emerging digital rhetoric pedagogies because they embody both the old
and the new. (Clark, 2010, p. 29)
23
Digital Text in the K-12 Classroom
In a K-12 classroom creating digital text can take on many forms. Designing activities
which not only enhance writing by using technology, but allow students to do things that
couldn’t be done before is not only possible, but easy.
With the implementation of technology, a new stage of the writing process is made
easier--analysis. Tools such as word processors and word cloud generators allow us to have
technological tools to graphically represent, map, and analyse our word choices, as has never
been possible before. Whether as mundane as a simple word count and spell check to edit and
revise with, or as complex as a word cloud to see patterns and trends emerge in our writing,
technology is allowing us to easily and quickly get analytical feedback about our writing.
The following is an example of the writing process in a digital format, and the benefits of this
approach to writing.
The Task
The students were to write a persuasive paragraph. The topic was to persuade readers if
the legal driving age should be lowered, increased, or remain the same. The topic can be varied,
what is important here is the process, and that all of it is on the computer, not just pieces. The
students used all sorts of tools, all of them web based, but all of them to complete different parts
of the writing process.
24
Planning
An interactive planning map from Read Write Think
((http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/interactives/persuasion_map/) was used to help
students build their arguments. It allowed the students to think through their arguments, build a
bank of thoughts and examples. Students could save their plan as a portable document file (pdf)
to easily refer to, or include in their wiki to show the entire process of their writing.
Figure 2: Persuasion Map from Read, Write, Think
The benefit of this tool was that it broke the planning into small chunks or writing, and it
didn’t overwhelm the students. They could easily see the connections between the thesis, the
reasons, and the supporting examples as the tool shifted between them. It also had a great
overview map in the corner to be able to see the entire outline and where you were in the
process. A draw back to the tool is that it can’t be saved part way through if there is an
interruption, only a completed piece can be saved.
25
Other online planning tools include mindmaps, such as mindmeister
(http://www.mindmeister.com/), bubbl.us (https://bubbl.us/) or spicy nodes
(http://www.spicynodes.org/). These tools allow for easy editing, instant sharing, saving and
viewing from multiple locations, ability to embed into a website, wiki, or blog. One of the best
things about these tools, is the ability for multiple people to contribute. Mindmeister is especially
powerful as multiple people can edit, real time. This allows for collaborative planning that can be
saved and added to by multiple people, at any time.
Online planning has the advantage of being collaborative, real time and accessible in a
variety of times and locations. It is flexible, responsive, and adaptable to the needs of the
students, the content, and the lesson.
Writing
The students constructed their writing online. When they write directly on the computer
they can easily flip back to the planning, or many pulled it up side by side with their wiki.
Writing online gives direct access to spell check functions, instant publication, access to instant
feedback, and easy revision. Technology offers tools both online and offline which can enhance
writing. Writers can edit and change as they do without constant crossing out or erasing. This is
especially important with young writers as trying to be perfect, or being caught up in letter
formation can stifle creative thought and flow. Adaptive technologies such as speech to text,
trainable predictive programs, or digital ink technologies such as the Livescribe bridge the gap
for those who might struggle with typing or writing disabilities. Technology affords the
flexibility to focus on the writing and the message, not the mechanics.
26
Crook and Bennett (2007) found that, “Although Year 4 and Year 6 children make
similar levels of visual reference to the draft, these glances are more prevalent when typing than
when pen-writing, at all ages” (p. 318). This study was drafting with pen and paper, not drafting
on the computer. When switching between modes of planning and creation tools, there could be
a risk of the thinking and use of the planning not crossing over. Purdy (2010) found, “In Web
2.0, writing and researching activities are increasingly integrated both spatially and conceptually.
I argue that, with this integration, Web 2.0 technologies showcase how research and writing
together participate in knowledge production” (p. 48). When writers to pull different modes of
writing and text creation together, an awareness of making sure that there are connections
between modes and methods of production is necessary.
When the students planned with the online tools they could pull up their planning, have it
side by side on the screen, and even copy and paste over key pieces. This allowed them to make
better use and reference to their planning, because it was in the same place as their writing.
Another tool used for planning and composing engaging digital text is the online
presentation tool, Prezi (http://prezi.com). The tool allowed students to create a plan which
moved and flowed, then were allowed to create the story in the same place, with the same tool.
This meant the format and style for both the thinking and the actual writing could flow and
match in style and thought.
27
Figure 3: Planning and Writing Using Prezi
The writing wasn’t linear, as in on a page, in order, it was linear in thought, but the flexible
medium allowed for creative composition.
Analyze
Wordle (http://www.wordle.net/) was used as an analysis tool. The idea was for them to
paste their paragraph into wordle to see what words where coming across as important or
repeated. This student was really noticed the word ‘might’ as being prevalent in wordle form.
Might is not a very strong word for a persuasive piece of writing. It gave her some guidance of
where to start the revision process. This step in the writing process is one I haven’t put into
writing before using technology to facilitate writing. Writing on the web is different than writing
with pen and paper. You have more tools and options at your disposal, teach your students to use
them to be better writers, not just better publishers.
28
Figure 4: Wordle for Writing Analysis
Revise
On their wiki pages the students were asked to leave their original paragraph, but copy it
and make changes in a version below it. This inspired them to make actual changes. If it looked
exactly the same it was very clear that they weren’t actually revising. Giving specific editing
criteria, specific to the needs to the learner, allows the student to have specific guidance and
feedback on what they need focus on. The criteria can be looking at changing the beginnings of
sentences, adding figurative language, adverbs, or adjectives – as appropriate to the topic. Smith
(2008) found, “As an online arena where error, language play, and invention are not only
accommodated but actively incorporated, blogs are a surprisingly straightforward way to
negotiate the tensions of error” (p. 37).
Productivity tools can streamline the writing process. Spelling and grammar check are
key tools to use technology to help to writers correct mistakes. The predictive tools and instant
recognition of potential problems or errors assists writers to revise and edit as they compose and
create, but also go back and review afterwards to look at the piece as a whole. When using
technology the level of productivity and accuracy can be increased with the use of editing and
revision features built into sites and word processors. Technology allows for a safe space to
change and make revisions. You can make a change and easily change it back, or save the
original work before the changes. The drafting process becomes less final and more flexible.
Link/Remix/Media
29
Writing online has many more affordances than previous available. Part of the process of
writing online is to link to other works, adding pictures media, which are not just additions to the
writing, but often vital parts of the story, the organization, and the piece. In the creation of a
persuasive piece of writing the students were, without any prompting searching for pictures to
use as support for their arguments and asking if they could include them as part of their writing.
They wanted to use quotations and statistics they researched, without being asked to go that far,
just the call for examples to support for opinions led them to search for support. When they are
writing on the web they have instant access to these resources and links. They can instantly
embed them and add them to their writing. Adding media, linking to other authorities, and
remixing the ideas of others to support their own work is an essential part of writing. Writing is
not a solitary action; it links to other people, other ideas, and other work. Writing in a networked
space allows for ideas to grow, expand, and be supported.
Share/Feedback
As part of the writing process it is important to give feedback and give students the
opportunity to share their writing. In this case, the students wrote directly on a wiki. This means
they are instantly publishing and sharing. Built in discussion features of a wiki allow places to
leave feedback and comments. Writing online gives that extra added incentive to polish and give
more effort – anyone can read it! Sharing is no longer handing in a story for only the teacher’s
eyes or posting a piece of work on the bulletin board. Writing as part of a community is key to
the process (Liang, 2007). Building and maintaining relationships through commenting and
feedback allow for interaction with an audience. This audience and feedback is motivating to
increasing the quality and quantity of writing. Hart-Davidson, et al. (2005) state, “Computer
30
technologies allow writers with access to a computer network to become publishers and
distributors of their writing. And chances are they will get feedback, sometimes immediately.
Therefore, audiences and writers are related to each other more interactively in time and space”
(p. 3). Mass audiences and feedback change writing by giving it instant meaning. Writing with
web tools allow for interaction with text, with technology, and with people. Writing is no longer
a solitary process, it is a social process.
In response to using online writing activities with her high school students, Sutherland
(2011) identifies that:
The results were fabulous! First and foremost, EVERY student improved their writing
having identified weaknesses with the Wordle starter. Seeing the words in pictorial form
helped them identify what they needed to change about their language choices in order to
better meet the brief
The use of wordle as a writing analysis tool provided Sutherland’s (2011) students with
the opportunity to examine their word choice by looking at the frequency and selection of their
words (Wordle, 2012). Wordle strips out the common words to really get at the words of
significance and prominence. This setting can be modified under the ‘Languages’ to show what
the word frequency would look like without the common words removed. The removal of the
common words allows the main message and thesis of a student’s work to be revealed.
Sutherland’s students used this to see what was missing from their work to meet the criteria of
the assignment.
31
The Wiki encouraged them to think much more precisely about editing their work
because they knew their friends (and me) were logged in and watching what they were
doing. There was a real buzz about the place. Every time a new post came in there was a
little yelp of excitement. Best of all, the class barely needed me there to achieve. This
was true independent learning. I was definitely facilitating rather than teaching!
(Sutherland, 2011)
An online publishing format, such as a Wiki, allows for instant sharing of writing. The
read/write nature of web 2.0 gives students an opportunity to not only produce and publish
writing, but a chance to consume and give feedback on their classmates writing. As Sutherland
(2011) pointed out it gave learners a chance to write and comment independently. They were
excited about the opportunity of an authentic audience, and this was just within the confines of
their own classroom, imagine if the audience was their parents, other family, another class, or an
infinite number of global readers. The web enables this writing, reading, sharing and feedback
opportunity to tap into new levels of motivation to improve student writing by catering to the
newfound audience.
One pupil (usually quite unmotivated) even found some internet links about writing to
persuade and started an additional discussion topic where he pasted them for his friends
to use. Awesome! Even more awesome, when I started a discussion forum entitled ‘what
have you learned from your friends today’ many of them excitedly posted specific skills
they had improved, which demonstrated that they had really engaged with the assessment
process and thoroughly understood how to improve. (Sutherland, 2011)
32
An online environment allowed this pupil to extend their learning and make connections
to outside sources in an easy, accessible manner. The student took ownership over their own
learning to extend and show proficiency in understanding not only the material but the online
tool, in this case a wiki, as a medium to demonstrate understanding and sharing knowledge with
others.
The words, assessment process, are a key piece to understanding writing online. The use
of the word cloud tool wordle and a wiki, a web 2.0 tool, allowed students to self-assess their
writing. Wordle allowed them to assess their word choice and reflect on the text they had written.
The wiki allowed an audience to assess their work by giving feedback and sharing their thoughts.
The students could then change and modify their writing based on the comments and feedback
they received.
This assessment led to a moment of revelation that every teacher dreams of:
At the end of the lesson, one pupil went to give me their original piece of writing to mark
and then took it back and said:
‘[A]ctually Miss, you don’t need to mark this now do you? I already know how to make
it better. I reckon I can get an A next time!’ (Sutherland, 2011)
Examples of Digital Text
2009
2009 (http://www.2009atruestory.com/) is an online drama, written by Tony Valenzuela
and Jeffery Hunt based on three major US cities having been destroyed through the eyes of a
33
webcam blogger, Sara, about the changes in government and life. There is also a side storyline
told by her brother, Adam, a part of the military. His story is told through ‘helmet cams’ which
the military uses to capture and record events.
2009 harnesses the power of video and audio mediums to tell an engaging multimodal
story. There is text in the form of Sara’s journal which you can click on laying on the ground and
read; it’s another piece to form the tale which is 2009.
This is a tale of despair, violence, fear, and uncertainty. It’s not for young children, and
as it is an online story, it doesn’t have an age rating. When do we get to the point that this new
medium of storytelling and sharing will need parental ratings?
A Million Penguins
What happens if 1,500 authors make 11,000 edits on a wiki-novel? You get A Million
Penguins (http://web.archive.org/web/20070809104241/http:/www.amillionpenguins.com/wiki/
index.php/Welcome) The idea was to create an ‘open source’ novel where everyone could write
and contribute. The outcome was a massive, complex twisting work. The wiki site isn’t available
any more but you can find it with the Way Back Machine (http://archive.org/web/web.php).
This blog post chronicles the process and final outcomes. It opens with the quote, “The
man was clearly mad! No rules? It would never work! You may as well get penguins to write a
novel!” (Ettinghausen, 2007) The conclusion of the blog post was that the novel was a moderate
success, but got very long, complex, and convoluted. It had 1030 pages and nearly 280,000 page
views. The collaborative spirit of the project inspired the writers to contribute and be a part of a
34
project designed to push the traditional notions of writing and authorship and how the web can
change the way we approach and compose text.
What’s Happening? Asks the micro blogging site Twitter. Twitter is used to share short
140 snippets of life, thoughts or description of whatever is happening. Twitter may seem like a
frivolous or vanity driven pursuit, but summarizing ideas and meaningful writing into only 140
characters, including spaces, is a difficult writing task. The writing and communication is real
time, and is shared with an instant, global audience. You can share links, pictures, videos, and of
course, text.
Educators have taken to using twitter to share links, ideas, support, and thoughts about
education. It has built into a global personal learning network for educators to connect with other
educators from around the globe. A set of storytelling twitter accounts have emerged, taking on
historical roles to tell stories from history as if they were happening now. They are posted in
little bits at a time over the course of years to slowly unfold the story.
These 5 fascinating twitter accounts show how twitter can be used to take on voice,
perspective, and writing in context:
1. @iTweetus (https://twitter.com/iTweetus) is the perspective of a Roman Solider in
England written by the Tullie House Gallery and Museum. The tweets are written from a
first person point of view and even respond to people who ask questions.
35
2. @POWKen (https://twitter.com/POWKen) is the account of real Prisoner of War
Survivor Kenneth Bailey. He tweets from the journal he wrote as a POW on the dates it
was written. Some sections are missing, as he explains, they were often found by the
Japanese captors.
3. @PrivateDRyan (https://twitter.com/PrivateDRyan)is similar to @POWKen as he is also
tweeting from his World War II Prisoner of War Diary. He shares the original source text
of the diary in photos and audio clips with the tweets. The combination of audio, visuals,
and text provides a rich account of his time in custody as a POW in Poland.
4. @ukwarcabinet (https://twitter.com/ukwarcabinet) is a Twitter account compiled by the
UK War Cabinet Museum in London and the UK National Archives. The account twitters
as Winston Churchill, as if World War II was happening in real time. It shows the length
of war was happening over years, a concept which is hard to illustrate to learners that
have never experienced a long, drawn out conflict. The account links to original source
documents from the National Archives showing the original documents to support the
statements.
5. @wpLtReichard (https://twitter.com/wpLtReichard) tweets from the Diary of an
American World War II solider, with time in North Africa, Italy California. Each tweet is
accompanied by a video or photos of the pages from the actual diary. He is also a
photographer, with photos of the 1944 Mt. Vesuvius eruption.
The site Historical Tweets (http://historicaltweets.com/) takes a humorous look at twitter as
historical figures such as Lewis and Clark lamenting the discovery of google maps, or Alexander
the Good tweeting that he needs to work harder to become Alexander the Great. Teachers could
36
have their students tweet as a historical figure. The site, Twister (http://classtools.net/twister/)
allows you to create a fake twitter account and tweet as a historical or famous figure.
Project 1968
Project 1968 (http://www.project1968.com/) is a writing project using a blog format to
enhance the story and first person point of view style of writing. The project looks at American
politics through the eyes of two young women on their way to the 1968 Democratic Convention
in Chicago. The two main characters are Janine and Amy. Janine is a freshman in college and
political supporter. Amy is an anti-war protestor. Through the blog, readers can see the events of
the era through their two differing points of view. The blog is written in real time, as though it
was 1968, and the archives are even listed in 1968 dates! The blog is written from the
perspective of women, which is interesting, considering the fact that at the time of the work,
women’s political views were largely ignored. The website also includes extensive supporting
materials, including radio broadcasts, interviews with people at the event, and original source
materials from the convention.
Started in January 2008, Project 1968 is a blog docu-novel about the lives of two young
women on their way to the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago.
It is a way to look at the day-to-day happenings from 40 years earlier. It was created
solely by independent writer and researcher, Laura Axelrod. (Axelrod, 2012)
37
The author labels the work as a Blog Docu-Novel and has also written a play with the same
history and characters.
Pine Point
Pine Point (http://pinepoint.nfb.ca/#/pinepoint) tells the story of a mining community in
the Northwest Territories of Canada. The community was preplanned, brought in, then hauled
away and wiped off the map when the mine closed. This is the story of the community and the
people who lived there, but it is told with video, sound, image, text, narration, and interactivity.
You guide yourself through the story, clicking on pictures and videos to learn more. You are not
just a passive viewer or reader, you lead the story.
The visual elements and features are amazing and the story, found on the Canadian
National Film Board Site, interestingly, is one of the best I’ve seen. It was created by Paul
Shoebridge and Michael Simons. They describe their work as story based media. “The Town of
Pine Point remains an unfinished sentence” is a line of text, but with this work the town has been
brought back to life.
Lure of the Labyrinth
Lure of the Labyrinth (http://labyrinth.thinkport.org/www/) is a multimodal text
combining illustrated comic style text, and problem solving puzzles. The character is on a quest
to find their missing pet but must disguise themselves as a monster to fit in and go into the
Labyrinth. As the character journeys through the maze more elements of the story are uncovered
and mathematical based logic puzzles are presented to be solved.
38
The combination of the interactive problems and self-guided exploration of the story
brings alive a story of adventure in an amazing world. The mythological beasts and creatures you
encounter provide an opportunity to explore mythology and imagination. The graphics of the
comics and the labyrinth bring alive a place of imagination and storytelling.
BlaBla
BlaBla (http://blabla.nfb.ca/) by Vincent Morriset (n.d.) describes itself as a film for the
computer. It is interactive in that you have to click and navigate through to uncover the story.
There is no text or talking, just noise, sound, and image. You control the creation, interaction and
emotion of the ‘people’ in the story. The characters go through great ranges of emotion, and
would be a fascinating way to teach expression and dialogue. The characters interact and meet
each other, they also engage in conflict with themselves, with others, and with the environment
around them. It is a very interesting interactive story of communication. When trying to build an
understanding of the changing nature of text and the changing nature of communication it is an
interesting metaphor of interactivity and change.
Inanimate Alice
Inanimate Alice (http://www.inanimatealice.com/) is a truly multimodal text. Kate
Pullinger created a story, in the form of a digital novel. It’s not a novel which is just typed text
on a screen, but a story which uses the technological features available to it to enhance and tell
the story in a different way. Video, audio, beautiful digital imagery, music, game play, and
interactive elements all combine to tell the story of Alice. Inanimate Alice is designed to
39
showcase the enhancements digital means can bring to literature. It is written for the screen and
to bring in literary elements using digital means to bring Alice to life.
Conclusion
As writing and creating text is changing as content creators have more options, more
access to information, and more visual mediums to choose from. “Asking students to both
analyze and produce visualizations of information provides yet another way of thinking about the
role of the visual as it stimulates, accompanies, critiques, supplements, and/or replaces writing”
(Sorapure, 2010, p. 60).
Multimodal writing pulls text, images, narration, graphics, data all together to create a
digital story. These 21st century compositions pulls in visual, interactive, and textual elements
and embody the changes which digital technologies are bringing to writing and teaching writing.
When they [the students] tell their multimodal stories and share them on the Internet,
their education has an immediate impact on their lives and their interests, allowing them
to put their new skills—like research and multi-modal composition—into play
immediately for audiences. (Clark, 2010, p. 33)
Writing online is not about just posting work that was completed by using a pencil. It’s
about creating work online using tools that change the way we write. “Web 2.0 challenges the
artificial compartmentalization of research and writing that often characterizes instruction in
composition classes” (Purdy, 2010, p. 48). Tools allow us to plan, create, edit, revise, share and
get feedback in a whole new way. Writing with new tools and with new mediums means new
skills, new proficiencies, and new opportunities.
40
Klages and Clark (2009) found, “The virtual world is process-less: writing becomes an
act of moving from immediate composing to instant publishing” (p. 33). The skills of online
creation and writing need to be addressed and taught in an age of changing literacies, and the
addition of new digital literacies.
As more computer technology takes hold in our everyday lives and our schools it starts to
change the everyday processes of reading and writing. New elements of stimulus are
incorporated with traditional text to change and enhance the way we interact with words and
stories. Music, images, video, interactive choice, game play, and more are added to words to
allow readers to interact and create meaning from text in different ways. When we recognize
these new elements are redefining text and reading we then need to examine how this changes
the way we compose and teach writing new forms of text. An awareness of audience, global
connectivity, and stimulating media are essential to digital authorship. Technology affords us
new tools, never previously available, to collaborate, share and analyze. They are changing the
way we write and therefore we need to change the way we teach writing.
41
References
Anastopoulou, S., Baber, C., & Sharples, M. (2001). Multimedia and multimodal systems:
commonalities and differences. Proceedings of the 5th Human Centred Technology
Postgraduate Workshop, University of Sussex, 26-27 September 2001. Retrieved from
http://www.syros.aegean.gr/users/manast/Pubs/Pub_conf/C03/C03.pdf
Alexander, J. (2009). Gaming, Student Literacies, and the Composition Classroom: Some
Possibilities for Transformation. College Composition and Communication, 61(1), 35-63.
Anstey, M., & Bull, G. (2006). Teaching and learning multiliteracies: changing times, changing
literacies. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Anzai, Y. (2008). Introducing a wiki in EFL writing class. In G. Richards (Ed.), Proceedings of
World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher
Education 2008 (pp. 547-552). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Axelrod, L. (2012). Project 1968. Retrieved from http://www.project1968.com/
Bailey, K. (2012). Kenneth Baily. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/#%21/POWKen
Banister, S., Ross, C. & Vannatta, R. (2008). The impact of web 2.0 tools in the reading
classroom. In K. McFerrin et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information
Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2008 (pp. 3617-3621).
Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Beard, A. & McNayr, A. (2012). Historical Tweets. Retrieved from http://historicaltweets.com
42
Beaudin, L. & Deyenberg, J. (2011). Twitter: Intellectual Stimulator or Attention Distracter. In
M. Koehler & P. Mishra (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology &
Teacher Education International Conference 2011 (pp. 139-147). Chesapeake, VA:
AACE.
Cambium Learning. (2012). Reading a-z.com: Your reading resource center. Retrieved from
http://www.readinga-z.com/
Carr, N. (2010). The shallows. London: Atlantic Books.
Clark, J. E. (2010). The digital imperative: Making the case for a 21st-Century pedagogy.
Computers and Composition, 27(1), 27-35.
Channel 4. (2009). Smokescreen. Retrieved from http://www.smokescreengame.com/
Colby, R., & Colby, R. (2008). A Pedagogy of Play: Integrating Computer Games
into the Writing Classroom. Computers and Composition,25 (3), 300-312
Couros, G. (2011, July 17). Literacy…just literacy [web log post]. Retrieved from
http://georgecouros.ca/blog/archives/2118
Crook, C., & Bennett, L. (2007). Does using a computer disturb the organization of
children’s writing? British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 25 (2), 313-321.
Ettinghausen, J. (2007, March 7). A million penguins for to sleep [web log post]. Retrieved from
http://thepenguinblog.typepad.com/the_penguin_blog/2007/03/a_million_pengu.html
43
Farmer, B., Yue, A., & Brooks, C. (2008). Using blogging for higher order learning in large
cohort university teaching: A case study. Australasian Journal of Educational
Technology,
24(2), 123-136.
Feinberg, J. (2001). Wordle. Retrieved from http://www.wordle.net/.
Ferdig, R. E. & Trammell, K. D. (2004). Content delivery in the blogosphere. T H E Journal,
31(7), 12-20.
Fogg, B. J, (n.d.). Psycology of facebook: Persuasion in a social network. Retrieved from
https://docs.google.com/View?docid=dcqn4jpj_156gr5kp9c8
Godwin-Jones, R. (2008). Web-Writing 2.0: Enabling, documenting, and assessing writing
online. Language Learning & Technology, 12(2), 7-12.
Gustafson, K. (2004). The impact of technologies on learning. Planning for Higher Education,
32(2), 37-43.
Hart-Davidson, B., Cushman, E., Grabill, J.T., DeVoss, D.N., & Porter, J. (2005). Why teach
digital writing? Kairos, 10(1). Retrieved from
http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/10.1/binder2.html?coverweb/wide/index.html
Hegarty, M. (2004). Dynamic visualizations and learning: Getting to difficult questions.
Learning and Instruction, 14, 343–351.
44
International Reading Association. & National Council of Teachers of English. (2012).
Persuasion map. Retrieved from
http://www.readwritethink.org/files/resources/interactives/persuasion_map/
Internet Archive. (2012). Wayback machine. Retrieved from http://archive.org/web/web.php
Tullie House. (2012). I, Tweetus. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/#!/iTweetus
Jenkins, H. (2003, January 15). Transmedia Storytelling. Retrieved from
http://www.technologyreview.com/biomedicine/13052/
Junco, R. Heiberger, G. and Loken, E. (2011). The effect of Twitter on college student
engagement and grades. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 27: 119-132. doi:
10.1111/j.1365-2729.2010.00387.x
Klages, M., & Clark, J. (2009). New Worlds of Errors and Expectations: Basic writers and
digital assumptions. Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 28(1), 32-49.
Kirill, Levon (2012). Bubbl.us. Retrieved from https://bubbl.us/.
Learning Games to Go. (n.d.) Lure of the Labryninth. Retrieved from
http://labyrinth.thinkport.org/www/
Liang, M.Y. (2007). Rethinking blog-integrated EFL curricula: A reflection on participation and
learning. In T. Bastiaens & S. Carliner (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on E-
Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2007 (pp. 1686-
1691). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
45
Luce-Kapler, R., & Dobson, T. (2005). In search of a story: Reading and writing in e-literature.
Reading Online, 8(6), 1-16.
Luke, A. & Freebody, P. (2000). Literate Futures: Report of the Review for Queensland State
Schools, Education Queensland, Brisbane.
Manovich, L. (2001). The language of new media. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press.
McCarthy, L. (2010). Own your space: keep yourself and your stuff safe online. Retrieved from
http://www.ownyourspace.net/
MeisterLabs. (2012). Mindmeister. Retrieved from http://www.spicynodes.org/.
Morisset, V. (n.d.). Bla bla: A film for computer. Retrieved from http://blabla.nfb.ca/
National Council of Teachers of English. (2009). NCTE framework for 21st century curriculum
and assessment. Retrieved from http://www.ncte.org/governance/literacies
New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard
Educational Review, 66(1), 60-92. Retrieved from
http://vassarliteracy.pbworks.com/f/Pedagogy+of+Multiliteracies_New+London+Group.
Pearce, N., Weller, M., Scanlon, E., & Kinsely, S. (2010). Digital scholarship considered: How
new technologies could transform academic work. In Education: Technology & Social
Media (Special Issue, Part 2). 16(1) Retrieved from http://ineducation.ca/issue-2
46
Penguin. (2007). A million penguins. Retrieved from
http://web.archive.org/web/20070809104241/http:/www.amillionpenguins.com/wiki/
index.php/Welcome
Perkel, D. (2006). Copy and paste literacy: Literacy practices in the production of a MySpace
profile. In Paper presented at DREAM Conference of Digital Media and Informal
Learning.
Prezi Inc. (2012). Prezi: Make your presentations zoom. Retrieved from http://prezi.com
Pullinger, K. (2009). Inanimate alice. Retrieved from http://www.inanimatealice.com/
Pullinger, K. (2012). Transliteracy.com: Scooping transliteracy from around the world. [Web
log]. Retrieved from http://nlabnetworks.typepad.com/transliteracy/
Purdy, J. P. (2010). The changing space of research: Web 2.0 and the integration of research and
writing environments. Computers and Composition, 27(1), 48-58.
Reichard, Lt. L. (2012). Lt. Lawson Reichard. Retrieved from
https://twitter.com/#%21/wpLtReichard
Ryan, Pvt. D. (2012). Private D Ryan. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/#%21/PrivateDRyan
Scottish Education. (2009) Curriculum for Excellence. Retrieved from
http://www.ltscotland.org.uk/Images/all_experiences_outcomes_tcm4-539562.pdf
Selwyn, N. (2007). “Screw Blackboard...do it on Facebook!’: an investigation of students’
educational use of Facebook. Poke 1.0 – Facebook Social research symposium.
47
Sheetz, D. & Curcher, M. (2008). Using blogs to enhance content learning for students who are
learning in a second language. In G. Richards (Ed.), Proceedings of World Conference on
E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2008 (pp.
1254-1259). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Shoebridge, P. & Simons, m. (2011). Pine point. Retrieved from
http://pinepoint.nfb.ca/#/pinepoint
Skaar, H. (2009). In defense of writing: a social semiotic perspective on digital media, literacy
and learning. Literacy, 43: 36-42. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-4369.2009.00502.x
Smith, C. (2008). Technologies for transcending a focus on error: Blogs and democratic
aspirations in first-year composition. Journal of Basic Writing (CUNY), 27(1), 35-60
Sorapure, M. (2010). Information visualization, web 2.0, and the teaching of writing. Computers
and Composition, 27(1), 59-70.
SpicyNodes, IDEA. (2012). SpicyNodes. Retrieved from http://www.spicynodes.org/
Starfall Education. (2012). Starfall.com: Where children have fun learning to read. Retrieved
from http://www.starfall.com/
Sutherland, L. (2011, November 5). Wikis and wordle. [Web log post]. Retrieved from
http://300000questions.wordpress.com/2011/11/05/wikis-and-wordle/
Tarr, R. (2012). Classtools.net: Twister. Retrieved from http://classtools.net/twister/
48
Valdes-Corbeil, M. & Corbeil, J. (2008). Enhancing social presence by replacing the discussion
forum with a blog. In G. Richards (Ed.), Proceedings of World Conference on E-
Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2008 (pp. 1318-
1323). Chesapeake, VA: AACE.
Valenzuela, T. (2009). 2009 A true story. Retrieved from http://www.2009atruestory.com/
War Cabinet. (2012). War Cabinet. Retrieved from https://twitter.com/#%21/ukwarcabinet
Wysocki, A. F., Johnson-Eilola, J., Selfe,C. L. & Sirc. G. (2004). Writing New Media: Theory
and Applications for Expanding the Teaching of Composition. Logan, UT: Utah State
Press.
