ii

TRIBOLOGICAL BEHAVIOUR FOR REFINED, BLEACHED AND

DEODORIZED OF PALM OLEIN AND PALM STEARIN USING FOURBALL

TRIBOTESTER

TIONG CHIONG ING

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

Master of Engineering (Mechanical)

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

APRIL 2013

CORE Metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk

Provided by Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Institutional Repository

iv

DEDICATION

To my parents…

And beloved wife…

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I would like to express my special thanks to my project supervisors,

Dr. Syahrullail Samion and Assoc. Prof Ir. Dr. Mohammed Rafiq bin Dato' Abdul

Kadir for his continuous valuable advice, guidance, support and motivation during

project.

Secondly, I would like to express my thanks to all staffs from Faculty of

Mechanical Engineering for being cooperate, and provide information regard to this

project. Also, special thanks to all technicians especially in fluid Laboratory who

were providing project equipment and assisting in technical support.

Next, thanks to my family and friends. They have been helpful in this project

and encouraging me mentally and spiritually to complete this project. I assured you

all, that I have given my very best for this project.

Last but not least to everyone who has been directly or indirectly contributing

their effort for the success of this research.

Thank you.

vi

ABSTRACT

Vegetable-based lubricants are much more biodegradable compared to

lubricants produced from mineral oil. Due to the increasing concern about health and

environmental damage caused by mineral-oil based lubricants, there is a growing

worldwide trend for promoting the use of vegetable oil as lubricants in a number

industries, Nowadays, vegetable oil is viewed as having the potential to substitute the

conventional mineral-oil based lubricating oil due to its environmental friendly

properties such as being biodegradable and non-toxic. In this research, refined,

bleached and deodorized (RBD) palm olein and palm stearin were used as lubricants

to evaluate their tribological behaviors using four-ball tribotester. The objectives of

this research are to determine the friction value and wear characteristics of RBD

palm olein and palm stearin using fourball tribotester. The experiments were run

under various loads, sliding speeds and lubricant temperatures for one hour as

recommended by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). The

results focused on the friction result obtained and observation of wear scar image on

the sliding surface which was compared with the results of paraffinic mineral oil.

The result shows that friction value for RBD palm olein is lower than RBD palm

stearin. However, both RBD palm olein and RBD palm stearin give lower friction

compared to paraffinic mineral oil. Thus, RBD palm olein and RBD palm stearin can

be used as lubricant in mechanical system in terms of friction reduction.

vii

ABSTRAK

Minyak pelincir berasaskan tumbuhan adalah lebih mudah boleh biorosot

berbanding pelincir yang berasaskan minyak galian. Dari perningkatan kebimbangan

tentang kerosakan kepada kesihatan dan alam sekitar yang disebabkan oleh pelincir

berasaskan minyak galian, para pengkaji telah mula mempromosikan minyak

tumbuhan sebagai pelincir untuk digunakan dalam sesetengah industri. Minyak

tumbuhan mempunyai potensi untuk menggantikan minyak galian sebagai minyak

pelincir atas ciri mesra alam seperti boleh biorosot and tidak toksik. Dalam kajian ini,

minyak sawit olein dan minyak sawit stearin yang telah ditapis, diluntur dan

dinyahbaukan (RBD) digunakan sebagai minyak kajian. Objektif kajian ini adalah

untuk menentukan nilai pemalar geseran dan ciri haus minyak sawit olein RBD dan

minyak sawit stearin RBD dengan menggunakan mesin penguji tribo empat bola.

Eksperimen telah dijalankan dengan pelbagai bebanan, halaju gelangsar dan suhu

minyak pelincir selama satu jam mengikut piawaian ASTM. Keputusan eksperimen

telah dibandingkan dengan minyak galian parafin tanpa bahan tambahan dan

tertumpu kepada nilai pemalar geseran yang diperolehi dan permerhatian terhadap

imej parut haus pada permukaan gelangsar. Hasil kajian ini menunjukkan bahawa

nilai pemalar geseran untuk minyak sawit olein RBD adalah lebih rendah berbanding

minyak sawit stearin RBD. Walau bagaimanapum, kedua-dua minyak sawit olein

RBD dan minyak sawit stearin RBD memberikan nilai pemalr geseran yang lebih

rendah berbanding minyak galian parafin. Rumusan daripada kajian ini, minyak

sawit olein RBD dan minyak sawit stearin RBD berpotensi untuk digunakan

sebagain minyak pelincir dalam sistem mekanikal kerana dapat mengurangkan

geseran.

viii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER TITLE PAGE

DECLARATION iii

DEDICATION iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v

ABSTRACT vi

ABSTRAK vii

TABLE OF CONTENT viii

LIST OF TABLES xi

LIST OF FIGURES xii

LIST OF SYMBOLS xvii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xviii

1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background of Study 2

1.3 Problem Statement 3

1.4 Objectives of Research 4

1.5 Scope and Limitation of Research 5

1.6 Significant of Research 5

2 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction 7

2.2 Tribology 7

2.3 Fourball Apparatus 8

2.4 Friction 11

ix

2.4.1 Sliding Friction 12

2.5 Wear 13

2.5.1 Abrasive wear 14

2.5.2 Adhesive Wear 15

2.5.3 Scuffing 16

2.5.4 Fretting 18

2.5.5 Fatigue 19

2.5.6 Fluid and Cavitation Erosion 21

2.6 Surface Profile 22

2.6.1 Surface Roughness 23

2.6.2 Measurement of Surface Texture 23

2.6.3 Type of Engineering Surface 25

2.7 Lubricant and Lubrication 27

2.7.1 Function of Lubricant 29

2.7.2 Oil Viscosity 31

2.7.3 Measurement of Viscosity 34

2.7.4 Thermal Stability 37

2.8 Vegetable Base Oils 38

2.9 Oil Palm 40

2.9.1 Palm Oil 42

2.9.2 RBD palm olein and RBD palm stearin 44

2.9.3 Palm Oil as Lubricant 48

2.10 Research Related Field 48

3 METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction 60

3.2 Preparation of Experimental Material 61

3.2.1 Fourball Tribotester 61

3.2.2 Steel Ball Bearing 63

3.2.3 Lubricants 64

3.2.4 Lint Free Industrial Wipe and Acetone 67

3.2.5 Friction Evaluation 67

x

3.2.6 Wear Scar Diameter 68

3.3 Experimental Conditions 69

3.3.1 Standard Fourball Tribotest 69

3.3.2 Modified Single Ball Tribotest 70

3.4 Experimental Procedures for Standard Fourball Test 72

3.5 Experimental Procedures for Modified Ball Test 73

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

4.1 Introduction 75

4.2 Standard Fourball Tribotester Test 76

4.2.1 American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) 76

4.2.2 Tribology Behaviour on the Effect of Normal Load

Lubricated with PO, PS and P2

83

4.2.3 Tribology Behaviour on the Effect of Sliding Speed

Lubricated with PO, PS and P2

95

4.2.4 Tribology Behaviour on the Effect of Operating

Temperature Lubricated with PO, PS and P2

106

5 FRICTION EVALUATION ON PITTED CONTACTING

SURFACE FOR PO, PS AND P2

5.1 Introduction 121

5.2 The Effect of Micro-pattern on Friction Evaluation under

various load applied

125

5.3 The Effect of Micro-pattern on Friction Evaluation under

various sliding speed

129

6 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

6.1 Conclusion 135

6.2 Recommendation 136

REFERENCES 137

xi

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

NO.

TITLE PAGE

Table 1.1 Applications of the engine lubricants and non-engine 2

lubricants

Table 2.1 Roughness value from different machining processes 26

Table 2.2 Data for evaluation of viscosity index 33

Table 2.3 The advantages and disadvantages of vegetable base oil 38

Table 2.4 The incidence of poverty in agriculture sector in

Malaysia from 1970 to 1990 42

Table 2.5 Composition of RBD palm olein 45

Table 2.6 Composition of RBD palm stearin 46

Table 2.7 Composition of palm oil 47

Table 2.8 Coefficient of friction and wear scar diameters of test oil 52

determined as per ASTM D4172 and wear load determined

as per ASTM D2783

Table 2.9 Hardness of the D2 steel after the wear under different 54

wear conditions

Table 3.1 Density for Paraffinic mineral oil, RBD palm olein and 66

RBD palm stearin

Table 3.2 Standard fourball tribotest under different load applied 69

Table 3.3 Standard fourball tribotest under different sliding speed 70

Table 3.4 Standard fourball tribotest under different temperature 70

Table 3.5 Modified single ball tribotest under different load applied 72

Table 3.6 Modified single ball tribotest under different sliding speed 72

xii

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO. TITLE PAGE

Figure 2.1 Worn surface of RGF-Epoxy composites 15

Figure 2.2 Microcracks caused by adhesive wear 16

Figure 2.3 Finely scuffed ground surface 17

Figure 2.4 Sliding wear on soft steel

Figure 2.5 Fretting corrosion of unbroken shaft 18

Figure 2.6 Rolling contact fatigue cracks in ball bearing steel 20

Figure 2.7 Rapid crack propagate in non-flammable fluid lubricated

bearing ball 20

Figure 2.8 deformed metallographically changed spherical carbides free, 20

surface material of used bearing ball

Figure 2.9 stringer type carbides in subsurface metallographically

changed ball bering steel 20

Figure 2.10 Cavitation erosion damage to case-hardened valve plate 22

Figure 2.11 Illustration of the effect of scale distortion 24

Figure 2.12 Relative size of stylus and surface 24

Figure 2.13 Modified profile to determine the center line average 25

Figure 2.14 Tribology triangle 28

Figure 2.15 Evaluation of viscosity index 31

Figure 2.16 Schematic diagram of a rotating cylinder viscometer 35

Figure 2.17 Schematic diagram of a cone on plate viscometer 36

Figure 2.18 British Standard U-tube viscometer 37

Figure 2.19 Description of palm oil fruit 41

Figure 2.20 Overview of palm oil refinery process 43

Figure 2.21 (a) wear loss and (b) coefficient of friction of selected 49

material combinations using mineral oil with additives

and without additives

xiii

Figure 2.22 (a) wear loss and (b) coefficient of friction of selected 50

material combinations using sunflower oil with additives

and without additives

Figure 2.23 The effect of normal load on wear 55

Figure 2.24 The effect of sliding speed on wear 55

Figure 2.25 Relationship of wear scar diameter at PH = 2800Mpa 58

Figure 2.26 Relationship of wear scar diameter at PH = 3300Mpa 58

Figure 2.27 Relationship of wear scar diameter at v = 0.2m/s 59

Figure 2.28 Relationship of wear scar diameter at v = 0.4m/s 59

Figure 3.1 (a) Fourball Tribotester, (b) Collect and Ring, (c) Ballpot, 62

(d) Collect remover and Lock nut and (e) Torque wrench

Figure 3.2 Steel-bearing balls 63

Figure 3.3 RBD palm olein 64

Figure 3.4 RBD palm stearin 65

Figure 3.5 Additive free paraffinic mineral oil 65

Figure 3.9 Viscosity for PO,PS and P2 along the temperature 66

Tested respectively

Figure 3.10 Schematic image for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d) 16 different density 71

of micro-pitted surface in this experiment

Figure 4.1 Friction torque versus time for PO, PS and P2 77

Figure 4.2 COF for PO, PS and P2 under ASTM D 4172

experimental condition 79

Figure 4.3 WSD for PO, PS and P2 under ASTM D 4172

experimental condition 80

Figure 4.4 Wear worn surface for (a) PO, (b) PS and (c) P2 82

Figure 4.5 Friction torque obtained lubricated with PO, PS and P2 83

under different load applied

Figure 4.6 Coefficient of friction obtained lubricated with PO, PS 84

and P2 under different load applied

Figure 4.7 Wear scar diameter of bearing balls lubricated with PO, PS 85

and P2 under different load applied

Figure 4.8 Flash temperature parameter for PO, PS and P2 under 87

different load applied

xiv

Figure 4.9 Wear worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 30kg, 88

(b) at 40kg, (c) at 50kg, (d) at 60kg

Figure 4.10 Wear worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 30kg, 89

(b) at 40kg, (c) at 50kg, (d) at 60kg

Figure 4.11 Wear worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 30kg, 90

(b) at 40kg, (c) at 50kg, (d) at 60kg

Figure 4.12 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PO at (a) 30kg, 92

(b) 40kg, (c) 50kg, (d) 60kg

Figure 4.13 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PS at (a) 30kg, 93

(b) 40kg, (c) 50kg, (d) 60kg

Figure 4.14 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with P2 at (a) 30kg, 94

(b) 40kg, (c) 50kg, (d) 60kg

Figure 4.15 Effect of sliding speed on friction torque for PO, PS 95

and P2 respectively

Figure 4.16 COF for PO, PS and P2 under different sliding speed 97

Figure 4.17 Wear scar diameter measured for those lubricated with 98

PO, PS and P2 under different sliding speed

Figure 4.18 FTP for PO, PS and P2 at various sliding speed 99

Figure 4.19 Wear worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 800rpm 101

(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm

Figure 4.20 Wear worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 800rpm, 102

(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm

Figure 4.21 Wear worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 800rpm, 103

(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm

Figure 4.22 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 800rpm, 104

(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm

Figure 4.23 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 800rpm, 105

(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm

Figure 4.24 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 800rpm, 106

(b) at 1000rpm, (c) at 1200rpm, (d) at 1400rpm

Figure 4.25 Friction torque obtained lubricated with PO, PS and 107

P2 under different operating temperature respectively

Figure 4.26 COF for PO and P2 under different operating temperature 109

xv

Figure 4.27 Wear Scar Diameter lubricated with PO, PS and P2 under 110

different operating temperature

Figure 4.28 Flash Temperature parameter for PO, PS and P2 111

under different operating temperature

Figure 4.29 Wear worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 55°C, 113

(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C

Figure 4.30 Wear worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 55°C, 114

(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C

Figure 4.31 Wear worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 55°C, 115

(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C

Figure 4.32 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PO (a) at 55°C, 117

(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C

Figure 4.33 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with PS (a) at 55°C, 118

(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C

Figure 4.34 SEM images of worn surface lubricated with P2 (a) at 55°C, 119

(b) at 65°C, (c) at 75°C, (d) at 85°C

Figure 5.1 Transforming of (a) fourball working concept to 123

(b) modified one ball to evaluate the effect of micro-pit

on the contacting surface

Figure 5.2 Images capture for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d)16 different 124

density of micro-pitted surface in this experiment

Figure 5.3 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with PO on 125

friction torque under different load

Figure 5.4 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with PS on 126

friction torque under different load

Figure 5.5 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with P2 127

on friction torque under different load

Figure 5.6 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with PO on 129

friction torque under different sliding speed

Figure 5.7 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with PS on 130

friction torque under different sliding speed

Figure 5.8 The effect of pitted surface lubricated with P2 on 131

friction torque under different sliding speed

xvi

Figure 5.9 Images for ball cup lubricated with P2 after experiment 132

for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d) 16, density of micro-pitted surface

and condition

Figure 5.10 Images for ball cup lubricated with PO after experiment 133

for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d) 16, density of micro-pitted surface

and condition

Figure 5.11 Images for ball cup lubricated with PS after experiment 134

for (a) 0, (b) 4, (c) 8, (d) 16, density of micro-pitted surface

and condition

xvii

LIST OF SYMBOLS

µ - Coefficient of Friction

F - Force

W - Body weight

L - Length

VI - Viscosity Index

Ra - Arithmetical Mean of the Absolute Values of the Profile Deviation

from the Mean Line

Ʋ - Kinematic viscosity

U - Kinematic viscosity of oil measure at temperature of 40ºC

xviii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

FTP - Flash temperature parameter

RBD - Refined, Bleached and Deodourized

PO - Palm olein

PS - Palm stearin

P2 - Paraffinic mineral oil

SEM - Scanning electron microscope

1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Vegetable oils have been widely used as lubricant and become very common to

be used almost in all area. They are mostly used in industry such as food processing,

cable car, agricultural machinery, mining machinery, railway and etc.

Palm oil is one of the edible oils that has been widely developed to be used as

lubricant in the industrial sectors. Oil palm is also known as Elaeis guinensis and was

derived from the mesocarp of its fruit. The oil palm tree is easily recognizable, as it

looks like a coconut tree. In fact, the coconut tree is a close relative to the oil palm tree.

Oil palm is a domestic plant to Africans for centuries. Besides that, palm oil is one of the

few highly-saturated vegetable fats. It is in the form of semi-solid at room temperature

which contains several saturated and unsaturated fats. Human started to use oil palms

can be tracked back as far as 5000 years ago. The palm oil is widely used as cooking oil

at that time even until now. However, palm oil met demand to be traded as an industrial

lubricant for machinery during the Britain industrial revolution.

2

1.2 Background of Study

Lubricant is a substance that is introduced into two moving surfaces with the aim

to reduce friction. The property that reduces the friction in mechanical system is called

the lubricity of fluid. Besides that, lubricants also play their role in transporting foreign

particles and distributing the heat. Generally, there are few types of lubricants:-

a) Base oil group

b) Biolubricant

c) Synthetic oils

d) Solid lubricants

Besides that, these lubricants can be classified into two general categories of

applications namely, engine lubricant and non-engine lubricants. Table 1.1 shows the

applications of the engine and non-engine lubricants that are used by the industries.

Table 1.1: Applications of the engine lubricants and non-engine lubricants

Engine Lubricants Non-Engine Lubricants

Gasoline engine oil Transmission fluid

Diesel engine oil Power steering fluids

Automotive diesel oil Shock absorber fluids

Stationery diesel oil Gear oils

Railroad diesel oil Hydraulic fluids

Marine diesel oil Tractor oils

Natural gas engine oil Industrial metalworking fluids

Aviation engine oil Greases

Malaysia is one of the world largest palm oil production countries. There is a

record of 17.7 million tonnes of palm oil production in Malaysia in the year of 2008 on

the 4500000 hectares of land. Majority of the palm oil is shipped to all around the world

for various production purposes such as soap, cooking oil and margarine.

3

After the milling of oil palm, various palm oil products are produced using the

refining processes. Fractionation is the first stage of the refinery process of palm oil

which involves crystallization and separation processes to obtain the solid (stearin), and

liquid (olein) fractions. Then the palm oil is put through the melting and degumming

process in order to remove impurities.

After that, the oil is filtered and bleached. Next, entering the physical

refining removes the smells and coloration, to produce "refined bleached deodorized

palm oil" and free sheer fatty acids, which are used in the manufacture of soaps, washing

powder and other products. Refined, deodorized and bleached is the basic oil product

sold in the world's commodity markets, although many companies fractionate it further

to produce palm olein for cooking oil, or to be processed into other products. Due to the

increasing demand of lubricant in the industrial sector, palm oils have been developed to

replace the petroleum and worked as machinery lubrication in the industrial sector.

1.3 Problem Statement

The earth is warming up and there is now overwhelming scientific consensus that

is happening, and human induced. Researches have shown that air pollutants from fossil

fuel used make clouds reflect more of the sun’s rays back into space. Petroleum is a kind

of natural liquid oil a normal type of oil composed of rock minerals, making it different

from other kinds of oils that come from plants and animals. It consists of a complex

mixture of molecule of molecules called hydrocarbons.

The contaminants derived from petroleum constitute one of the most prevalent

sources of environmental degradation in the industrialized world. These hydrocarbon

molecules are highly toxic to many organisms including humans. Besides that,

petroleum products also contain trace amount of sulfur and nitrogen compounds, which

4

are dangerous by themselves and can react with the environment to produce secondary

poisonous chemicals.

These issues have rose the concern of society and government to find other

substitute of petroleum in order to minimize the environmental issue and the risk of

human health. Plants oil or vegetable oil is one of the alternatives to replace petroleum

in the industrial sector. Vegetable oil is well known as a renewable products and

environmental friendly. Vegetable oil with high degradability have been considered to

substitute the demand of petroleum in the industrial sector all around the world.

Furthermore, it is non-toxic which is closely concerned to the human health in

processing and deposing it.

1.4 Objectives of Research

Due to the limited resources for mineral-based oil from day to day and the

damages to the environment, many researchers are trying to develop a new lubricant that

can be used to replace mineral-based oil in the industries. The objectives of this research

are as follows:-

a) To determine the friction value and wear characteristics of RBD palm olein and

palm stearin using Fourball Tribotester.

b) To investigate the hemispherical surface contact profiles lubricated with RBD

palm olein and palm stearin in term of friction.

c) To investigate the friction result of hemispherical surface contact profiles under

different experimental condition lubricated with RBD palm olein and palm

stearin.

5

1.5 Scope and Limitation of Research

Malaysia is one of the world largest oil palm producers. Hence, the main purpose

of this research is to investigate the ability of palm oil as lubricant in industries.

Following are the scope and limitation of this research.

a) RBD palm stearin is used as lubricant in this research.

b) Additive free paraffinic mineral oil with viscosity of 33Mpa.s is used as test

lubricant in this research.

c) Normal load (30kg to 60kg) is applied on to the system.

d) Speed of spindle (800rpm to 1400rpm) is used in this experiment.

e) Operating lubricant temperature (55°C to 85°C) is used in this experiment.

1.6 Significant of Research

Half usage of the lubricants ends up in the environment. Mineral-based oils

(petroleum) which are the leading type of the based oil used in the industries are

environmentally hazardous and poor degradability when released. Besides that, the

increasing price of the mineral-based oil and the declining rate of production from older

domestic oil fields, governments and individuals created strong incentives to provide

biodegradable lubricants. They are pressed in finding new resources, which can be used

to substitute the petroleum-based oil that gives similar or better lubricity performance

when compared to petroleum-based oil.

Bio-lubricant brings the meaning of biodegradable and renewable based stocks.

They can be products from fatty acids from fats and oils, reacted with synthetics

alcohols to produce esters. Not only that, natural vegetable oils can be treated through

6

several processes to produce modified products which are renewable and biodegradable.

The reduction of wear and friction losses is largely a function of the improved lubricant.

Therefore, advanced lubricants are now being formulated to reduce the wear and

friction. The development of modern lubricants and their proper usage are of great

importance for the national economy, individual and environment. Lubricants, optimally

adjusted to a given task, can save much money in the case of an industrialized nation,

reduce wear, reduce maintenance requirements and reduce the problem of air pollution.

Palm olein and palm stearin are used in this research, which both are considered

as vegetable oil. Palm olein is the liquid fraction of palm oil while palm stearin is the

semi-solid state in room temperature after going through the fraction process. As

Malaysia is one of the world largest oil palm production countries, the development of

palm oil as lubricant in industry can reduce the pollution and hazard to the environment

and also to human being. Currently palm oil with additives has been studied to substitute

the mineral-based oil as biodiesel in combustion engine. Thus the development of palm

oil as lubricant in mechanical system can also be achieved in order to give better living

environment to the creatures.

137

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