INTRODUCTION TO SQL Presented by :

Satrio Agung Wicaksono

DEFINITION

Structured Query Language (SQL) is a high-level language that allows users to manipulate relational data

One of the strengths of SQL is that users need only specify the information they need without having to know how to retrieve it

THREE SQL CATEGORIES

DDL – Data definition language used to define, change, or drop database objects

DML – Data manipulation language used to read and modify data

DCL – Data control language used to grant and revoke authorizations

HISTORY OF SQL

Don Chamberlin and Ray Boyce from IBM Corporation developed the SQL language in the 1970's as part of the System R project; a project established to provide a practical implementation to Codd's relational model

Originally, the language was termed “Structured English Query Language” or SEQUEL, but it was later changed to SQL as SEQUEL was a registered trademark of a UK based company

SQL was adopted as a standard language in 1986 by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and by the International Standards Organization (ISO) in 1987.

DEFINING A RELATIONAL DATABASE SCHEMA IN SQL

Data Types Like any programming language, databases also

support a limited set of data types, which can be used to define the types of data a column can store.

Basic data types include integer, float, decimal, char, date, time, blob, and so on

DATES AND TIMES DATA TYPES All databases support various date and time specific

data types and functions DB2 has the following data types for date and time. :

Date (YYYY-MM-DD) Time (HH:MM:SS) Timestamp (YYYY-MM-DD-HH:MM:SS:ssssss)

The following, is a partial set of functions specialized for date and time: Year Month Day Dayname Hour Minute Second Microsecond

CREATING A TABLE

A table is a data set, organized and stored in rows and columns.

A table holds data for like items, for example students, professors, subjects, books etc

Entities in a data model generally map to tables when implemented in databases. Attributes of entities map to columns of the table

example: create table myTable (col1 integer)

DEFAULT VALUES When data is inserted into a table, you may want to automatically generate default values

for a few columns

Using default value :

To define a column that will generate a department number as an incremented value of the last department number

NULL VALUES

A NULL represents an unknown state For example, a table that stores the course

marks of students can allow for NULL values. This could mean to the teacher that the student did not submit an assignment, or did not take an exam. It is different from a mark of zero, where a student did take the exam, but failed on all the questions

when you don't want a NULL to be allowed. For example, if the country field is required for your application, ensure you prevent NULL values as followscreate table myTable (name varchar(30), country varchar(20) NOT NULL)

CONSTRAINTS

Constraints allow you to define rules for the data in your table. There are different types of constraints: A UNIQUE constraint prevents duplicate values in a

table. This is implemented using unique indexes and is specified in the CREATE TABLE statement using the keyword UNIQUE. A NULL is part of the UNIQUE data values domain.

A PRIMARY KEY constraint is similar to a UNIQUE constraint, however it excludes NULL as valid data. Primary keys always have an index associated with it.

A REFERENTIAL constraint is used to support referential integrity which allows you to manage relationships between tables. This is discussed in more detail in the next section.

A CHECK constraint ensures the values you enter into a column are within the rules specified in the constraint.

CONSTRAINTS, CONT’D…

The following example shows a table definition with several CHECK constraints and a PRIMARY KEY defined:

REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY

Referential integrity establishes relationships between tables.

Using a combination of primary keys and foreign keys, it can enforce the validity of your data.

Referential integrity reduces application code complexity by eliminating the need to place data level referential validation at the application level.

Only tables that have columns defined as UNIQUE or PRIMARY KEY can be referenced in other tables as foreign keys for referential integrity

REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY, CONT’D… Referential integrity can be defined during table definition or after

the table has been created as shown in the example below where three different syntaxes are illustrated:

Sintax 1 : CREATE TABLE DEPENDANT_TABLE

(ID INTEGER REFERENCES BASE_TABLE(UNIQUE_OR_PRIMARY_KEY),

NAME VARCHAR(9),

:

:

:

);

Sintax 2 : CREATE TABLE DEPENDANT_TABLE

(ID INTEGER, NAME VARCHAR(9), :: :, CONSTRAINT constraint_name FOREIGN KEY (ID) REFERENCES BASE_TABLE(UNIQUE_OR_PRIMARY_KEY) );

REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY, CONT’D…

Sintak 3: CREATE TABLE DEPENDANT_TABLE

(ID INTEGER, NAME VARCHAR(9), : : : );

ALTER TABLE DEPENDANT_TABLE ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name

FOREIGN KEY (ID) REFERENCES

BASE_TABLE(UNIQUE_OR_PRIMARY_KEY);

REFERENTIAL INTEGRITY, CONT’D… There are different rules to handle deletes and updates and the behavior

depends on the following constructs used when defining the tables: CASCADE

As the name suggests, with the cascade option the operation is cascaded to all rows in the dependant tables that are referencing the row or value to be modified or deleted in the base table.

SET NULL With this option all the referring cells in dependant tables are set to NULL

NO ACTION With this option no action is performed as long as referential integrity is maintained before

and after the statement execution. RESTRICT

With this option, the update or delete of rows having references to dependant tables are not allowed to continue

The statement below shows where the delete and update rules are specified: ALTER TABLE DEPENDANT_TABLE

ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name FOREIGN KEY column_name ON DELETE <delete_action_type> ON UPDATE <update_action_type> ;

A delete action type can be a CASCADE, SET NULL, NO ACTION, or RESTRICT. An update action type can be a NO ACT ON, or RESTRICT

CREATING A SCHEMA

Just in the same way we store and manage data files on a computer in directories or folders and keep related or similar files together;

a schema in DB2 is a database object that allows you to group related database objects together.

In DB2, every object has two parts, a schema name, and the name of the object

CREATING A SCHEMA , CONT’D…

To create a schema, use this statement: create schema mySchema

To create a table with the above schema, explicitly include it in the CREATE TABLE statement as follows: create table mySchema.myTable (col1 integer)

When the schema is not specified, DB2 uses an implicit schema, which is typically the user ID used to connect to the database. You can also change the implicit schema for your current session with the SET CURRENT SCHEMA command as follows: set current schema mySchema

MODIFYING DATABASE OBJECTS

Once a database object is created, it may be necessary to change its properties to suit changing business requirements.

Dropping and recreating the object is one way to achieve this modification; however, dropping the object has severe side effects.

A better way to modify database objects is to use the ALTER SQL statement. For example, assuming you would like to change a table definition so that NULLs are not allowed for a given column, you can try this SQL statement: alter table myTable alter column col1 set not

null

RENAMING DATABASE OBJECTS

Once database objects are created, they can be renamed using the SQL statement, RENAME. To rename any database object use the following SQL syntax: RENAME <object type> <object name> to <new

name> Where the object type can be for example, a

table, table space, or index. Not all database objects can be renamed after they are created.

To rename a column, the ALTER TABLE SQL statement should be used in conjunction with RENAME. For example: ALTER TABLE <table name> RENAME COLUMN

<column name> TO <new name>

DROPING DATABASE TABLE

DROP TABLE statement allows you to remove tables from your schema: DROP TABLE SCHEMA.TABLE_NAME Ex : DROP TABLE DB2ADMIN.EMPLOYEE

DATA MANIPULATION WITH SQL

Selecting Data Inserting Data Deleting Data Updating Data

EMPLOYEE TABLE - PART 1 (1 OF 2)

EMPLOYEE TABLE - PART 1 (2 OF 2)

DEPARTMENT TABLE

PROJECT TABLE

STRUCTURE OF AN SQL QUERY

SELECT - Defines result columnsColumn namesArithmetic expressionsLiterals (text or numeric)Scalar functionsColumn functionsConcatenation

FROM - Table or view namesWHERE - Conditions (qualifies rows)ORDER BY - Sorts result rows

RETRIEVING ALL COLUMNS, ALL ROWS

RETRIEVING ALL COLUMNS, LIMITED ROWS

SELECTING SPECIFIC COLUMNS

SELECT WITH ORDERED OUTPUT (1 OF 2)

SELECT WITH ORDERED OUTPUT (2 OF 2)

ALTERNATE ORDER BY SPECIFICATIONS

SELECT LASTNAME, FIRSTNME, WORKDEPT, JOB, SEX FROM EMPLOYEE ORDER BY WORKDEPT DESC, JOB, LASTNAME, SEX DESC

Equivalent ORDER BY clauses: ORDER BY WORKDEPT DESC, JOB ASC,

LASTNAME ASC, SEX DESC ORDER BY 3 DESC, 4, 1, 5 DESC ORDER BY 3 DESC, 4 ASC, 1 ASC, 5 DESC ORDER BY 3 DESC, JOB, LASTNAME, 5 DESC ORDER BY WORKDEPT DESC, 4 ASC, 1 ASC,

SEX DESC

SUPPRESSING DUPLICATE OUTPUT ROWS (1 OF 2)

SUPPRESSING DUPLICATE OUTPUT ROWS (2 OF 2)

RETRIEVING ROWS BY CHARACTER COMPARISON

RETRIEVING ROWS BY NUMERICAL COMPARISON

COMPARISON OPERATORS

SELECT *FROM EMPLOYEEWHERE SALARY = 20000 -- equal to

OR SALARY <> 20000 -- not equal toOR SALARY > 20000 -- greater thanOR SALARY >= 20000 -- greater than

or equal toOR SALARY < 20000 -- less thanOR SALARY <= 20000 -- less than or

equal to

AND AND OR - PRINCIPLE

MULTIPLE CONDITIONS - AND

MULTIPLE CONDITIONS - OR

MULTIPLE CONDITIONS - AND/OR

MULTIPLE CONDITIONS - PARENTHESES

SELECT WITH IN

SELECT WITH BETWEEN

RETRIEVING ROWS - NULL COMPARISON

PARTIAL STRING SEARCH - LIKE

PARTIAL STRING SEARCH - EXAMPLES WITH '%'

PARTIAL STRING SEARCH - EXAMPLE WITH '_'

NEGATION

MAINTAINING DATA

TESTEMP Table

The visual shows the contents of the TESTEMP table.

This table will be the basis for the exercises of this unit

DDL CREATE TABLE TESTEMP

CREATE TABLE TESTEMP(

EMPNO CHAR(6) NOT NULL, LASTNAME VARCHAR(15) NOT NULL, WORKDEPT CHAR(3),HIREDATE DATE,SALARY DECIMAL(9,2),BONUS DECIMAL(9,2)

)

INSERTING ROWS INTO THE TABLE

INSERT MULTIPLE ROWS

UPDATE COLUMNS (1 OF 2)

UPDATE COLUMNS (2 OF 2)

DELETE ROWS

REMINDERS You must be authorized to execute CREATE/DROP

table statements You must be authorized to execute statements which

change table content Dropping a table drops dependent objects Search condition in the WHERE clause qualifies rows

to be updated or deleted Inserting a row into a view actually inserts the row

into the table on which the view is based Updating a row of a view updates the row of the

table on which the view is based Omitting the WHERE clause of an UPDATE or DELETE statement causes all rows of the table or view to be

updated or deleted

THANK YOU