Human AnaPhysio Assignment2

8/10/2019 Human AnaPhysio Assignment2

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I.

1. CHEMICAL LEVEL OF ORGANIZATION: Main Chemicals in the Human

Body and Its Significance

This is the elemental chemical composition of the average adult human body. Water is the most

abundant chemical compound in living human cells, accounting for 65-90% of each cell. Each watermolecule consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, but the mass of each oxygen

atom is much higher than the combined mass of the hydrogen. All organic compounds contain carbon,

which is why carbon is the second most abundant element in the body. Six elements account for 99% of

the mass of the human body: oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, and phosphorus. Although

aluminum and silicon are abundant in the earth's crust, they are found in trace amounts in the human

body.

Oxygen (65%) and hydrogen (10%) are predominantly found in water, which makes up about 60

percent of the body by weight. It's practically impossible to imagine life without water.

Carbon (18%) is synonymous with life. Its central role is due to the fact that it has four bondingsites that allow for the building of long, complex chains of molecules. Moreover, carbon bonds

can be formed and broken with a modest amount of energy, allowing for the dynamic organic

chemistry that goes on in our cells.

Nitrogen (3%) is found in many organic molecules, including the amino acids that make up

proteins, and the nucleic acids that make up DNA.


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2. Inorganic vs. Organic Compounds

Inorganic compounds are

any substance in which two or more

chemical elements other than

carbon are combined, nearly always

in definite proportions. Compounds

of carbon are classified as organic

except for carbides, carbonates,

cyanides, and a few others.

Organic compound,

any of a large class of chemical

compounds in which one or

more atoms of carbon are

covalently linked to atoms of

other elements, most

commonly hydrogen, oxygen,

or nitrogen. The few carbon-

containing compounds not

classified as organic include

carbides, carbonates, and

cyanides.

3. Unique Characteristics of Water

1. Water as the universal solvent-

Water has an unusual ability to

dissolve other substances.

2. Dielectric Strength- Water has an

extremely high dielectric strength

compared to other liquids. This

gives water the ability to dissolvecompounds that other liquids do

not have. This peculiar nature of

water permits all living organisms

to transport minerals and waste products to the necessary parts of their bodies. If water could not

readily dissolve compounds, there would be no life on earth.


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3. Colloidal- Water has the ability to form

colloidal sols.

4. Hydrogen- The water molecule can form

hydrogen bridges with other molecules.

5. Water Flow- The Directional Flow of Water:

Water flows. When it rains, water comes down

to the earth to nourish all life. It then flows

towards streams and rivers to the sea where it

evaporates and goes back into the atmosphere

to repeat the cycle. The unidirectional flow of

water in the evaporation/condensation cycle

enables water all over the earth to continuously

cleanse itself. Because water flows, it is

oxygenated and purified, and picks up nutrients

for plant and animal life. Because water flows,currents carry fresh water to the equator and to

the poles. Lakes near the equator have a higher

oxygen demand, and accordingly are freshened

by heavier rainfalls, hurricanes, typhoons, winds

and wave action than lakes with lower oxygen

demand.

6. Contraction- Water anomalously contracts at

3.9 C. This causes an inversion and restoration

of water bodies. It takes surface oxygen down

to the bottom and raises bottom toxic gases tothe surface to be neutralized and exhausted.

Water is not supposed to be most dense as a

liquid at 4 C, or about 40 F. All other liquids

are most dense when they reach the freezing or

solid state. Because of this anomaly, we have

spring and fall turnover of lakes in the

temperate climates. Without spring and fall

turnover, oxygenated surface water would not

go to the bottom of lakes twice a year to enable

life to exist at the lake bottom so that organic

sediment could be biodegraded, bottom toxicgases brought up to the surface and removed,

and fish to spawn and feed on bottom-feeding

insects. Without this turnover, there would be

no life in our lakes. In the sub-tropic and tropic

zones on earth, spring and fall turnover is

replaced by hurricanes, typhoons, monsoons

and torrential rains.

7. Expansion. Water is one of the only

compounds that expand when it freezes. If it

contracted as other compounds do, ice would

sink and destroy life. Without this anomaly, ice

would sink to the bottom of lakes, and the lakes

in the temperate and arctic climates would be

frozen from the bottom up.

8. Ice and Steam- Water has an unusually high

melting temperature of 0oC instead of -80 C. Its

boiling temperature is +100 C, instead of about -

70 C. Graphs of adjacent molecules in the

Periodic Table of Elements show a straight line

relationship of melting and boiling points far

below 0C. According to water's neighboring

molecules in the Periodic Table of Elements, ice

should melt somewhere around -100 C instead

of 0C and should boil at about -80C instead of

100C. If it did as it should, all water would be

in the gaseous state and there would be no life

on earth. The water molecule has a unique

dipolar nature. This enables hydrogen atoms that

are bonded covalently to the oxygen atom of one

molecule to bond to the oxygen atom of adjacent

water molecules. These interactions must be

disrupted to boil water and therefore causes itsboiling point to be much higher than it would be

if there was no hydrogen bonding. Without this

anomaly, there would be no liquid water or life

on earth at earth temperatures.

10. Surface Tension- Water has a surface

tension 24 times the surface tension of most

organic liquids. Surface tension is highest for

pure water. This enables insects called neuston

to walk and live on the surface of water in low-

nutrient water bodies, where they would starve

if immersed in the water. This anomaly permits

life when the water nutrients are too low to

support life. This helps add nutrients to the

subsurface water so that it will support life and

insects and so that fish can then live below the

surface. Surface tension of water decreases

when there are nutrients in the water. Water

changes its surface tension to not support


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neuston when nutrients in the subsurface water

can support life. This prevents further nutrient

influx to the water from neuston and helps

protect subsurface species from destruction by

excessive nutrients.

11. Specific Heat- Another self-protective

anomaly of water is its very high specific heat

compared to other materials. Specific heat is

the amount of heat required to raise its

temperature. This means that it is more difficult

to raise the temperature of water compared to

other substances. For example, the specific heat

(the amount of heat in calories required to raise

the temperature of 1 gm of material 1C) for

water is 1.0, while the specific heat for rocks is

only about 0.2. If water is frozen, its specific

heat becomes half, so ice tends to warm easily.

If it is liquid, it tends to be more difficult to raise

the temperature. To boil, it requires a specific

heat of 80. Because of this phenomenon, water

tends to remain near the most desirable

temperature for life on earth regardless of

drastic changes in atmospheric temperatures.

The anomalously high specific heat of water and

the right quantity of water stabilizes earth's

temperature.

12. Evaporation- Water has an extremely highheat of evaporation of water compared to other

liquids. The extremely high heat of evaporation

causes evaporative cooling to increase in plants,

animals and water bodies as temperature

increases. The high evaporation rate cools

plants and animals, protecting living organisms

from over-heating. Its high evaporation and

condensation rates match required rainfall for

most of the earth.

13. Density- Warm water is less dense than cold

water. Because of this, warm water floats on

the surface of lakes, rivers and the oceans

insulating the main portion of the water bodies

from being over-heated by the sun and from

killing its living organisms. In combination with

its anomalously poor conductivity, the floating

warm water insulates water bodies and living

organisms against excessive heating.

14. Conductivity- Water is a poor conductor of

heat compared to most other materials. The

anomalously poor conductivity of water

protects living organisms from freezing or

boiling. This also protects the main portion of

the water bodies from being over-heated by the

sun and from killing its living organisms.

15. Osmosis and Capillary Force- Water also has

the ability to pass through cell membranes and

climb great heights in plants and trees through

osmosis and capillary force. Osmotic pressure

and capillary action enable water to climb

hundreds of feet to the tops of the highest

trees. The mystery of osmosis enables plants to

feed, and plants and animals to carry on a

multitude of life processes. Osmosis enablesmarine creatures to absorb fresh water in an

increasing salt-water environment. Then an

increase in cell pressure causes the osmosis to

reverse itself and preserve the life of the

creature. The same mysterious action takes

place on a micro-scale within the bodies of all

creatures.

16. Viscosity, Relaxation Time and Self-

diffusion- Three more anomalies of water are

an excessive decrease in viscosity, decrease inmolecular relaxation time, and increased rate of

self diffusion with temperature rises. These

also protect plants, animals, and water bodies

against excessive temperatures by improving

circulation.

17. Carbon Dioxide- Another characteristic of

water is its ability to enable carbon dioxide to

be released from bicarbonates to support plant

life. Water enables carbon dioxide to attach to

carbonates. It is then carried in the bloodstream

to capillaries in the lungs and exhausted to keep

animals alive. It can be carried to plants in soil

and water to perpetuate plant life.

18. Sound and Color- Sound travels through sea

water about 4.5 times as fast as it travels

through air (1531 m/s vs. 343 m/s), and is much

louder than in air. At 1531 meters, that's 16.7


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football fields in one second! This gives fishes

an opportunity to escape danger, and enables

many sea creatures such as dolphins and whales

to communicate over very long distances, even

thousands of kilometers. At 500 Hz, 20 C

water, Sonar is used to find objects up to 10 kmaway. The attenuation of sound in water

depends on many factors such as frequency,

intensity of the sound, depth, temperature,

water chemistry, background sounds, and

scatter such as from a school of fish. On dry

land, the sound of ocean waves converts moist,

sticky grayish-tan sea salt into dry white salt

granules. This can be demonstrated away from

the sea by placing commercial grade sea salt

near a recording of ocean waves in a laboratory.

Other sounds do not affect the salt. The sound

of rain (2 -10 Hz) is used by sleep therapists to

help people sleep.

19 Light- Light sends electromagnetic waves

through water, causing many crystalline

patterns and photosynthesis. Passing water

through a magnetic field reorients water

hardness, eliminating scaling in pipes and

cooking utensils. Thoughts change the

crystalline patterns of water that sends

electronic waves through human and animal

bodies.

20. Clouds- Water attracts itself. Clouds hold

billions of watts of electric energy. Each

molecule of water in a cloud attracts every

other molecule in the cloud. Even if all the

molecules have a negative charge on them and

every molecule should repel every other

molecule, or every molecule in the cloud has a

positive charge on them and every molecule

should repel every other molecule, the

molecules collect themselves in a cloud

contrary to the laws of electronics. As a result, a

single lightning bolt discharges billion of wattsof electricity to produce life on earth.

4.pH Levels and Its Importance

In chemistry, pH is a measure of the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution. Solutions with a

pH less than 7 are said to be acidic and solutions with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. Pure

water has a pH very close to 7. The pH scale is traceable to a set of standard solutions whose pH is

established by international agreement. Primary pH standard values are determined using a

concentration cell with transference, by measuring the potential difference between a hydrogen

electrode and a standard electrode such as the silver chloride electrode. Measurement of pH for


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aqueous solutions can be done with a glass electrode and a pH meter, or using indicators. pH

measurements are important in medicine, biology, chemistry, agriculture, forestry, food science,

environmental science, oceanography, civil engineering, chemical engineering, nutrition, water

treatment & water purification, and many other applications. Mathematically, pH is the negative

logarithm of the activity of the (solvated) hydronium ion, more often expressed as the measure of the

hydronium ion concentration.

Why is pH significant? pH influences the structure and the function of many enzymes (protein

catalysts) in living systems. Some enzymes have narrow ranges of pH activity. Pepsin, a stomach enzyme

works best at pH 2. In the duodenum, trypsin functions optimally around pH 7.58.0. Overall, most

human cell enzymes work best in a slightly alkaline environment of about 7.4. Cellular pH is so important

that death may ensue within hours if a person becomes acidotic. One such example is unregulated

diabetes high blood sugar occurs and acids form that rapidly destroy enzymes and cells. Regular

blood sugar monitoring always is important for diabetics. In other cases, alkalosis may occur with pH

values of 7.67.8 or greater, with equally damaging consequences. Typically, natural buffers in the body

such as NaHCO3 and proteins regularly compensate for some smaller, acidic and alkaline pH shifts.

II. 1. THE CELL: Structure and OrganellesCells are the basic building blocks of all living

things. The human body is composed of trillions

of cells. They provide structure for the body, take

in nutrients from food, convert those nutrients

into energy, and carry out specialized functions.

Cells also contain the bodys hereditary material

and can make copies of them.

There are two types of cell, prokaryotic(bacteria) and eukaryotic (animal, plant, fungi

and protoctista (unicellular organisms)).

Prokaryotes have no nucleolus the DNA is in

the cytoplasm, and it can from small circular

strands of DNA called plasmids.

Eukaryotic cells all have their DNA enclosed in a

nucleus.

Note that viruses are not cells, by DNA with a

protein coating.

Prokaryotic cells all have small ribosomes, whereas eukaryotic all have larger

ribosomes.

All eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi body, vesicles and endoplastic

reticulum. Prokaryotic have none of these organelles.

Prokaryotic cells have cell walls, but only plant cells and fungi have walls in the

eukaryotic class.

Any eukaryotic cell with a flagella have a 9 + 2 microtubule arrangement, but prokaryotic

do not have a 9 + 2 arrangement.

A bacterial cell contains cytoplasm, nucleus and ribosomes. Its external structure is

made up of a cytoplasmic membrane, a cell wall and a capsule, which is surrounded by


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pilli, which is a type of a small hair, which coats the outer body.

A plant cell contains cytoplasm, a vacuole, mitochondria, Golgi, smooth and rough

endoplastic reticulum, a nucleus, ribosomes and a peroxisome. Its body is made of a

plasma membrane and a cell wall. This wall keeps it rigid.

An animal cell contains Cytoplasm, Centriols, Peroxisome, Lysosomes, Microfilaments,

Mitochondria, Rough and Smooth Endoplastic Reticulum, a Nucleus, Chromatin,

Ribosomes, Microtubules and a Golgi apparatus. Its made of a Plasma Membrane with

Cilia, small hairs, surrounding the entire cell.

The Cytoplasm is what suspends all the other organelles in the cell

Lysosomes are made by the smooth ER, and are used to destroy and recycle old

organelles and microorganisms that the cell no longer needs. Mitochondria are used to

produce energy (in the form of ATP) in the cell.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum is used to produce proteins, using ribosomes that

cover their surface. The proteins are normally in the form of mostly tRNA. The nucleus

controls the whole cell, and is the largest organelle.


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Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Typical organisms bacteria Protoctista, fungi, plants,

animals

Typical size ~ 1-10 m ~ 10-100 m (sperm cells) apart

from the tail, are

smaller)Type of nucleus Nuclear body

No nucleus

real nucleus with nuclear

envelope

DNA circular (ccc DNA) linear molecules (chromosomes)

with histone

proteins

Ribosomes 70S 80S

Cytoplasmic structure Very few structures Highly structured by membranes

and a cytoskeleton

Cell movement Flagellae/cilia made of flagellin Flagellae and cilia made of

tubulin

Mitochondria None 1-100 (through RBCs have none)

Chloroplast None In algae and plants

Organization Usually single cells Single cells, colonies, higher

multicellular organisms with

specialized cells

Cell division Binary fission (simple division) Mitosis (normal cell replication)

Meiosis (gamete production)

Organelle Location Description Function

Cell wall Plant, not animal Outer layer rigid,

strong, stiff, made of

cellulose

Support (grow tall)

protection, allows H2O,

O2, CO2to pass into and

out of cell

Cell mebrane Both plant and animal Plant: inside cell wall

Animal: outer layer;

cholesterol selectively

permeable

Suppot, protection,

controls movement of

materials in/out of cell

barrier between cell

and its environment

maintains homeostasis.

Nucleus Both plant and animal Large, oval Controls cell activities

Nuclear membrane Both plant and animal Surrounds nucleus;

selectively permeable

Controls movement of

materials in and out of

nucleusCytoplasm Both plant and animal Clear, thick, jellylike

material and organelles

found inside cell

membrane

Supports /protects cell

organelles

Endoplasmic reticulum Both plant and animal Network of tubes or

membranes

Carries materials

through cell

Ribosome Both plant and animal Small bodies free or Produces protein


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attached to

endoplasmic reticulum

Mitochondrion Both plant and animal Bean-shaped with inner

membranes

Breaks down sugar

molecules into energy

Vacuole Plant: few, large

Animal: small

Fluid-filled sacs Store food, water,

waste (plants need tostore large amounts of

food)

Lysosome Plant: uncommon

Animal: common

Smal, round, with a

membrane

Breaks down larger

food molecules into

smaller molecules;

digest old cell parts

Chloroplast Plant, not animal Green, oval, usually

containing chlorophyll

(green pigment)

Uses energy from sun

to make food for the

plant (photosynthesis)

6. Transport System

A.DiffusionDiffusion refers to the process by which molecules

intermingle as a result of their kinetic energy of random

motion. Consider two containers of gas A and B separated by

a partition. The molecules of both gases are in constant

motion and make numerous collisions with the partition. If

the partition is removed as in the lower illustration, the gases

will mix because of the random velocities of their molecules.

In time a uniform mixture of A and B molecules will beproduced in the container. The tendency toward diffusion is

very strong even at room temperature because of the high

molecular velocities associated with the thermal energy of

the particles.

Since the average kinetic energy of different types of

molecules (different masses) which are at thermal equilibrium

is the same, then their average velocities are different. Their

average diffusion rate is expected to depend upon that average velocity, which gives a relative

diffusion rate

where the constant K depends upon geometric factors including the area across which the

diffusion is occuring. The relative diffusion rate for two different molecular species is then given

by:


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B.OsmosisIf two solutions of different concentration are separated by a semi-permeable

membrane which is permeable to the smaller solvent molecules but not to the larger solutemolecules, then the solvent will tend to diffuse across the membrane from the less

concentrated to the more concentrated solution. This process is called osmosis. Osmosis is of

great importance in biological processes where the solvent is water. The transport of water and

other molecules across biological membranes is essential to many processes in living organisms.

The energy which drives the process is usually discussed in terms of osmotic pressure.

Osmosis is a selective diffusion process driven by the

internal energy of the solvent molecules. It is convenient to express

the available energy per unit volume in terms of "osmotic

pressure". It is customary to express this tendency toward solvent

transport in pressure units relative to the pure solvent. If purewater were on both sides of the membrane, the osmotic pressure

difference would be zero. But if normal human blood were on the

right side of the membrane, the osmotic pressure would be about

seven atmospheres! This illustrates how potent the influence of

osmotic pressure is for membrane transport in living organisms.

The decision about which side of the membrane to call "high"

osmotic pressure is a troublesome one. The choice made here is

the opposite of that made in many biology texts, which attribute

"high" osmotic pressure to the solution and zero osmotic pressure

to pure water. The rationale for the choice is that the energy

which drives the fluid transfer is the thermal energy of the watermolecules, and that energy density is higher in the pure solvent

since there are more water molecules. The thermal energy of the solute molecules does not

contribute to transport, presuming that the membrane is impermeable to them. The choice is

also influenced by the observed direction of fluid movement, since under this choice the fluid

transport is from high "pressure" to low, congruent with normal fluid flow through pipes from

high pressure to low. The final rationale has to do with the measurement of osmotic pressure by

determining how much hydrostatic pressure on the solution is required to prevent the transport

of water from a pure source across a semi-permeable membrane into the soluton. A positive

pressure must be exerted on the solution to prevent osmotic transport, again congruent with

the concept that the osmotic pressure of the pure solvent is relatively "high".

Nevertheless, the dialog continues on this issue since the discussion of osmosis is most

relevant to the biological and life sciences and perhaps the logic stated above should yield to the

conventions of the field in which the phenomena are most relevant.


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C.Passive and Active Transport

a) Passive TransportIt is a movement of biochemicals

and other atomic or molecular

substances across cell membranes.

Unlike active transport, it does not

require an input of chemical

energy, being driven by the growth

of entropy of the system. The rate

of passive transport depends on

the permeability of the cell

membrane, which, in turn, depends on the organization and characteristics of the

membrane lipids and proteins. The four main kinds of passive transport are diffusion,

facilitated diffusion, filtration and osmosis.

b)

Active TransportIt is the movement of molecules across a cell membrane in the direction against their

concentration gradient, i.e. moving from a low concentration to a high concentration.

Active transport is usually associated with accumulating high concentrations of

molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose and amino acids. If the process uses

chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed primary active

transport. Secondary active transport involves the use of an electrochemical gradient.

Active transport uses cellular energy, unlike passive transport, which does not use

cellular energy. Active transport is a good example of a process for which cells require

energy. Examples of active transport include the uptake of glucose in the intestines in

humans and the uptake of mineral ions into root hair cells of plants.


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7. Cell Division

A.Mitosis

Mitosis is the process, in the cell

cycle, by which a cell duplicates into two

genetically identical daughter cells. In

mitosis, chromosomes in the cell

nucleus are separated into two identical

sets of chromosomes, each in its own

nucleus. In general, mitosis is followed

immediately by cytokinesis, which

divides the cytoplasm, organelles,

and cell membrane, and laterkaryokinesis, which divides the nucleus,

dividing the cell into two new cells

containing roughly equal shares of these

cellular components. Mitosis and cytokinesis together define the mitotic (M) phase of the cell

cyclethe division of the mother cell into two daughter cells, genetically identical to each other

and to their parent cell. This accounts for approximately 20% of the cell cycle.

Mitosis occurs only in eukaryotic cells and the process varies in different groups.For

example, animals undergo an "open" mitosis, where the nuclear envelope breaks down before

the chromosomes separate, while fungi such asAspergillus nidulansand Saccharomyces

cerevisiae (yeast) undergo a "closed" mitosis, where chromosomes divide within an intact cell

nucleus.Prokaryotic cells, which lack a nucleus, divide by a process called binary fission.

The process of mitosis is fast and highly complex. The sequence of events is divided into

stages corresponding to the completion of one set of activities and the start of the next. These

stages are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase. During mitosis, the pairs of

chromatids condense and attach to fibers that pull the sister chromatids to opposite sides of the

cell. The cell then divides in cytokinesis, to produce two daughter cells.

Because cytokinesis often occurs in conjunction with mitosis, "mitosis" is often usedinterchangeably with "mitotic phase". However, there are many cells where mitosis and

cytokinesis occur separately, forming single cells with multiple nuclei. The most notable

occurrence of this is among the fungi and slime molds, but is found in various groups. Even in

animals, cytokinesis and mitosis may occur independently, for instance during certain stages

of fruit fly embryonic development. Errors in mitosis can either kill a cell through apoptosis or

cause mutations. Certain types of cancer can arise from such mutations.


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a.Stages of Mitosis

Prophase- Chromatin in the nucleus begins to condense and becomes visible in

the light microscope as chromosomes. The nucleolus disappears. Centrioles

begin moving to opposite ends of the cell and fibers extend from the

centromeres. Some fibers cross the cell to form the mitotic spindle.

Metaphase- Spindle fibers align the chromosomes along the middle of the cell

nucleus. This line is referred to as the metaphase plate. This organization helps

to ensure that in the next phase, when the chromosomes are separated, each

new nucleus will receive one copy of each chromosome.

Anaphase- The paired chromosomes separate at the kinetochores and move to

opposite sides of the cell. Motion results from a combination of kinetochore

movement along the spindle microtubules and through the physical interaction

of polar microtubules.

Telophase- Chromatids arrive at opposite poles of cell, and new membranes

form around the daughter nuclei. The chromosomes disperse and are no longer

visible under the light microscope. The spindle fibers disperse, and cytokinesis

or the partitioning of the cell may also begin during this stage. Cytokinesis- In animal cells, cytokinesis results when a fiber ring composed of a

protein called actin around the center of the cell contracts pinching the cell into

two daughter cells, each with one nucleus. In plant cells, the rigid wall requires

that a cell plate be synthesized between the two daughter cells.

III. Tissue Level

A.

Types of Tissue

a.Epithelial tissue

It forms the

coverings of

surfaces of the

body. As such, it

serves many

purposes,

includingprotection,

adsorption,

excretion,

secretion, filtration, and sensory reception.

Cells in epithelium fit closely together side by side and sometimes atop each

other to form sheets of cells. These sheets are held together by specialized

junctions.


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Epithelium is arranged so there is one free surface (apical surface) and one

attached surface (basal surface).

It is located in skin, lining of blood vessels, lining of the lungs, kidney tubules,

and the inner surfaces of the digestive system, including the esophagus,

stomach, and intestines. Also the lining of parts of the respiratory system.

b.Connective tissue

It is the most abundant and widely distributed tissue type found in the human

body. The role of connective tissue is to protect, support, and bind together

parts of the body.

Connective tissues are made up of many types of specialized cells.

Connective tissues contain a large amount of non-living material referred to asthe matrix (composed of ground substance and fibers). Typically, this material is

manufactured and secreted by the cells of the specific connective tissues.

Connective tissues mainly found on beneath the skin and around blood vessels,

muscles and nerves, spleen, lymph nodes, liver, tendons and ligaments,

anywhere there is an empty space in the body fat is stored as a source of energy

and may provide insulation, large arteries, bronchial tubes, and bones.

c. Muscular tissue


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It is a soft tissue that composes muscles in animal bodies, and gives rise to

muscles' ability to contract.

Muscle tissue varies with function and location in the body. In mammals the

three types are: skeletal or striated muscle; smooth or non-striated muscle; and

cardiac muscle, which is sometimes known as semi-striated.

Smooth and cardiac muscle contracts involuntarily, without consciousintervention. These muscle types may be activated both through interaction of

the central nervous system (CNS) as well as by receiving innervation from

peripheral plexa or endocrine (hormonal) activation. Striated or skeletal muscle

only contracts voluntarily, upon influence of the central nervous system.

Reflexes are a form of non-conscious activation of skeletal muscles, but

nonetheless arise through activation of the CNS, albeit not engaging cortical

structures until after the contraction has occurred.

Skeletal muscle or "voluntary muscle" or "striated muscle" is anchored by

tendons (or by aponeuroses at a few places) to bone and is used to effect

skeletal movement such as locomotion and in maintaining posture. Though this

postural control is generally maintained as an unconscious reflex (see

proprioception), the muscles responsible react to conscious control like non-

postural muscles. An average adult male is made up of 42% of skeletal muscle

and an average adult female is made up of 36% (as a percentage of body mass).

It also has striations unlike smooth muscle.

Smooth muscle or "involuntary muscle" or "non-striated muscle" is found within

the walls of organs and structures such as the esophagus, stomach, intestines,

bronchi, uterus, urethra, bladder, blood vessels, and the arrector pili in the skin

(in which it controls erection of body hair). Unlike skeletal muscle, smooth

muscle is not under conscious control.

In vertebrates, there is a third muscle tissue recognized: Cardiac muscle

(myocardium), is also an "involuntary muscle" but is more similar in structure to

skeletal muscle, and is found only in the heart. Cardiac muscle tissue occurs only in the heart. Its cells are joined end to end.

The resulting fibers are branched and interconnected in complex networks. Each

cell has a single nucleus. At its end, where it touches another cell, there is a

specialized intercellular junction called an intercalated disc, which occurs only in

cardiac tissue. Cardiac muscle is controlled involuntarily and, in fact, can

continue to function without being stimulated by nerve impulses. This tissue

makes up the bulk of the heart and is responsible for pumping blood through

the heart chambers into the blood vessels.

Cardiac and skeletal muscles are "striated" in that they contain sarcomeres and

are packed into highly regular arrangements of bundles; smooth muscle has

neither. While skeletal muscles are arranged in regular, parallel bundles, cardiacmuscle connects at branching, irregular angles (called intercalated discs).

Striated muscle contracts and relaxes in short, intense bursts, whereas smooth

muscle sustains longer or even near-permanent contractions.


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d.Nervous tissue

It is the main

component of the two

parts of the nervous

system; the brain and

spinal cord of the

central nervous

system (CNS), and the

branching peripheral

nerves of the

peripheral nervous

system (PNS), which

regulates and controls

bodily functions and activity. It is composed of neurons, or nerve cells, which

receive and transmit impulses, and neuroglia, also known as glial cells or more

commonly as just glia (from the Greek, meaning glue), which assist thepropagation of the nerve impulse as well as providing nutrients to the neuron.

Nervous tissue is made up of different types of nerve cells, all of which having

an axon, the long stem-like part of the cell that sends action potential signals to

the next cell.

Functions of the nervous system are sensory input, integration, control of

muscles and glands, homeostasis, and mental activity.

8. A. Red Blood Cell Also called erythrocytes, are the

most common type of blood cell and

the vertebrate organism's principal

means of delivering oxygen (O2) to

the body tissues via the blood flow

through the circulatory system.

They take up oxygen in the lungs or

gills and release it into tissues while

squeezing through the body's

capillaries.

The cytoplasm of erythrocytes is rich in hemoglobin, an iron-containing biomolecule

that can bind oxygen and is responsible for the red color of the cells. The cell membrane

is composed of proteins and lipids, and this structure provides properties essential forphysiological cell function such as deformability and stability while traversing the

circulatory system and specifically the capillary network.

In humans, mature red blood cells are flexible and oval biconcave disks. They lack a cell

nucleus and most organelles, in order to accommodate maximum space for

hemoglobin. Approximately 2.4 million new erythrocytes are produced per second.


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The cells develop in the bone marrow and circulate for about 100120 days in the body

before their components are recycled by macrophages. Each circulation takes about 20

seconds. Approximately a quarter of the cells in the human body are red blood cells.

B. White Blood Cell

White blood cells (WBCs), alsocalled leukocytes or leucocytes, are the cells of

the immune system that are involved in

defending the body against both infectious

disease and foreign invaders.

Five different and diverse types

of leukocytes exist, and several types (including

monocytes and neutrophils) are phagocytic. All

leukocytes are produced and derived from a

multipotent cell in the bone marrow known as a

hematopoietic stem cell. They live for about

three to four days in the average human body.Leukocytes are found throughout the body,

including the blood and lymphatic system.

The number of leukocytes in the blood is often an indicator of disease.

They make up approximately 1% of the total blood volume in a healthy adult. An

increase in the number of leukocytes over the upper limits is called leukocytosis, and a

decrease below the lower limit is called leukopenia. Physical properties of leukocytes

(such as volume, conductivity, and granularity) may change. These changes can be due

to activation, the presence of immature cells, or the presence of malignant leukocytes in

leukemia.

C. Sperm Cell The term sperm refers to the male reproductive cells and is derived from the Greek

word () sperma (meaning "seed").

The mammalian sperm cell consists of a head, a midpiece and a tail. The head contains

the nucleus with densely coiled chromatin fibres, surrounded anteriorly by an

acrosome, which contains enzymes used for penetrating the female egg. The midpiece

has a central filamentous core with many mitochondria spiralled around it, used for ATP

production for the journey through the female cervix, uterus and uterine tubes. The tail

or "flagellum" executes the lashing movements that propel

the spermatocyte.

During fertilization, the sperm provides

three essential parts to the oocyte: (1) a signalling oractivating factor, which causes the metabolically dormant

oocyte to activate; (2) the haploid paternal genome; (3) the

centrosome, which is responsible for maintaining the

microtubule system.

The spermatozoa of animals are produced

through spermatogenesis inside the male gonads (testicles)

via meiotic division. The initial spermatozoon process takes


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around 70 days to complete. The spermatid stage is where the sperm develops the

familiar tail. The next stage where it becomes fully mature takes around 60 days when

its called a spermatozoan.Sperm cells are carried out of the male body in a fluid known

as semen. Human sperm cells can survive within the female reproductive tract for more

than 5 days post coitus. Semen is produced in the seminal vesicles, prostate gland and

urethral glands.

D. Egg Cell The egg cell is the female haploid reproductive cell (gamete) in oogamous organisms.

The egg cell is typically not capable of active movement, and it is much larger than the

motile sperm cells. When egg and sperm fuse, a diploid cell (the zygote) is formed,

which gradually grows into a new

organism.

In animals, egg cells are also known as ova

(singular ovum, from the Latin word ovum

meaning egg or egg cell). The term ovule is

used for the young ovum of an animal. Inhigher animals, ova are produced by

female gonads (sexual glands) called

ovaries and all of them are present at birth

in mammals and mature via oogenesis.

In viviparous animals (which include

humans and all other placental mammals),

the ovum is fertilized inside the female

body. The human ova grow from primitive

germ cells that are embedded in the

substance of the ovaries. Each of them

divides repeatedly to give secretions of the uterine glands, ultimately forming a

blastocyst.

The ovum is one of the largest cells in the human body, typically visible to the naked eye

without the aid of a microscope or other magnification device. The human ovum

measures approximately 0.12 mm in diameter.


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POLYTECHNIC UNIVERSITY OF THE PHILIPPINES

Department of Biology

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE

Sta. Mesa Manila

ASSIGNMENT NO. 2I.1. Chemical Level of Organization: Main Chemicals in the Human Body and Its

Significance

2. Inorganic vs. Organic Compounds

3. Unique Characteristics of Water

4. pH Levels and its Importance

II.

5. The cell: Structure and Organelle

6. Transport system

Diffusion

Osmosis

Passive and Active Transport

7. Cell Division: Mitosis

III. Tissue level: Epithelial, Connective, Muscular, and Nervous Tissues

(includes location and the organs where these types of cells can be found)

8. RBC, WBC, Sperm Cell, and Egg Cell

Aljon P. Millano

BS BIOLOGY 4-1

Prof. Gary Antonio C. Lirio

Documents

Human AnaPhysio Assignment2