Historical Evaluation unit 1

8/14/2019 Historical Evaluation unit 1

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Introduction to Flight

Shiva Prasad U

Assistant Professor

Department of Aeronautical Engineering

Guru Nanak Engineering College Hyderabad


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Introduction to Flight

I B.Tech Aeronautical

Unit I Historical Evaluation

Text Books-1)Introduction to Flight

- Jr.Anderson

2) flight with out formulae-A.C. Kermode


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Syallabus

HISTORICAL EVALUTION

Early airplanes, Multi planes, biplanes and

monoplanes, Developments in

aerodynamics, materials, structures and

propulsion over the years.


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Index

Unit -1 PPT Slides

Sr. No Module as per Session Planner Lecture No PPT Slide No

Early Airplanes L-1 L-1-1 to L-1-2 Airship L-2 L-2-1 to L-2-2

Multiplane L-3 L-3-1 to L-3-1 Triplane L-4 L-4-1 to L-4-2 Biplane L-5 L-5-1 to L-5-2 Monoplane L-6 L-6-1 to L-6-2 Developments In Aerodynamics L-7 L-7-1 to L-7-2 Developments In Materials L-8 L-8-1 to L-8-4

Development of Aircraft Structures L-9 L-9-1 to L-9-3 Propulsion over the years L-10 L-10-1 to L-10-8


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Early Airplanes

First manned flight Montgolfier brothers' balloon at the

London Science Museum The first clearly recorded instance of a balloon

carrying passengers used hot air to generate

buoyancy and was built by the brothers Joseph-Michel and Jacques-Etienne MontgolfierinAnnonay, France. After experimenting withunmanned balloons and flights with animals, thefirst tetheredballoon flight with humans on boardtook place on October 19, 1783 with the scientistJean-Franois Piltre de Rozier, the manufacture

manager, Jean-Baptiste Rveillon and , at theFolie Titon in Paris. The first free flight with humanpassengers was on November 21, 1783.

King Louis XVI had originally decreed thatcondemned criminals would be the first pilots, butde Rozier, along with Marquis Francois d'Arlandes

, successfully petitioned for the honor.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Science_Museumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier_brothershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_R%C3%A9veillonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Laurent_d%27Arlandeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Laurent_d%27Arlandeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Laurent_d%27Arlandeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviatorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XVI_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_R%C3%A9veillonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_R%C3%A9veillonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_R%C3%A9veillonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_R%C3%A9veillonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Pil%C3%A2tre_de_Rozierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgolfier_brothershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buoyancyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Science_Museum


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Montgolfier Hot Air Balloon
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Montgolfier_Balloon.JPG


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Airship

An airship or dirigible is alighter-than-air aircraft that can be steered andpropelled through the air using rudders andpropellers or otherthrust. Unlike other

aerodynamicaircraft such as fixed-wing aircraftand helicopters, which produce lift by moving awing orairfoil through the air, aerostaticaircraft, such as airships and hot air balloons,stay aloft by filling a large cavity, such as aballoon, with a lifting gas. A Zeppelin is a brandname for rigid airships historically built byeither the Luftschiff Zeppelin company ofGermany or the Goodyear Zeppelin company ofthe USA, and now of smaller semi-rigid airshipsbuilt by Zeppelin Luftschifftechnik, also of

Germany.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerostathttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_(force)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifting_gashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airfoilhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lift_(force)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrusthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propellerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerostat


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Airship
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Zeppelin.jpg


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Multiplane

Multiplanes Aircraft with four or more sets of wings are

even rarer. Extreme examples includemultiplanes designed by Horatio Phillips, one

of which had two hundred sets of wings.Another example is the Caproni Ca.60, a one-off transatlantic seaplane, which had threesets of triplane wings taken fromCaproni Ca.4 bombers. There was also thetetra-winged (four-winged)Supermarine Nighthawk, designed to shootdown zeppelins, that never enteredproduction.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplane_(aircraft)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplane_(aircraft)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermarine_Nighthawkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supermarine_Nighthawkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caproni_Ca.60http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horatio_Phillipshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplane_(aircraft)&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Multiplane_(aircraft)&action=edit&redlink=1


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Triplane
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Fokker_Dr._I_USAF.jpg


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Triplane

A triplane is a fixed-wing aircraft equipped with threesets of wings, each roughly the same size andmounted one above the other.

Typically, the lower set of wings would be level withthe underside of the aircraft's fuselage, the middleset level with the top of the fuselage, and the top setsupported above the fuselage on struts.

The first triplane was designed in 1908 byAmbroise Goupy and built by Blriot, flown with a 37kW (50 hp) Renault engine.

Triplanes have greater wing area than biplanes andmonoplanes of similar wing span and chord,potentially offering increased lift and tighter turningradii.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goupy_No.1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ambroise_Goupy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A9riot_A%C3%A9ronautiquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chord_(aircraft)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaulthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bl%C3%A9riot_A%C3%A9ronautiquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ambroise_Goupy&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goupy_No.1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuselagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft


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Biplane
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Sopwith_F-1_Camel_2_USAF.jpg


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Biplane A biplane is a fixed-wing aircraft with two main

wings. The first powered heavier-than-airaircraft, theWright brothers'Wright Flyer, used a biplane design,as did most aircraft in the early years ofaviation.

While a biplane wing structure has a structuraladvantage, it produces more drag than a similarmonoplane wing. Improved structural techniquesand materials, as first pioneered by Hugo Junkers in1915, and the need for greater speed, made the

biplane configuration obsolete for most purposes bythe late 1930s.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Junkershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Junkershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monoplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_Flyerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-wing_aircraft


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Monoplane
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Jak-18_G%C3%B3raszka_2008_1.JPG


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Monoplane

A monoplane is an aircraft with one main set

of wing surfaces, in contrast to a biplane or

triplane. Since the late 1930s it has been the

"ordinary" form for a fixed wing aircraft. The termparasol monoplane, is more or less

obsolete - it used to be applied to a high-

wing monoplane, especially one where the

wing was mounted well above the fuselage.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biplanehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft


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What is Aerodynamics?

Aerodynamics is branch of science whichdeals with the branch of the larger field offluid dynamics that deals with the motion

of air and other gaseous fluids. It concerns the forces that these gaseous

fluids, and particularly air, exert on bodiesmoving through it. Without the science ofaerodynamics, modern flight would beimpossible.


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The next contribution to aerodynamics did not occuruntil the end of the 1400s. In 1490, the Italianpainter, sculptor, and thinkerLeonardo da Vinci

began documenting his aerodynamic theories andideas for flying machines in personal notebooks. Anavid observer of birds and nature, he first believedthat birds fly by flapping their wings, and thoughtthat this motion would have to occur for manmade

aircraft to rise. He designed several ornithoptersmachines thatwere intended to copy the action of a bird's wingwith the muscle power being supplied by man.

Scientists working in the 17th century contributed

several theories relating to drag. The Italianmathematician and inventor Galileo Galilei built onArchimedes' work and discovered that the dragexerted on a body from a moving fluid is directlyproportional to the density of the fluid.
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/leonardo/DI31.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/ornithopter/DI37.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Theories_of_Flight/drag/TH4.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Theories_of_Flight/drag/TH4.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/ornithopter/DI37.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/leonardo/DI31.htm


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Leonardo da Vinci's ornithopter design.


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In 1673, the French scientist Edme Mariotte

demonstrated that drag is proportional to the

square of the velocity of an object (D V2).

Dutch mathematician Christiaan Huygens

had been testing this theory since 1669 and

published his results with the same

conclusion in 1690. The English scientistand mathematician Sir Isaac Newton

presented a derivation of the drag equation

of a body in 1687: Drag SV2 (where is

density and S is cross-sectional surfacearea of the body).
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/newton/DI36.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/newton/DI36.htm


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Isaac Newton was one of thegreatest scientific geniuses of alltime and contributed to every

major area of science andmathematics of his generation. Hedemonstrated that the universe ranaccording to natural laws that wereunderstandable.


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Bernoulli's Principle is a physical phenomenon that was named after the Swiss

scientist Daniel Bernoulli who lived during the eighteenth century. Bernoulli

studied the relationship of the he speed of a fluid and pressure.

Bernoulli's Principle (top) says that increased air velocityproduces decreased pressure.

Lift (bottom) is produced by an airfoil through a combination ofdecreased pressure above the airfoil and increased pressure

beneath it.Daniel Bernoulli (1700-

1782)Flow over an Airfoil


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Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, also anassociate of Bernoulli, derived equations fromBernoulli's and d'Alembert's principles. The most

famous of these became known as Bernoulli'sPrinciple. It states that, in a flowing fluid, as velocityincreases, pressure decreases. This became a keyconcept for understanding how lift is created. Euleralso introduced equations for fluid flow, though at thetime they could not be solved and applied.

Italian mathematician Joseph Lagrange and Frenchmathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace studied Euler'sfindings and tried to solve his equations. In 1788,Lagrange introduced a new model for fluid flow aswell as new equations for calculating velocity and

pressure. In 1789, Laplace developed an equationthat would help solve Euler's equations. It is still usedin modern aerodynamics and physics. Laplace alsosuccessfully calculated the speed of sound.
http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/Euler/DI144.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/sound_barrier/DI94.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/sound_barrier/DI94.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/Euler/DI144.htmhttp://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Dictionary/Euler/DI144.htm


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In addition to these theoretical

advancements, experiments in

aerodynamics were also producing more

practical results. In 1732, the Frenchchemist Henri Pitot invented the Pitot tube,

a device that enables the calculation of

velocity at a point in a flowing fluid. Thiswould help explain the behavior of fluid

flow.


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Developments In Materials

Aircraft are obviously made up of different types

of materials. Everything from plastics to metal

alloys to composites. Most commercial aircraft

nowadays are excellent examples of theadvancements and developments in standard

materials.

All of these materials have seen incredible

improvements and refinements over the past100 years. These recent advancements have

been unheard of in any time in human history.


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So here is a slightly digested version

of basic engineering materials

available out there.

Basically all materials are organized

into large groups or classes in the

following way:

1) Ceramics/Glasses

2) Metals

3) Polymers/Elastomers

4) Composites


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Ceramics/Glasses Ceramics cover a wide range of materials that

are usually very stiff, have very low ductility orformability, usually are very abrasionresistant, retain their strength and propertiesat very high temperatures, and also are quitecorrosion resistant.

Metals Metals are malleable and ductile (meaning

they can be shaped), can be alloyed andchemically altered to almost any level of

strength and stiffness, they can be tailored tohave high temperature resistance, are easilyheat treated and tempered, and usually veryeasy to machine and process.


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Polymers/Elastomers

We'll quickly go over the other HUGE group ofmaterials called polymers. Polymers have probablybeen the fastest growing group of materials ever.Think about the fact of how plastics, vinyl's,rubbers, etc. etc. have been integrated into

everyone's life and then think back about 50 to75 years ago and realize that they were basicallycompletely non existent..

Composites

The final big group of materials are called

composite materials. They are called this forobvious reasons in the fact that they arecomposites or mixtures of the other materialgroups to make very specialized materials


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Development of Aircraft Structures

The very early airplanes were built from verylightweight materials such as bamboo, wood, andfabric. They were designed much like bridges, withbeam and truss construction.

The wings on the Wright Flyer form a truss; the twowings used wires and bars diagonally (at an angle)to strengthen the wing against aerodynamic forces.

The insides of wings were also a type of trussconstruction.

The bars inside were called spars. Wires were usedon the diagonals to strengthen the wing.


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The spars, plus the spar caps at each end, were

shaped to give the wing aerodynamic features.

This shape is often called the airfoil. The figure

below shows the basic construction of the wing

of the Sopwith Camel, World War I fighter.


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Propulsion over the years

Unpowered Some types of aircraft, such as balloons,

kites and gliders, do not have anypropulsion.

Gliders gain their initial flying speed fromsome launch mechanism, and then gainadditional energy from gravity and fromupdrafts such as thermal currents. The first

practical, controllable example was designedand built by the British scientist and pioneerGeorge Cayley who is universally recognizedas the first aeronautical engineer.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cayleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cayleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Cayleyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gliderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balloon


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Man power

The earliest designs used man powerto give dirigible balloons some degreeof control, and go back to

Jean-Pierre Blanchard in 1784.Attempts to achieve heavier-than-airmanpowered flight did not succeeduntil Paul MacCready's

Gossamer Condorin 1977. Gossamer Albatross, a

human-powered aircraft
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-powered_flighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirigiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Blanchardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_MacCreadyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossamer_Condorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-powered_flighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-powered_flighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossamer_Condorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_MacCreadyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean-Pierre_Blanchardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirigiblehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human-powered_flight


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Powered

The first powered flight was made in asteam-powered dirigible by Henri Giffard in 1852.Attempts to marry a practical lightweight

steam engine to a practical fixed-wing airframe didnot succeed until much later, by which time theinternal combustion engine was already dominant.

From the first powered aeroplane flight by theWright brothers until World War II, propellers turned

by the internal combustion piston engine werevirtually the only type of propulsion system in use.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Giffardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_IIhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wright_brothershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Giffardhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_aircraft


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Propellers
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/Hercules.propeller.arp.jpg


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Turbine engines need not be used as jets(see below), but may be geared to drive a

propeller in the form of a turboprop. Some turboprop designs (see below)

mount the propeller directly on an engineshaft, and are called propfans.

Jet propulsion Air-breathingjet engines provide thrust

by taking in air, burning it with fuel in acombustion chamber, and accelerating

the exhaust rearwards so that it ejects athigh speed. The reaction against thisacceleration provides the engine thrust.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turboprophttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propfanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-breathing_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air-breathing_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propfanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turboprop


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Consequently, nearly all high-speed and high-altitude aircraft use jet engines.

other designs include the crude pulse jet, high-speed ramjet and the still-experimentalsupersonic-combustion ramjet orscramjet

Helicopters The rotor of a Helicoptermay, like a propeller,

be powered by a variety of methods such as aninternal-combustion engine or jet turbine. Tip

jets, fed by gases passing along hollow rotorblades from a centrally-mounted engine, have

been experimented with. Attempts have evenbeen made to mount engines directly on therotor tips.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_jet_enginehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramjethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramjethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramjethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramjethttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_jet_engine


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Other Forms Of Propulsion

Rocket-powered aircrafthaveoccasionally been experimented with,and the Messerschmitt Kometfightereven saw action in the Second WorldWar.

Since then they have been restricted torather specialised niches, such as theBell X-1 which broke the sound barrier(rockets carry their own oxidant).

The flapping-wing ornithopteris acategory of its own. These designs mayhave potential, but no practical devicehas been created beyond researchprototypes.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket-powered_aircrafthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_X-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ornithopterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_X-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messerschmitt_Me_163http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocket-powered_aircraft


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References:

http://en.wikipedia.org

http://wings.avkids.com/Book

www.sdsefi.com www.quest-global.com

www.centennialofflight.gov
http://en.wikipedia.org/http://wings.avkids.com/Bookhttp://www.sdsefi.com/http://www.quest-global.com/http://www.quest-global.com/http://www.sdsefi.com/http://wings.avkids.com/Bookhttp://en.wikipedia.org/

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Historical Evaluation unit 1