Heidenhain, Rudolf_Hypnotism; Or, Animal Magnetism; Physiological Observations (1899)

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KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., Lt ^

THE ELEMENTS OF HYPNOTISM. By R. HarryVincent. Second Edition. Crown 8vo. 5J-.

[hiternational Scientijic Series.ANIMAL MAGNETISM. By A. Binet and C. Fere.

Second Edition. Crown 8vo. ^s.\_Internatio7ial Scientijic Series.

MENTAL EVOLUTION IN ANIMALS. By G. J. Romanes,M.A., F.R.S. With Posthumous Essay on Instinct byCharles Darwin. Demy 8vo. \2s.MENTAL EVOLUTION IN MAN: Origin of theHuman

Faculty. By G. J. Romanes, M.A., F.R.S. DemySvo. I4J-.

ANIMAL INTELLIGENCE. By G. J. Romanes, M.A.,F.R.S. Fourth Edition. Crown Svo. ^s.\LHternatio7ial Scientific Series.

JELLY-FISH, STAR-FISH, AND SEA-URCHINS : beinga Research on Primitive Nervous Systems. ByG. J. Romanes. With Illustrations. Crown Svo. $5.

\^l7iternational Scientific Series.

London : Paternoster House, Charing Cross Road.W.C.


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HYPNOTISMORANIMAL MAGNETISM

PHYSIOLOGICAL OBSERVATIONS

RUDOLF HEIDEXHAIN, M.D.PROFESSOR OF PHYSIOLOGY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF BRESLAIT

TRANSLATED FROM THE FOURTH GERMAN EDITION BYL. C. WOOLDRIDGE, M.D., D.Sc.

WITH A PREFACE BYG. J. ROMANES, JVI.A., F.R.S.

FOURTH ^j-)iriON

LONDONKEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & CO., LtP

1899


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3rLIBRl

PSYCH.UfifiAfiy

iThe rights 0/ tramlation and 0/ reproduction are reserved.')


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PREFACEHaving been requested by the publishers to writea short preface to the following translation for thepurpose of introducing an interesting work to thenotice of English readers, I think it desirable tosay that, not having had an opportunity of readingthe translation, I am acquainted with the workonly in its original language. But although I amthus unable to form an independent opinion onthe merits of the translation as such, I have nodoubt that it has been well done; for the translatorinforms me that his task was undertaken at thesuggestion of Professor Ludwig, and it scarcelyrequires to be said that a suggestion of the kindfrom this source is a sufficient guarantee of thecompetency of the man to execute the work sug-gested.

Regarding the research itself, I feel it needless258421


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vi PREFACE.to say much. If we consider the length of timethat so-called mesmerism or electro-biologyhas been before the world, the remarkable natureof the phenomena, and the amount of interestnot to say superstitionwhich they have excited,we can scarcely fail to wonder that so inviting asubject should not long ago have been worked outby men of science. And in whatever measure wefeel it is desirable that so remarkable and obscurea class of phenomena should be properly investi-gated, in that measure must we feel how fortunateit is that their investigation should at last havebeen undertaken by a physiologist so well knownas Heidenhain. The more extraordinary or un-usual the facts may be found, after due investi-gation, to be, the more important it is that theirnature as facts should be attested by a man who,like the present author, holds a universally recog-nized position in the foremost rank of investigators.The truth of this consideration will become ap-parent to every one who first encounters some ofthe statements contained in this little treatisesuch, for instance, as those with regard to imitativespeaking. If such statements were to occur in thewritings of any ordinary observer, they would beat once dismissedand rightly dismissedas muchtoo improbable for acceptance. But when they


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PREFACE. viioccur in the writings of a man like Heidenhain, itis impossible to dismiss them in so summary afashion. In such a case we have practically butone alternativeeither to accept the facts as facts,or to suppose that the observer has been inten-tionally duped. But in the present case even thelast supposition has been practically excluded ; fornot only were a great many of the experimentsperformed on the observer's own brotherwho, tosay the least, would not be likely to stultify hisdistinguished kinsman before the eyes of Europebut the experiments appear to have been alsoperformed on a number of other well-educatedpersons, who as a body cannot reasonably be sup-posed to have been guilty of intentional deception.Besides, physiologists and medical men, in thiscountry at all events, are already well acquaintedwith what may be called the fundamental facts ofhypnotism, and are therefore prepared to receivethe more detailed researches of Heidenhain with-out any of that antecedent presumption againsttheir probability which they can scarcely fail toencounter in the minds of general readers ForEnglish physiologists and medical men have longago been made acquainted with the leading factsof hypnotism by the laborious investigations ofBraid. Braid was a Manchester doctor, who for


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viii PREFACE.many years worked at this subject in a spirit asscientific as it was assiduous. He accumulated anumber of highly remarkable facts, and publishedthe whole research in 1843. Many of his observa-tions appeared to common sense incredible, andthis may be the reason why a generation haspassed away before they have begun to receive theconfirmation which they undoubtedly deserve. Itis only fair to the earlier investigator to say thathis experiments on this subject were more variedand much more numerous than those which havehitherto been prosecuted by Heidenhain, and,further, that he has anticipated his successor inmany, if not in most, of the observations detailedin the following pages. Therefore, as Heidenhainscarcely alludes to the work of his predecessor, wemust suppose that he is only acquainted with itfrom hearsay, and that the two researches, in so faras they are common, have been independent. Ifso, the corroboration is rendered of all the morevalue ; but be this as it may, there can be now noshadow of a doubt that at least the fundamentalfacts detailed in this treatise are genuine.With regard to the interpretation of the facts,

we may fearlessly agree with Heidenhainand,indeed, with all scientific investigators from Braiddownwardsin rejecting the hypothesis originally


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PREFACE, ixadvanced that the phenomena are due to a specialkind of force. We may fearlessly do this, notbecause any such special kind of force is in itselfimpossible, or even in any measurable degree im-probable ; but simply because so far as scientificinvestigation of the facts has hitherto extended,there is no evidence of any special kind of forcebeing concerned in their occurrence. Similarly,we may dismiss the hypothesis of a dominantidea taking hold of the mind, and, through themind, influencing the body. We may dismiss thishypothesis because, although the influence of sucha dominant idea may assist in the production ofsome of the phenomena of hypnotism, it is clear toany one who is not himself subject to the influenceof a dominant idea that this is not the influenceto which we can attribute all the phenomenaoreven those which, physiologically speaking, aremost characteristic of the hypnotic state. Thus,without going further than the phenomena ofhypnotism as producible in the lower animals,the researches of Czermak, Preyer, and others haveshown that many animals, when treated by theappropriate methods, pass into a state of what thelast-named experimenter calls kataplexy, whichis in every way similar to that of hypnotism ; andit would clearly be a somewhat difficult matter to


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X PREFACE.indicate the dominant idea which, for instance,Athanasius Kircher communicated to a fowl whenhe made the animal He motionless upon the groundwith its beak resting upon a chalked line, or whichCzermak communicated to a cray-fish when hemade this animal to stand motionless upon itshead.The hypothesis which Braid suggested may also

be set aside, as at all events insufficient to explainthe primary facts, or those of the hypnotic sleep.He regarded the latter as probably due to a dis-turbance of the cerebral circulation ; but, withouttoo hastily dismissing this view as having a pos-sible application to some of the secondary facts, orthose which follow upon the hypnotic sleep, itseems evident that it cannot apply to the primary.For not only have the researches of Heidenhaintended to its negation, but the circumstance ofso many animals being susceptible to hypnotismwhich present such different types of circulatoryapparatus, appears to constitute definite proof thatit is not to the circulatory system we have to lookfor our explanation of hypnotism.What we require for our explanation to stand

upon is some principle of physiology that is knownto apply to all the animals which are found to besusceptible to hypnotism. Such a principle is


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PREFACE, xisupplied by what is called inhibitiona principlewhich is known to have a very general applicationto the nerve-centres of various species of animals,and to which, therefore, most of the more moderninvestigators of hypnotism have pointed as theprobable explanation of the facts. And there cannow be little or no doubt that this is the sourcefrom which the explanation is to be sought. Butwhen we have said this we have said all. For itappears evident that, although we perceive thedirection in which we are, with most promise ofsuccess, to seek the explanation, the explanationitself, in any full or scientific sense of the word, isstill a thing of the future. And here I approachthe only criticism to which I think the followingpages are open. In his desire to graft the factswhich he details upon the growing structure ofphysiological knowledge, Heidenhain seems tooready to gloss over the difficulties which attendthe attempted assimilation. As a matter of fact,no physiologist from his previous knowledge ofinhibition, could possibly have anticipated anyone of the facts which are detailed in this book ;and now that they are in our possession, we arefor the most part unable to see how they areconnected with anything that we previously knewconcerning the facts of inhibition. The truth


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xii PREFACE.appears to be that in hypnotism we are approach-ing a completely new field of physiological re-search, in the cultivation of which our previousknowledge of inhibition may properly be taken asthe starting-point. But further than this we mustmeanwhile be content to collect facts merely asfacts ; and, without attempting to strain thesefacts into explanations derived from our knowledgeof less complex nervous actions, we must patientlywait until explanations which we can feel to beadequate may be found to arise.

GEORGE J. ROMANES.


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AUTHOR'S PREFACETO THE FOURTH EDITION.

The first part of the present edition is essentiallya reproduction of a lecture delivered at the generalmeeting of the Silesian Society, a fortnight afterHerr Hansen, the mesmerist, had commenced hisperformances in Breslau. In the earlier editionsthe lecture appeared in its original form, but inthe present one, a few slight alterations have beenmade.Our knowledge concerning the magnetic state

was at that time very limited. Since then it hasconsiderably increased, and it would perhaps havebeen better to remodel the lecture, so as tointroduce the new facts which have already beenpublished in the second and third editions. Butthere can be no doubt that there is still much


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v AUTHOR'S PREFACE,scope for observation in this subject. It hastherefore, for the present, been considered uselessto attempt a complete description of hypnotism.Hence the original lecture, which has formed thestarting-point of our researches in this new field ofinvestigation, has been once more published.^uch further observations as have been made,have been brought forward in the form of anappendix, no further development of the theory ofhypnotism having been attempted.

Professor Weinhold's pamphlet on hypnotism,which was published long before our own, can bestrongly recommended to those who wish to pursuethe study of this subject.

R. HEIDENHAIN.Rreslau, March zx, 1880.


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PART I.LECTURE DELIVERED AT

THE GENERAL MEETING OF THE SILESIANSOCIETY FOR HOME CULTURE,

HELD AT BRESLAU,January 19, 1880.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM.I HAVE willingly acceded to the request of thePresident of this Society, that I should give someexplanation of the very wonderful and interestingperformances of Mr. Hansen, the mesmerist ; forit seems to me to be a point of public interest toendeavour to prevent the remarkable phenomena,which most of you have witnessed, being falselyinterpretedinterpreted to prove the existence ofsome secret, and at present unknown, force. Thefear that this might occur is in truth well grounded.In spite of the scientific enlightenment of the age,the so-called spiritualism still continues to attractthe attention, not only of unscientific people, butalso of earnest and distinguished savants. Oneof them, indeed, has, with Mr. Slade's assistance,summoned spirits, and even photographed theirfootsteps.To our old and evident three dimensions in

space, a fourth invisible one has been added, intowhich objects of three dimensions, tables, etc., dis-appear before our very eyes, and out of which


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4 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.lumps of coal, thrown by invisible hands, fly roundthe heads of the astonished spectators ; limbs with-out trunks come into view, and other marvels takeplace. A well-known philosopher has bond fidedeclared these fables to be a modern revelation ofAlmighty power, intended to awaken unbelievingmankind to new faith. In an age in which this ispossible, there is imminent danger that phenomenasuch as Mr. Hansen displays may lead to a newform of superstition.

As is well known, Mr. Hansen makes the sub-jects of his experiments stare fixedly at a facetedand glittering piece of glass. After this prelimi-nary proceeding, he makes a few passes overthe face, avoiding actual contact ; he then lightlycloses the eyes and mouth, at the same time gentlystroking the cheeks. The media are now inca-pable of opening eyes or mouth ; and after a fewmore passes over the forehead, fall into a sleep-likecondition. In this state they are exhibited by Mr.Hansen as will -less automata, who, at his com-mand, assume all kinds of positions, and p(?rformthe most unreasonable and ridiculous actions, suchas eating a raw potato, under the impression thatit is a pear ; riding cross-legged on a chair, withthe idea they are riding in a horse-race ; each, infact, being apparently under complete control.The spectator is at a loss for an explanation, and

finally arrives at the very reasonable conclusion


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 5that the whole affair is nonsense ; or, if his scien-tific convictions are less sound, feels he is really inthe presence of a new natural force, by virtue ofwhich the experimenter exerts some undefinedinfluence over the will and actions of his media.As will be sufficiently shown in the sequel, boththese conclusions are false. I myself, when I firstread reports of Hansen's representations, came tothe first of the above-mentioned conclusions. I wascertainly somewhat shaken in my opinion by arecent pamphlet by Professor Weinhold, of Chem-nitz, whom I know personally as a thoroughlycareful and unprejudiced observer, and whose state-ments are certainly free from intentional fraud.But I entirely altered my opinion after I had seenMr. Hansen in this town before an assemblage ofphysicians who had hitherto been absolute dis-believers on the subject, perform his experimentswith success on several of these very men.

I soon found an opportunity of more closelyinvestigating the phenomena I had then witnessed,as I myself succeeded in inducing the same con-dition observed in Hansen's media in a number ofmedical men and studentsincluding a studentbrother of my ownpersons whose credibility isbeyond question, and who are all capable of givingan intelligent description of their own perceptions.*

* Most of my experience is derived from experiments on thefollowing persons:Dr. Partsch, Assistant at the Surgical Clinique;


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6 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.Partly from my own researches, partly from the

observation of friendly colleaguesespecially ofDrs. Griitzner and Janicke, who after oral explana-tion were able to magnetize successfully^anumber of facts have been collected which throwlight on the hypnotic condition. Following Wein-hold in adopting Braid's terminology, I shalldenote the so-called magnetic state as thehypnotic condition.

Symptoms of the Hypnotic State.I. Condition of the SensorinmImitatio7i

Movements,One of the most striking symptoms of the hyp-

notic state is more or less marked diminution ofconsciousness. In the slighter forms of hypnotism,the media are well able to remember what hasoccurred during their apparent sleep. In thesecases, however, some of the phenomena of hypno-tism are always absent. In the more fully deve-loped forms, the person, on awaking, has noremembrance of what has occurred ; but by givinghints and putting leading questions concerning hisDr. Kroner, Assistant at the Gyncecological Clinique ; Messrs.Beyer, Drewitz, Aug. Heidenhain, Poper Wallentin, students ofmedicine ; the wife of the laboratory servant.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 7various actions, he is able to recall them to mind.In the most complete forms of hypnotism, noremembrance whatever is retained.

It can nevertheless be proved that, even duringthe most completely developed hypnosis, sensoryperceptions take place ; but they are no longerconverted into conscious ideas, and consequentlyare not retained by the memory. The reason forthis depends undoubtedly upon the fact that thehypnotized individuals have lost the power ofdirecting their attention to their sensations. Weare taught by thousandfold experience in ourevery-day life that sensations pass the thresholdof consciousness but incompletely when our atten-tion is not directed to them. When I sit at mywork-table I do not take in the meaning of thewords that are spoken near me. Although I reallyhear them, I form no definite idea of their meaning.That, under these conditions, sensation does reallytake place is proved by the fact that we can after-wards, by reflection, call to mind what has beensaid, supposing that no great interval has elapsedsince the impression on the sense organ occurred.Similarly, a person deep in thought hears a clockstrike, yet does not know the number of beatstill, by subsequent reflection, he calls to mind thenumber. During free cerebral activity we arevery liable to pay no attention to what we hearor see.On the other hand, the power we possess of


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8 ANIMAL MAGNETISM,continuously concentrating our attention in definitedirections is so great that it continues even in sleep.How many a mother, sleeping soundly, is undis-turbed by the loudest noise, yet awakes at theslightest cry of her child There is, too, the well-known example of the miller waking as soon as hismill ceases to clatter.The immediate impression on the senses and theconscious perception of this impression are, there-

fore,two different, separable psychological processes,the latter of which presupposes concentration ofthe attention. If hypnotized people lose the powerof directing their attention, they must necessarilyalso lose the power of forming conscious ideas oftheir sensations. In order to prove that hypnotizedpeople are still capable of sensory perceptions,* Imust first shortly enter upon the question of thegenesis of voluntary movement.Take, for instance, the case of a child learning

the piano. Before he is able to carry out thecorrect and necessary movements with his hands,a complicated but connected series of psychologicalprocesses has to be gone through. First, he hasto form a clear idea of the signification of the notehe sees, the note being the visual symbol of adefinite musical tone and its corresponding key.The child then has already in his mind a mentalpicturewe may call it a sound picture of thenote. Secondly, he reflects what movements are* See note on p. lo.

1


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 9required m order to strike the right keys. As theresult of this reflection, a mental picture, which wewill call the movement picture, is formed of theintended movement. When this point is reached,the will gives to the muscles the impulse to carryout the movement. All these are fully consciousprocesses, and are accompanied by constant con-centration of the attention. The perception of theretinal image of the note, the sound picture, thevisual image of the keys, the movement picture,and lastly, the carrying out of the latter, form aseries of most intimately connected processes.*

But the case of a practised pianist is different.The oft-repeated chain of psychological processesis shortened ; certain links are missing or im-perfectly formed in consciousness. The perceptionof the note excites immediate movement, hencethe sound picture and the movement picture areno longer distinctly formed. The notes which hereads can be mechanically played whilst theattention is directed elsewhere. Thus very fre-quently, sensory perceptions, which have not clearlybecome conscious perceptions, are the cause ofindefinitely conscious movements.

* My attention is called by musical friends to the fact that, inlearning the piano, the child is taught only the correspondencebetween the notes and the keys. I was taught differently whenyoung. The above view would, moreover, be only so far changed,in that the sound picture, as middle term between the visual pictureof the notes and the keys, would be wanting.


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io ANIMAL MAGNETISM.A man, walking down the street deep In thought,

perceives the passers-by, but, owing to inattention,does not recognize them. He, however, manageseffectually to get out of their way. The retinalpictures he obtains of the passers-by, are of them-selves the cause of initiation of movements re-sembling in all respects voluntary movements.Hypnotized persons are, at a certain stage ofhypnosis, in a similar, though not exactly identical,condition. Unconscious* sensations cause them,too, to carry out unconscious though conscious-like acts, especially such movements of the experi-menter as produce in them auditory or visualimpressions.Movements carried out before a hypnotized

person, who apparently has his eyes shut, arenevertheless perceived by the eye. The eyelidsare, in fact, not completely closed ; and the mediumhas seen the movement, which he imitates, thoughhe is not conscious of having done so.

It is the same with many movements which areaccompanied by a familiar and distinctly audible* In the sequel, the terms ''unconscious feeling, ''unconsciousperception, are used in regard to hypnotized individuals. I amwell aware that, taken literally, these expressions are self-contra-dictory ; for perception and feeling are necessarily conscious. Butthere is no other expression which I can use to state briefly what Imean. Hence, in the sequel, by the terms unconscious feelings,unconscious perceptions, I mean those material changes in theapparatus of the central nervous system, caused by impressions onthe sense organs, which would, were consciousness present, callforth the respective feelings and perceptions.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. Iisound. I clench my fist before Mr. H , whostands hypnotized before me ; he clenches his. Iopen my mouth ; he does the same. Now I closemy fist behind his back or over his bent head ; hemakes no movement. I shut my mouth, still overhis bent head, rapidly, so that the teeth knocktogether ; he repeats the manoeuvre. I noiselesslycontort my visage ; he remains quiet.A hypnotized person behaves, therefore, like animitating automaton, who repeats all those of mymovements which are for him linked with anunconscious optic or acoustic impression. Thematerial change, brought about in the centralorgans through the stimulation of the organs ofsense, liberates movements which have the type ofvoluntary movements, but are not really so. ThusI can easily induce him to follow me, by walkingbefore him with an audible step ; to bend first thisway, then that, by standing before him, and myselfperforming these movements. In walking, themedium imitates exactly the time and force of myaudible steps.

I may ask you to bear in mind that in our dailylife imitation movements also occur. It is saidyawning is catching. Children have a passionfor imitation.The psychological condition of hypnotized per-

sons just described, is in the highest degree in-terestinsf and remarkable. The movements are


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'2 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.called forth by unperceived impressions on thesense organs. These must, however, be such thatthey are closely connected with the movenaentwhich is to be carried out.Now, evidently no impression can be more nearlyconnected with any movement than the perceptionof this movement itself, or the sensory perceptionof some process which is constantly connected withIt, e.g. the noise which always accompanies the actof swallowine.

Whilst, in the normal state, the conscious idea ofa movement gives rise to that movement, in thiscase it is the icnconscious perception of it which callsit forth.

I have never succeeded in inducing a deeplyhypnotized person to imitate sneezing or coughingby performing these acts in his presence. Insneezing, he at most imitates the slight backwardand forward movement of the head, which usuallyaccompanies this action. Still less are laughing orsinging imitated in the deeply hypnotic condition,although the facial contortions accompanying theformer are sometimes repeated.*Our movements are linked with yet another classof sensations, besides those above treated ofthosesensations, namely, which are connected with thecarrying out of the movement in the moved partItself When I bend or raise my arm, I becomeconscious that the limb is in an active condition,* See Part II.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 13and also of the position it is in. I obtain thisknowledge by means of the sensory nerves of mymuscle and skin, which report as to the degree ofmuscular contraction and skin tension respectively.My sensory nerves give me similar information asto the change of position and motion of the limbwhen it is passively moved by another person.The intimate connection between the movementsthemselves and the sensations accompanying them,readily explains the fact that when, in a hypno-tized individual, the latter are excited, the formerare called forth. A passive movement which Icommunicate to a hypnotized person is as a rulecontinued by him.When a hypnotized person does not follow meon m5^ walking before him with loud tread, I pullhim by the hand a few steps forwardit is usuallysufficient to draw lightly with the fingerand hethen readily follows me of his own accord, if I con-tinue to tramp before him. The secret, by virtueof which the experimenter places his medium incomplete apparent subjection to his will, is partiallyexplained by this peculiarity which a hypnotizedperson possesses of performing movements, so soonas he obtains an unconscious perception, which isassociated in some way with such movements. Ina loud voice he commands the medium to do acertain thing ; the latter has not the least idea ofthe order given.* The experimenter, at the same

* See below and Part II.


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14 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.time that he gives the order, performs the actionhimself in such a way that the medium mustobtain a sensory impression of it. The sensoryimpression leads to no conscious perception andto no voluntary movement, but suffices to set upunconscious imitation.

Mr. Hansen, for instance, puts a raw potato inthe medium's mouth ; and, calling it a deliciouspear, invites him to eat ; accompanying, however,this request, as eye-witnesses have informed me,by audible movements of mastication. The mediumchews away, purely mechanically, without the leastidea of the request, or whether he is eating a potatoor a pear.

I could put hot pickle into the mouth of ahypnotized person, and on my making masticatorymovements, he would proceed to chew it. Only onawaking would he perceive the hot taste.

In other cases, the adoption of passive move-ment is more effective ; very slight force is usuallysufficient, the medium being set going by verygentle taps.How much does a hypnotized individual knowof what has occurred whilst his peculiar conditionlasted ? This question is exceedingly interestingand important with regard to the proceedings youhave just witnessed. In the endeavour to obtaininformation on this subject, we must set to workvery cautiously, so as not, by our questions, to giveany hints which would enable the person to answer


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 15correctly. If I ask him on awaking, whether heremembers doing this or that, he almost invariablyreplies in the affirmative. But if I ask him whathas occurred during his sleep, the answer is nearlyalways, I don't know. On my giving him, how-ever, a slight hint of what has occurred, he sud-denly remembers it.The hypnotized person behaves like one who hasbeen dreaming in natural sleep.How often does it happen, that the dream, though

forgotten early in the morning, recurs vividly toour mind during the course of the day when some-thing occurs which has a connection with thedream, e.g. when we meet people about whom wehave dreamt *

* An experiment which belongs here was made during the lectureon Mr. Wallenstein. He stood, hypnotized, before me, with headthrown back and upward gaze. I drank audibly some water ; hemade swallowing movements. I slowly raised my arms. So longas they were out of his field of vision, he remained quiet ; but whenthey came within that area, he followed the movements of my armswith similar movements, ar.d lowered them again afterwards as Idid. When he awoke, he was asked what had happened ; and hesaid, **I don't know. You have forgotten? Perhaps onaccount of the heat? Are you thirsty? were my questions. Now it occurs to me. I have swallowed something. When ledto think of movements of the arms, he remembered exactly theelevation and depression his arms had made.On account of the difficulty to make certain how far the sensoryimpressions during the hypnotic state are really perceived, I made aseries of experiments with my brother, A. Heidenhain, in this way :During the hypnosis, I shouted certain sentences into his ear, andthen established how much he remembered, or could be induced toremember, when he awoke. He generally was able to say whetherI had spoken gently or loudly. But he never remembered, without


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1 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.In order to translate what I have stated to you

into the terminology of modern psycho-physics,permit me to define to you the expression, Liminal intensity of stimulation {Reiz-Schwelle).aid, the contents of the sentences ; but by means of leading wordshe was able to call them to mind.Some examples may here be of interest.1. I cried, Alles schweige jeder neige emsten Tonen nun sein

Ohr. At first, futile endeavours to recollect. When I said theword schweige, complete recollection and reproduction.2. AvTup iirel nScrios Koi idrjrvos e| epov %vto. Leading words,

*' Homer, meal ; correct repetitition.3. YloLov ere eTros ^vy^v '4pxos o^Suruy. Leading word, '* entflonj

correct, but very hesitating repetition.4. Roth lackGrun lackGold lack. Leading word, lack ;

immediately remembered Gold lack, and when a red and a greenbook were seen, Griin lack and Roth lack also remembered.My brother always said that he had great difficulty in decidingwhether he had really remembered what had been heard, or whetherhe only guessed it as a result of the hints given. In order to avoidall doubt, I tried to lead him on the wrong track.

Before us stood two empty beer-bottles. I sent for a third, andin the mean time, having quickly and deeply hypnotized my brother,said in his ear, Wohlauf noch getrunken den funkelnden Wein.At fkst, no remembrance. Leading word, getrunken ; immediatereproduction of the verse, although I had remarked immediatelybefore the hypnosis that the beer was ausgetrunken, and thushad purposely used the word *' getrunken to bring up other asso-ciations. Finally, I made another experiment. Instead of sayinganything, I laughed loudly. On awaking, I gave him the word laugh as a hint. Answer, You have said nothing, but kvughed.

I do not know any other explanation for these facts then this.The sensory impression leaves behind in the perceptive ganglion-cellsof the first order, material changes, which are not propagated duringthe hypnosis to the sensorial cells of the cortex of the brain. Thesechanges in the former region are, after the awaking, so increasedby every small stimulus, that they now pass to the liberated sensorialganglion-cells and set them in activity.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM,- 17For every sensation there exists a certain mini-mal strength of stimulation, which must not be

diminished, or no sensation at all will be produced.If the quantity of light which falls on the retina betoo small, if the intensity of a sound which meetsthe ear be too weak, then no sensation of sound orof light arises. The smallest strength of stimula-tion sufficient to produce sensation is called, afterFechner, the liminal value of stimulation.Now, the hypnotized person is distinguished

from the normal in that, for him, the liminal valueof stimulation is extraordinarily high ; sensoryimpressions which produce in a normal wakingindividual vivid sensations, and hence consciousperceptions, are unable in a hypnotized person topass the threshold of consciousness.

Nevertheless, they are in this case none the lessactive. For the picture imprinted on the ganglion-cells by the unconsciously perceived movement, actsas a stimulus upon the motor apparatus of thebrain, and liberates a similar movement ; and theunconscious perceptions leave behind them tracesof which he is not conscious, but which occur to hismemory when similar external stimuli again forcean entrance.

You thus see, gentlemen, that the hypnoticstate, as shown to us by Mr. Hansen, when weremove all theatrical by-play, involves a numberof facts highly interesting to the physiologist

C


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i8 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.and psycnologist, and which have hitherto excitedremarkably less attention in physiologists thanthey deserve.

I must add that what I have above stated onlyholds good for a certain depth of the hypnoticstate. In slighter degrees, which are, however,interesting in other respects (for they show all thephenomena in the muscles to which I shall morefully refer), the sensorium is so far unaffected thatthe medium is fairly conscious of all that has oc-curred. Imitation movements are not compulsoryfor such persons ; so long, therefore, as conscious-ness is clear, the motor apparatus is not directlyexcited through sensory impressions. With thedisappearance of consciousness, movements becomecompulsory.

There appears, however, to be a very high degreeof hypnosis, in which every trace of sensory per-ception, and consequently, of imitation movements,is absent. I have had one such case in the personof the wife of the laboratory servant. Dr. Born,Prosector in the Anatomical Institute, has seenseveral similar cases, also in women ; these arepoints requiring further investigation.

11. Analgesia.A further symptom of the hypnotic state in itsmost complete development is highly marked in-sensibility to pain.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 19The fact that sensations of pain and tactile

sensation travel through different nervous paths,has long been established in physiology and pa-thology. Diseases of the nervous system have longbeen known in which the tactile sensation is socompletely maintained that gentle stroking with acamel's-hair brush is felt, and the point of appli-cation of the latter exactly stated by the patientwhilst deep pricks with a needle, cauterization, andthe like, do not cause him the least pain. Such astate of analgesia can readily be produced artifici-ally by means of chloroform inhalation. At acertain stage of the narcosis, the patient feels thecontact of the instrument which the operator uses,but not the pain of the operation. In a hypnotizedperson a pin may be run right into the hand, andonly an indistinct feeling of contact is broughtabout. Immediately on awaking, the full sense ofpain is again present, and the extraction of thepin causes acute pain.

III. Increased Reflex Irrifability and Tonic Spasmof tJie Voluntary Muscles.

Another most interesting point is the increasedreflex irritability of all striated muscles, whichaccompanies the hypnotic condition.

In order to clearly understand this importantfact, the non-medical part of my audience requirea definition of so-called reflex movements.


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20 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.This kind of movement is thus produced.Sensory nerves are irritated at their peripheral

ends ; they transmit the state of irritation to thecentral organs of the nervous system, and, throughthe agency of nerve-cells, without any influence onthe part of the will, transmit it to motor nerves.The motor nerve, for its part, conducts the state ofirritation again peripherally towards the muscles itsupplies, and sets them in activity. For instance,when a grain of sand flies into the eye, the lidsinstantly close. The foreign body irritates thesensory fibres of the fifth cerebral nerve, which aredistributed over the surface of the eyeball. In thebrain, the state of irritation is transmitted to thefacial nerve, by means of which the muscle closingthe eye is set in activity.

Or, I choke, that is, a fragment of food getsinto the larynx. Sensory fibres of the vagus nerveare irritated reflexly ; a cough, i.e. a sudden con-traction of the expiratory muscles, is produced.I have just said that the reflex movement takesplace independently of the will.Now, we can certainly close our eye, and cough,

voluntarily. Where, then, is the proof that reflexactions are independent of the will t First, inthe fact that muscles can be made to contractreflexly when they cannot be made to do so byany exertion of the will. When light falls on theretina, the pupil contracts ; by means of muscularaction, no one can voluntarily contract the pupil.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM, 21Secondly, reflex movements, when the stimulusis strong enough, occur in direct oppositionto the will. After a pinch of snuff, the sneezecan be for a certain time restrained, but if theaction on the nasal mucous membrane has beensufficiently strong, it cannot be permanentlysuppressed.The last illustration leads us to an important

fact. Reflex movements can be rendered difficult,or even inhibited, through the influence of cerebralactivity. In fact, it has long been known to physio-logists that when certain parts of the brain areextirpated {optic lobes, medulla oblongata), the reflexirritability is in a high degree increased. Now, inthe case of hypnotized individuals, the depressionof the activity of certain parts of the brain isbeyond all question. The increase in reflex irri-tability observed in them is, therefore, no newphysiological experience. We should hardly haveexpected to find, however, that this increase ofreflex irritability in persons who have awakenedfrom a deep hypnosis, should continue for sometimedays, and probably weeksin spite, too, oftheir return to a normal condition in all otherrespects. For instance, I gently stroke once ortwice Dr. Kroner's bent right arm ; it at oncebecomes stiff, since all the muscles are thrown intoa condition of reflex spasm. Dr. Kroner has, how-ever, not been hypnotized for several days.

I should further call your attention to certain


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22 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.laws, in obedience to which the reflex muscularcontraction spreads over the body when certaindefinite cutaneous surfaces are irritated. Thecourse of events varies somewhat with the degreeof increase of reflex irritability, and this is alwaysheightened by repeating the hypnotism in thesame individual. With slight increase of reflexirritability, those muscles alone contract which lieimmediately under the area of skin which hasbeen stroked. In this condition it is easy to bringsingle muscles and groups of muscles into isolatedaction, and thus demonstrate their special motorfunction. Stroking the ball of the thumb causesadduction of the thumb towards the palm. Stimu-lating the skin over the sterno-mastoid causes thehead to assume the well-known oblique positionwhich it has in the affection known as a stiffneck. Stroking the skin at one corner of themouth leads to distortion of the mouth on thatside, owing to the contraction of the musclesinserted there.When the irritability is somewhat more in-creased, we are able, by continuous irritation of adefinite spot of skin, to set in activity neighbouringand distant groups of muscle according to thedegree of irritation. Thus, when I gently strokethe ball of the thumb, only the flexors and theadductors of this member are set in activity. IfI stroke somewhat harder, the forearm muscles,especially the flexors of the fingers, contract. Our


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 23patient can, however, still bend and stretch his armat the elbow, the upper arm muscles being stillunaffected. Through further increase of the irrita-tion, the latter too, with the shoulder muscles, arethrown into spasm, so that the whole limb appearsimmovably fixed.

But the highest degree of reflex irritability isnot yet attained. Mr. A. Heidenhain sits quietlyhere on a chair. I now once stroke the ball of hisleft thumb. Please observe the exact successionin which the spasm slowly spreads from one partof the body to the others. You will see the follow-ing muscle groups are successively affected, someseconds intervening in the passage from one groupto another.

Left thumb,


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24 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.it impossible to try whether the muscles of respira-tion would become affected.It is easily understood that such experimentsrequire the greatest caution, and can be but veryseldom carried out.By the aid of previous notes, I can complete theseries of observations just made. With cutaneous.rritation of the right leg, the rigor spreads up theright lower extremity, then down the left le-Then the upper limbs are affected-first the ri


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 25to consider that the hypnotic state is nothing morethan an artificially produced catalepsy.The possibility of fixing any part of the body in

any given position constitutes an essential factorin the manoeuvres adopted by Hansen in his per-formances.

In fact, granted we possess the means, firstly, asabove stated, of causing the medium to carry outany given movement ; secondly, of fixing any partof the body in any given position,then we cando just what we please. Mr. Hansen puts Xinto a state of unconsciousness, makes him standup, and brings his arms into the position nursesadopt when they are carrying a child at full length.He then induces muscular rigidity in the arms bygently stroking them, so that they remain fixed inthis position. Now Hansen induces the mediumto rock from side to side, either by himself per-forming this movement in front of the medium,or by gently pushing him, so as to initiate themovement. Now, suppose, in addition, a doll hasbeen placed in X 's arms, and you have thenurse and child. The only false conclusion towhich the spectators are led, is that they acquirethe notion that the medium thinks and knowshimself to be at that moment in the situation tJieyhave in their minds. This is quite out of thequestion. The hypnotized individual neither thinksnor knows anything about himself.


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26 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.In powerful persons, the immovability of the

body, caused by the rigor of the muscles, becomesso exceedingly great, that it is almost impossibleto alter the relative position of the different partsof the body. Such persons become as stiff as aboard. You may confidently, as Mr. Hansen does,sit on their body, when horizontally placed, andonly supported by its two ends, without its givingway. In order to give you a striking illustrationof what has just been said, allow me to make anexperiment.

I make this gentleman, Mr. Poper, sit before meon this chair, and I so adapt his hands to the seat,that his fingers grasp the edges. After hypnotizinghim, I stroke his arms, and he takes convulsivehold of the edges of the seat with his fingers. Nowplacing myself in front of him, I bend forward ; hedoes the same. I then walk noisily backwards,and thereupon Mr. Poper follows me through thehall, carrying his chair with him, like a snail bearingits shell. You see into what absurd situations andproceedings we can force hypnotized individualsby means of the above-mentioned aids.

I cannot conclude this division of my subjectwithout emphatically pointing out that the resultsI have obtained concerning the great increase ofreflex irritability in hypnotized people, show thatthe greatest caution is necessary in such experi-ments.How long this increase lasts, I am not able to


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM, iysay, since my experience on the subject is tooslight. As far as I have seen, it diminishes after afew days, and I should conclude, from Weinhold'sstatements, that it disappears altogether in a fewweeks. At all events, I must strongly warn againstthe repeated subjection of the same person to hyp-notic experiments for a length of time. I havemyself been very cautious in this respect, forthe unquestionably abnormal state might finally,through long habituation, become a permanent

IV. 0?i some FuriJier Phenomena during theHypnotic Conditio7i.As yet I have only described and experimen-

tally demonstrated those changes in the motor andsensory apparatus which Mr. Hansen applies withso much skill in his representations.There are, however, other important phenomena

to be observed in various organs which physiologi-cally are no less worthy of attention.The very first demonstrable symptom of the* In the interest of the further investigation of the hypnotic state,

the abstention, which is absolutely necessary, is to be regretted.Still, I believe that experiments with animals will help us out ofthe difficulty. For the phenomena, described some years ago byCzermak as hypnotism in animals, and which Prayer further investi-gated under the name of cataplexy, appear to me to have the greatestresemblance to the hypnotic condition in men. Since the abovelecture was given, it has been found that the unpleasant reflex irrita-bility of the muscles greatly diminishes, and finally altogether dis-appears, if no experiments are made on the person for some time.


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28 ANIMAL MAGNETISM,commencement of the hypnotic state is a spasmof the accommodation apparatus of the eye. It isobservable at a period when the medium * hasscarcely begun to feel the subjective sensationswhich denote the approach of the hypnotic sleep.The result of it is the diminution of the limits ofaccommodation, in consequence of the far pointapproaching the near point. Writing that couldbe read previously at greater distance, can nowonly be made out when quite close. Distantobjects seem to swim before the eyesa factwhich possibly helps to induce in the medium acertain degree of confusion and mental excitement.After some time, if the hypnotizing is proceededwith, other eye-symptoms almost constantly ap-pear. The pupils enlarge, to a different extentin different people ; the eyes open more widelythan naturally ; the eyeballs protrude.

This combination of symptoms points withcertainty to an irritation of certain fibres of thecervical sympathetic, by which the dilator-muscleof the pupil and the orbital-muscle t are made tocontract. The sympathetic fibres in question havetheir origin, however, in the medulla oblongata.The irritation, therefore, must start from this point.But other parts of the medulla are also stimulated,

* The word medium is often used in the translation insteadof the long phrases, person experimented on, hypnotized indi-vidual (vcrsHchs person, hypnotisirtc).

t In many animals this muscle clothes the circumference of theorbit like a flat carpet. In man it is less developed.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 29as is shown by the almost constant increase of therapidity of breathing, due to stimulation of therespiratory centre. This increase may be veryconsiderable. I have seen the number of respira-tions, in fifteen seconds, rise from four to twelve,or even from three to sixteen. The pulse quickensin less degree, but still distinctly, and perhaps onlyas a consequence of the quickened respiration.

Again, as a rule, in deep hypnotism, especiallywhen it has been repeatedly induced, there is veryprofuse perspirationa sign of irritation of thenerves of the sweat glands. Often, too, there isapparently an increased flow of saliva ; but I amnot quite certain on this point.

I must leave the question undecided whetherhallucinations * occur during the hypnosis. I havenot yet observed them. Mr. Hansen himself toldDr. Griitzner that he had not succeeded, in Breslau,in inducing hallucination. Dr. Griitzner, on theother hand, tells me that he is informed by agentleman whom he has hypnotized, that at thecommencement of the hypnosis a strong smell ofviolets was perceptible.The picture I have drawn of the condition of

hypnotized people is certainly still very incomplete,and must in the future undergo numerous correc-tions and extensions. The main features appearagain and again ; but in one individual one set, inanother a different set, is more prominent,

* See Part 11.


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30 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.

Conditions necessary to the Induction ofTHE Hypnotic State.

Whilst I now turn to the conditions determiningthe establishment of hypnotism, I must, before allthings, especially emphasize the fact that there isno question of any specific force exerted by theexperimenter upon the passive subject.

I am quite ready to suppose Mr. Hansen believesin his possession of such a power. But for physi-ologists this is out of the question. All the phe-nomena I am at present acquainted with areexplicable from simple premises which have aperfectly sound physiological basis.

It is undoubtedly perfectly true that hypnoticexperiments do not succeed with every one uponwhom they are tried ; in fact, the operator isrewarded with success only In a very small percent-age of the total number of persons experimentedon. So far as I can see, the susceptibilitydepends on the existence of a greater or less degreeof sensory irritability ; consequently, pale, anaemicindividuals are most liable to hypnosis.

Mr. Hansen states, as the result of his experi-ence, that active, muscular individuals are espe-cially adapted for his experiments, and he henceprefers English students, who row, swim, and ride,to German students, with their prolonged seden-


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 31tary mental work. From what I have observed, Ithink that, in this preference, Mr. Hansen takesespecially into consideration the intensity of themuscular rigor, which would of course be moremarked in his favourite subjects than in less robustpersons. But I have every reason for doubtingthat the percentage of successful cases is greaterin the former than in the latter class of persons.Many people from the first possess the necessary

sensory irritability ; in others it can be artificiallyinduced. So far as I can see, the sole object in thepreliminary staring at the glass button * is to in-crease the sensory irritability. Mr. Hansen regardsit as a means of quieting ; I look on it as a meansof exciting. Some people are incapable of beinghypnotized without this previous fixed gazing atsome glittering object. In other instances, thisis not necessary but only advantageous, since itrenders the establishment of hypnosis easier, andproduces better-marked results.How does this glass button act ?* Mr. Braid, of Manchester, first showed that uninterrupted

staring at inanimate objects brings about a sleep-like condition.According to his experience, many persons are thereby thrown intocatalepsy, and become insensitive to pricks of a needle ; some areconscious ; some, on awaking, know absolutely nothing of whathas happened to them.According to a communication from Mr. Rossi (physician to

Halein, Viceroy of Egypt) to MM. Giraud-Teulon and Demarquay,Egyptian conjurors have hypnotized for many centuries, by makingtheir media stare at cabalistic marks on glistening porcelain platesor at a glittering crystal ball.


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32 ANIMAL MAGNETISMAny one who tries the experiment of fixedly

staring at the gUttering object for a long time,notices that peculiar visual phenomena appear.Apart from the natural dazzling, which makestears flow pretty freely, images occupying thelateral parts of the field of vision very soon vanish,owing to the rapid exhaustion of the peripheralparts of the retina. The hand holding the buttonbecomes indistinct, and the button itself seems toswim before the eyes.Then follow phenomena of contrast, and, as the

result of slight involuntary movements of the eye,after-images ; and thus the whole field of vision isthrown into an unsteady condition. Any one whodoes not know what this optical unsteadinessmeans, is put thereby into an excited and irritablestate, which is still further increased by the expec-tation that something unknown and unusual isabout to take place.When I speak of increased irritability of thesensory apparatus, I mean, not merely the sensorynerves themselves, but also their central ganglion-cells in the cerebral cortex, which bring about theconsciousness of the sensation ; in fact, all thoseparts of the brain which act as the sensorium.A certain degree of psychical excitement appearsto favour the establishment of the hypnotic con-dition in an extraordinary degree. I take it thatthe reason why so many people here in Breslau canbe hypnotized, is due to the excited state in which


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 33the public has been thrown by the astonishingexhibitions of Mr. Hansen.Where the possibiHty of such excitement is

absent, as in the case of children, hypnotizingexperiments scarcely ever succeed. Lunatics alsoappear, according to Dr. Janicke's statements, tobe unaffected. But I must, on the other hand,insist on the fact that adult people, who haveheard nothing about it, and who do not know forwhat purpose they are being experimented on, canbe hypnotized.When this ill-defined state of irritability is once

present, either naturally, or artificially induced bymeans of the glass button, the manipulations of theexperimenter commence.The mystical view regards the operator as thepossessor of a special power, by means of which hecan voluntarily act on the person experimented on.Fortunately, I am able to turn even its strongestadherents from this belief.With a very high degree of irritability, such as

is met with after previous hypnosis, the hypnoticcondition can be brought about without the instru-mentality of a living being, simply by certaindefinite physical stimuli. Weinhold has alreadynoticed that certain sounds have a hypnotizinginfluence upon excitable subjects. You can your-selves immediately confirm this observation. Iplace three students on chairs, the backs of which

D


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34 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.rest against a table, and I lay a watch upon thetable ; but for this purpose I will ask one of theaudience to lend me his watch, for the mysticistmight make the objection that my watch had somesort of magnetism about it.Now, I direct the three gentlemen to listen to

the ticking of the watch. In two minutes two ofthem are so deeply hypnotized, that they makeimitation movements, and in a sleeping statefollow me about the room. The third appears lessaffected, but when I blow on him he starts up, andlooks around surprised, as the media always dowhen they awake.There is, then, no doubt that, under favourable

conditions, the hypnotic state can be establishedwithout the aid of a magnetic individual. Allother slight and monotonously repeated sounds actsimilarly to the ticking of a watch, and they areparticularly effective, as Mr. Weinhold tells me,when the eyes are closed. I have been able toproduce hypnosis by long-continued clicking withthe finger-nails ; by singing the well-known nurse'smelody, Hushshsh

Gentle and rhythmical stimulation of the skinacts in the same way as acoustic stimulation. Themanipulation of making passes i.e. of slowlymoving the hands, close to the medium's face,from forehead to chin, and here and there actuallytouching the faceowes its effectiveness to thiscutaneous stimulation. With the stroking par


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 35distance, every one, even those with no dispositionfor hypnotism, experiences peculiar sensations.These are partly tactile, partly heat sensations :tactile sensations, because a slight draught of airis set up, which produces a creeping or ticklingfeeling ; sensations of temperature, because thehands and the face they approach are usually notof the same temperature. Every difference oftemperature of one part is perceptible to the other.The physiological cause of the hypnosis is to befound in the rhythmical application of such gentlestimulation.

Mr. Hansen thinks that only certain personspossess the power of magnetizing. It is true thatwith only slightly excitable subjects, one person'shand is more efficacious than another's ; manyhands are quite ineffective. The reason for thiselective behaviour is evidently to be found in thevarying physical conditions of different hands,their temperature, moisture, etc., and style of move-ment ; so that the conditions favourable to gentlecutaneous stimulation do not always exist.

Mr. Hansen, when carrying out his strokingmanipulations, evidently works with great musculareffort. He flexes and extends his hands with greatforce ; consequently, his hands become very moistand warm, as I noticed when I subjected myself tohis manipulations. Hence the skin of his handsis in as different a physical condition as possible


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36 ANIMAL MAGNETISM,from the skin of the medium's facea state ofthings favourable to stimulation.

If, to begin with, the excitability is great, whichis always the case in people who have been fre-quently hypnotized, fewer favourable conditionsare requisite for the necessary cutaneous stimu-lation. Such subjects can be thrown into the cata-leptic state by any one. This explains why atfirst I could only hypnotize my brother with un-covered hands, whilst later on I could do so, evenwith thick gloves on.

In addition to stimuli which act on the skin andear, stimuli acting on the eye are also efficacious ;but, as a rule, only after acquired increase of irri-tability. The medium falls asleep, after staring atthe operator for some time. When the irritabilityhas reached a very high pitch, any one can takethe place of the operator. Even staring at lifelessobjects has often the desired effect.Thus all stimulations which are effective, havethe common character of being weak, continued,

and monotonous.Different people react differently to the various

kinds of stimulation, some more readily withcutaneous, others with visual or aural stimulation.Dr. Kroner can only be sent into the sleep bycutaneous irritation, and then only when his eyesare closed. Mr. Poper becomes most quicklyhypnotized by staring at me. If I blindfold him,and then proceed to stimulate the face, the hyp-


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM 37nosis is much less readily established, and is alsomuch less pronounced.The same sense organs, gentle stimulation of

which lulls consciousness to sleep, awake it whenthey are more strongly acted upon. Sudden blow-ing upon the face, a knock on the hand, a cry inthe ear, and the charm is broken.

Cold rapidly produces awaking. Touching theface with cold fingers generally suffices to termi-nate the hypnosis ; hence the difficulty of hypno-tizing with cold hands. Every touch makes themedium start. When bright light falls on the eye,as during ophthalmoscopic examination, the hyp-notized person becomes evidently disquieted ; theeye moves from side to side, and the hypnosissoon vanishes. Another interesting observationis that a person, thrown into hypnosis by staringat the operator, frequently awakes when a thirdperson takes his place.

Mysticism will see in this a support of the viewthat the magician exerts a secret power over theenchanted one. It is, however, nothing more thanthe sudden change of the retinal picture, whichhere acts as the awaking stimulus.

Mr. X , who is very sensitive, but who couldat first be sent into the sleep only by myself (sothat I, in the sense of the mysticist, evidentlyexerted the greatest power over him), reacted laterwhen his susceptibility was still further increased,to the look of any one else. Now, if Mr, X


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38 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.has been hypnotized by a third person, and duringthe hypnosis I take his place, immediate awaken-ing is the result ; notwithstanding the fact that mymagnetic power is evidently greater than his whoseplace I took.From all that has been said, we may assert that

in irritable persons hypnosis is induced by meansof weak, long-continued, uniform stimulation of thenerves of touch, sight, and hearing ; whilst it isremoved by strong or suddenly varying stimulationof the same nerves.

I repeat that the condition of psychical excite-ment greatly promotes the effectiveness of thestimulation used to induce the sleep. And it has,moreover, seemed to me as if the expectancy of theapproach of the sleep in some cases produces suchpsychical excitement that it really occurs.

C.On the Nature of the Hypnotic Condition.The answer to that most interesting questionOn what does the hypnotic condition depend .''

leads us partly into the region of hypothesis. Itis the fate of every investigation in natural sciencethat, after the establishment of a series of con-nected facts which can be objectively observed, anhypothesis must be established which brings thesefacts into causal connection with one another. In


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 39order in this case to attain to such an hypothesis,I will first bring forward the scarcely disputablestatement that hypnotism depends on a changedcondition of the central organs of the nervoussystem, the brain and spinal cord.By reference to experience gained from experi-

ments on animals and pathological observations onmen, we can, to a certain extent, particularize thisgeneral statement. We know that the functionsof consciousness depend on the integrity of thegrey cortex of the cerebrum. Since, in the caseof a hypnotized person, consciousness is greatlydiminished, it is a self-evident and undoubted factthat the cerebral cortex is functionally affected.But how far does this functional disturbance extendto the deeper parts of his brain ? The followingcan be said with certainty :The activity of thecorpora quadrigemina is not lessened, for the pupilof a hypnotized person contracts energeticallywhen light falls upon the eye. This reflex move-ment, which is initiated by stimulation of theretina, and carried out through the agency of thethird cranial nerve, no longer takes place (as isshown experimentally in animals) when the cor-pora quadrigemina are rendered functionless. Thefact that hypnotized persons never fall down,speaks also in favour of the integrity of this partof the brain.* When placed in the most com-

* I have since observed in one person that, in a condition ofdeepest hypnosis, he was unable to maintain his equilibrium in the


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40 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.plicated positions, they still maintain their equili-brium.As soon as the centre of gravity is unsupported,

they make a step, by which they recover the lostsupport. Now, we know from Professor Goltz'sadmirable researches, that the centre for equili-brationthat is, that part of the central organwhich co-ordinates the movements necessary formaintaining equilibriumis situated in the corporaquadrigemina. A frog, whose cerebral hemisphereshave been removed, can still crawl up a board heldobliquely, and, by appropriate movements of itsarms and legs, can balance itself on the edge ofthe board. But when the corpora quadrigemina *are extirpated this capacity is lost. Since thepower of equilibration is possessed in full degreeby hypnotized persons, their corpora quadrigeminamust be unaffected, and so, too, are the corporastriata in all probability.

Concerning the other parts of the brain I cannotmake such definite assertions. But probably thecerebral cortex is not the sole part whose activityis inhibited, for otherwise the phenomena hypno-tized people present would be a repetition of thoseobserved in animals after removal of the cerebralcortex. And although points of resemblance docertainly exist between the two series of pheno-upright position. So that the statement in the text is only true forthe majority of hypnotized people.

* In the frog, corpora bigemina.


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 41mena, they are by no means identical. This is notthe place to enter on this subject ; but evidentlya complete removal, and a simple functional dis-turbance of the cerebral cortex, do not necessarilyproduce a like result.

This disturbance of functions explains whyhypnotized persons neither acquire any consciousperceptions as the result of sensory impressions,nor spontaneously make voluntary movements. Itexplains, too, the forced movements which occurwhen such sensations and unconscious perceptionsas stand in immediate connection with the move-ments, are excited. For while, under normal cir-cumstances, movements can be not only initiatedby the cerebral cortex, but also inhibited, in thehypnotized subject both powers are absent. Nor-mally, when the idea of a movement presents itselfto our consciousness, we can carry the movementinto effect or not : in the hypnotic condition,owing to the absence of the inhibitory power ofthe will, the unconscious perception of the move-ment irresistibly brings it abouta process in allrespects analogous to reflex action. But whatcauses this inhibition of the functions of the cere-bral cortex? The first hypothesis that occurred tome was that it might be due to contraction of thearteries supplying the brain, reflexly produced bythe sensory stimulation used to induce the hypnoticstate, due therefore simply to anaemia affectingdefinite parts of the brain. That sudden anaemia


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42 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.of the brain does produce unconsciousness, is adaily experience of the physician. Certain plieno-mena observed in hypnotized persons appear torender this view of the matter still more probable.When in an animal the arteries supplying the brainare compressed, symptoms occur in the eyes whichremind us of those seen in hypnotized persons.After initial contraction of the pupil, follows dila-tation ; after initial slight closure of lids, wideropening of the same ; after sinking in, projectionof the eyeballs. Now, in deep hypnosis, widelyopened eyes with unusual prominence of the eye-balls is an extremely frequent, if not a constant,phenomenon.Though this hypothesis of partial reflex anaemiathus receives some support, the extension of myexperience led me to abandon it. In the firstplace, the fact that most hypnotized persons,instead of becoming pale, are generally very red,was unfavourable to the theory of reflexly con-tracted arteries. No less unfavourable was theresult of an examination of the retinal vessels,carried out at my request by my colleague, Pro-fessor Forster. This was attended with difficulties,partly owing to the strong contraction of the pupils,caused by the light reflected from the mirror, andpartly owing to the fact that the \ivid and suddenillumination of the retina brought the hypnosisrapidly to a close. Still, Professor Forster re-peatedly succeeded in obtaining a sufficiently dis-


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 43tinct view of the central vessels of the retina, andno particular constriction of these vessels could bemade out. If reflex contraction of vessels werethe cause of the paralysis of the activity of thebrain, it would certainly be of so high a degree thatit could not fail to be detected in this examination;for it can scarcely be supposed that the vessels ofthe cerebrum and eyes are in an essentially differentcondition.

However, there was still room for doubt, and thiswas decided by an cxperiinentuvi crucis. It is awell-known fact that inhalation of nitrite of amylcauses considerable dilatation of the arteries. Inconsequence of this, the face flushes, and a feelingof hammering and strong pulsation is felt in thehead. My brother, Mr. A. Heidenhain, knew, fromprevious experience, the exact subjective symptomscaused by amyl nitrite. It was, however, frequentlypossible not only to hypnotize him while the flushingof the face was evident, and the feeling of pulsationin the head was markedly present, but the hypnosiswas always of a more decided character than thatinduced previous to, or after, the amyl nitrite inhala-tion. I obtained a like result with Dr. Kroner.Hence my first supposition is wTong ; it is im-

possible for contraction of the cerebral arteries tobe the cause of the hypnosis. On more carefulconsideration, another hypothesis, which receivessupport from other well-known physiological ex-periences, appeared to me not improbable.


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44 ANIMAL MAGNETISM,Nerve fibres are not independent organs ; their

function depends on the activity of the nerve-cells(ganglion-cells) with which they are connected. Amotor nerve fibre is only stimulated through themedium of the motor nerve-cell with which it isin connection ; and a sensory nerve fibre onlyproduces a perception by setting in activity aganglion-cell in the brain, by means of which con-sciousness is so influenced that perception results.A series of facts, however, are known whichteach us that the activity of ganglion-cells can bearrested when certain nerve fibres with which theyare connected, act upon them. The heart offers thelongest-known example of this kind. In the sub-stance of this organ, ganglion-cells are situatedwhich at definite intervals, throw into activity themotor nerve fibres of the heart, and the rhythmicalbeat of the heart is the result.However, certain fibres go to the heart from the

vagus nerve, which have the power, through theiraction on the gangHon-cells of the organ, of dimin-ishing, or for a time completely arresting, theaction of the heart. Stimulation of these cardiacbranches of the vagus causes a slowing, or tem-porary or complete standstill, of the heart. Hencethe vagus is called the inhibitory nerve of theheart. But we have other similar examples. Ac-cording to Rosenthal's observations, the result ofstimulation of the sensory nerve of the larynx isto cause relaxation of the respiratory muscles, and


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 45consequently to put an end to breathing. We inferthat this nerve inhibits the activity of those cellsof the medulla oblongata through the rhythmicalactivity of which, the action of the respiratorymuscles is caused. Lewisson has observed thatwhen an indiarubber band is applied under thelower jaw of a frog, the animal speedily loses thepower of voluntary movement. The sensory irrita-tion, through continuous pressure, causes inhibitionof the activity of those ganglion-cells by means ofwhich the influence of the will is brought about.In rabbits, pressure on internal organs, such as thekidney, bladder, or loops of intestine, produces forthe same reason paralysis of the hind legs.

Reflex paralyses, as they are called, have longbeen known to pathologists. They occur especiallyin hysterical women, and depend on the irritationof sensory nerves of certain regions through whichthe activity of certain motor ganglion-cells isarrested.

I have already mentioned the inhibition of reflexmovements by means of the activity of certain partsof the brain. It depends on the fact that the cellsthrough which the reflex action is brought about,are rendered incapable of performing their function,because certain parts of the brain with which theyare anatomically connected, are in a state ofactivity. These examples suffice to show that thefunctional activity of motor ganglion-cells can bearrested through the interaction of certain nerves


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46 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.which are in connection with them ; and not onlythe activity of ganglion-cells presiding over reflexand involuntary motion, but also of those whichbring about voluntary motion.

Moreover, we have lately learnt that the activityof sensory nerve-cells may also, under certainconditions, become inhibited. In continuation ofcertain observations first made known in France,Adamkiewicz has found that stimulation of certaincutaneous area, e.g. of the arm, by a mustard poulticediminishes the sensibility of the corresponding partof the other arm. This can only be explained bysupposing that the ganglion-cells which are in con-nection with the sensory fibres of the affected partare depressed in their activity by means of thesensory fibres of the irritated part of the skin.

In face of all these facts, it appears to me thatthe hypothesis that the cause of the phenomena ofhypnotism lies in the inhibition of the activity of thegariglion-cells of the cerebral cortex is not a tooadventurous one ; the inhibition being broughtabout by gentle prolonged stimulation of thesensory nerves of the face, or of the auditory oroptic nerve.

These sensory nerves, when in that state ofstimulation which has above been fully described,would behave, in regard to certain psychical cells ofthe cerebral cortex, like the cardiac branches of thevagus in regard to the ganglion-cells of the heart,or like the fibres of the superior laryngeal nerve


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM. 47towards those cells of the medulla oblongata whichpreside over respiration, or like those sensory fibresof internal organs which are concerned in Lewis-son's experiment and in hysterical paralysis.

I have arrived at the conclusion of my lecture,and I hope I have succeeded in convincing youthat, in Mr. Hansen's performances, we have notto deal with any unknown specific force, but withthe establishment of physiologically definable con-ditions of the cerebral organs, which are dependenton stimulation of sensory apparatus ; and whichcan be judged of in the light of the knowledge weat present possess of the functions of the nervoussystem, without our being obliged to take refuge inany kind of mysticism.

But now allow me an oratio pro domo.Any one who, a hundred and fifty years ago, hadpublicly exhibited such experiments as Mr. Hansendoes daily, and I to-night have done, would haveinfallibly been proceeded against for witchcraft.Fifty years ago, such a demonstration would cer-tainly have led to a new kind of superstition, asindeed took place when the excitement aboutanimal magnetism was at its highest. We owe itto the rapid advance of experimental physiologythat we, to-day, can guard ourselves against sucha deception.The discovery of sensory and motor nerves, the

minute investigation of reflex actions, the recogni-

ze^


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48 ANIMAL MAGNETISM.tion of inhibitory processes in the nervous system,the still defective, but fairly established knowledgeof the functions of the several great divisions ofthe brain, have only been rendered possible throughexperiments on animals.

In my opinion, not only is the healing of bodilydiseases, but also the overcoming of mental mala-dies, an advantage to mankind. And belief inwitchcraft and mysticism are mental diseases, fromwhich civilized nations can be freed only throughincreasing knowledge of nature.Have we not just seen a great number of our

fellow-citizens oppressed by the mental burden offeeling that they stood in the presence of somethingunknown, and apparently inexplicable withoutsupposing the existence of a new, specific, andmysterious force 1 For it is indeed awesome tosee the actions of a man apparently immediatelysubject to the will of another. This burden is, Ihope, removed by the physiological explanationsI have given you. But the possibility of myexplanation rested solely upon the extension ofphysiological knowledge which has been madeduring this century by means of experiments onanimals.

Can it be called reasonable, when an agitation^arising from good principles^ but ignorant of thenature and aims of science, seeks to wrest fromthysiology the most essential aid to its advanceVivisection f


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM, 49Addendum.

The above pages contain, as nearly as possiblethe alterations being unimportantmy lectureof the 19th of Januar5^ It was not practicablebefore a mostly non-medical audience to enterupon the numerous questions of cerebral physiologywhich are connected with the investigation of thehypnotic condition. To answer them, further in-vestigations are necessary, for which I have madearrangements with Dr. Griitzncr.At present this much may be said. Physio-

logists of the present day have adopted more andmore fully the view that those movements whichare initiated as a consequence of perception, andhence of the ideas called forth by the latter, arebrought about through the agency of the cerebralcortex ; that, on the other hand, another class ofmovement does not require the interaction of thecerebral cortex, viz. that class which, as a resultof continued repetition, can be finally carriedout without attention, and without consciousness.Ferrier, for instance, considers the corpora striataas the centre for the automatic organization ofsuch movements. On the other hand, he regardsthe thalami as an intermediate ganglion, throughwhich sensory impressions pass, on their way tothose localized areas of the cerebral cortex whichsubserve conscious sensation.

In the case of movements consciously carriedE


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5o ANIMAL MAGNETISM.out as the result of external impressions, the stateof excitation passes through the thalami to thecerebral cortex, within this from the sensory tothe motor centres, and from the latter downwardsthrough the corpora striata to the crura cerebri.Whilst in the cerebral cortex, motor centres forthe different parts of the body are spread out, as itwere, and are set in activity by the will ; in thecorpora striata there is an automatic mechanismcorresponding to these centres, which becomes per-fected through use.

In the case of movements which are uncon-sciously carried out as the result of sensory im-pressions, the state of excitation is transmittedfrom the thalamus direct to the corpora striata,instead of going by way of the cerebral cortex.Movements accomplished with consciousness arecalled by Ferrier noetico-kinetic movements.The movements carried out by means of the shortroute, and without consciousness, are called by him hypo-noetico-kinetic.Without wishing to assert that Ferrier's special

localization of the processes in question is correct,I am decidedly of the opinion, in accordance with \his general idea of the matter, that the movementsin hypnotized individuals are caused by the sensoryimpressions calling forth, in some part of the brainsituated below the cerebral cortex, changes whichact immediately as stimuli upon the motor appa-ratus ; that hence the apparently voluntary move-


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ANIMAL MAGNETISM, 51ment of imitation is carried out, like a reflex action,independently of the will.

Whilst normally the changes produced by thesensory impression in these sub-cortical parts canact on the cortex itself, in hypnosis this way isclosed, whilst the by-way to the motor apparatusremains open. These sub-cortical changes must,however, last longer than the stimulus, for, afterawaking from the hypnosis, it is possible to callforth memory, i.e. to arouse the cerebral cortex toaction, by repeating the original stimulation, thesecond stimulus not being necessarily so strong asthe first.

But it is only certain definite forms of stimula-tion which bring about a definite movement. Tocause a hypnotized person to move an arm, theimage of a moving arm must pass over his retina,or an unconscious sensation of motion must beinduced through passive movement of his arm.

This fact seems to point to the existence ofa central motor mechanism, which carries out adefinite movement. This must be in intimateconnection with another central mechanism, thestimulation of which, by the nerves of the eye orof the muscles or of the skin, gives rise to certainchanges. These, when consciousness is main-tained, lead to an idea of the movement in question,but when consciousness is absent, they directlystimulate the corresponding motor mechanism.A child, guided by its sight and i

Documents

Heidenhain, Rudolf_Hypnotism; Or, Animal Magnetism; Physiological Observations (1899)