Bethan Phillimore

BA (Hons) Graphic Design

2017/18

Has Minimalism Within Europe Been Influenced by Japanese Design?

5476

List of Images

Figure 1: Iburg, M. Sake Cup. Available at: http://www.mitchiburg.com/blog/

(Accessed: 10 December)

Figure 2: Carnazzi, S. Kintsugi: The Art of Precious Scars. Available at:

https://www.lifegate.com/people/lifestyle/kintsugi (Accessed: 21 November)

Figure 3: Jong, C. Konstruktivisten. Jan Tschichold: Master Typographer, his life,

work and legacy.(2008)

Figure 4: Lucarelli, F. Joseph Müller-Brockmann: Musica Viva Posters for the Zurich

Tonhalle. Available at: http://socks-studio.com/2016/11/30/joseph-muller-brockmann-

musica-viva-posters-for-the-zurich-tonhalle/ (Accessed: 10 December)

Figure 5: Bedford, P. Yo! Rebrand Available at: http://paulbelford.com/project/yo-

brand/ (Accessed: 10 December)

Figure 6: Le Blanc, S. Superdry: The Japanese Fashion Brand That Japanese

People Have Never Even Heard of. Available at:

https://en.rocketnews24.com/2015/11/03/superdry-the-japanese-fashion-brand-that-

japanese-people-have-never-even-heard-of/ (Accessed: 7 December)

Has Minimalism Within Europe Been Influenced by Japanese Design?

This body of research examines the relationship between Japanese design and the

minimalism movement, focusing on European graphic design within the movement.

This body of research will explore the similarities and differences of them

aesthetically and theoretically and determine whether European minimalism has

been influenced by Japanese design or whether they originated from the same

place. It will explore philosophies and traditions such as Ma and Less is more (Mies

van der Rohe, 1947) and will give a more thorough understanding of the different

design approaches and help determine their relationships.

A combination of primary and secondary research will support the research. Visiting

Japan in 2017 gave a wealth of visual primary research and was the incentive to

address the question. Many of the philosophies and traditions discussed in the essay

were immediately obvious in Japanese lifestyle, society and design, even having

spent a relatively short amount of time there. Communications over email with Ryan

Hageman, graphic designer and curator of Japanese design Gurafiku blog, gave

further insight into Japanese graphic design and its relationship with European

design.

Exhibitions Learning from Japan at Copenhagen Design Museum (October 2017)

and the permanent Japanese collection at the V&A in London (November 2017)

proved vital in the initial stages understanding the history of Japanese design and

craft. The exhibitions highlighted the significant difference between traditional

Japanese design and modern conception of Japanese graphic design. Learning from

Japan also introduced the term of Japonisme, which was described as the trend for

Japanese fine art and graphic design which swept across Europe and North America

following trade resuming in the 1850s after being restricted for two hundred and fifty

years (Burty, 1870). The term usually refers to the woodblock printing style of design

but could be extended to print. Japonisme and Orientalism will be studied with

support from Orientalism by Edward Said (1978). Understanding Orientalism will

help explore the idea of Authenticity through whether Japanese design is

romanticised and portrayed as exotic in the West or whether the design is

appreciated entirely for what it is. Othering will also prove significant when exploring

how the West views the East (Said, 1978, p.23).

Other secondary research comes in the form of books, online articles and interviews.

Significant texts such as White by Kenya Hara (2015) and In Praise of Shadows by

Jun'ichirō Tanizaki (1933) will be drawn from. Both Hara and Tanizaki are renowned

and well respected authors of Japanese literature and explore traditional Japanese

aesthetics and design within the texts. By understanding these texts, comparisons

and influences are apparent in European minimalism. Throughout the essay,

minimalism is used to describe a style of work wherein the subject is reduced to just

its necessary elements (Murray et al, 1961). The movement developed from

modernism with a further emphasis on simplicity. Swiss designers Jan Tschichold

and Josef Muller-Brockmann are considered some of the most significant graphic

designers within the movement.

The first part of the research will attempt to answer the question by thoroughly

exploring the foundations and philosophy of minimalism using case studies within

contemporary graphic design. Understanding how minimalism evolved from

modernism will aid in recognising what underpins the movement and will make it

possible to contrast with Japanese philosophies and traditions. Modernism, within

this essay, refers to the dominant aesthetic sensibility of mid- to late-20th century with

minimalism fitting into middle modernism. Middle modernism includes most of the

minimalist design produced since the Second World War (Koren, 1994, p.25).

Japanese philosophies such as Iki, Wabi-Sabi and Ma will all be studied.

‘The Japanese nurturing of these approaches of art has created an artistic expression that resonates with a profound philosophical consistency- a consistency with great historical depth little affected by changing fads and fashions’ (Juniper, 2003, p.3).

These philosophies are not limited to Japanese design but also extend to Japanese

lifestyle ethics.

The second part of the research will study how Japan and Europe interpret each

other in terms of graphic design. Orientalism, the notion of the Other and Authenticity

will be explored and whether influences come from understanding Japanese design

or whether it is the obsession with an exotic other culture. Case studies will play a

vital role in this chapter. Japanese retailer Muji’s success and branding techniques in

Europe and Japan, will be used as a case study focusing on its exotic appeal in the

West compared to the idea of it being a brand providing basics in Japan (Portas,

2015). Which begs the question, does the West’s perception of Japanese Muji exist

or does it represent ‘a Japan of the mind, where even toenail-clippers and plastic

coat-hangers possess a Zen purity: functional, minimal, reasonably priced’ (Gibson,

2001) through its branding. Brands familiar in Europe with Japanese connotations

and no Japanese origin, Superdry and Yo!Sushi will illustrate some of the notions of

cultural appropriation and globalisation (Eror, 2016).

The first part of this research paper will start by outlining how traditional aesthetic

philosophies inform design in Japan, in particular the influences of Wabi-sabi, Iki and

Ma. By understanding the philosophies and history of traditional Japanese design

and minimalism within European design any links can be presented. Ma exercises

the desire for pure with no clutter, showing only the essential and therefore leaving

spaces empty with the possibility to fill (Miller, 2010). ‘Wabi-sabi is a beauty of things

imperfect, impermanent and incomplete. It is a beauty of things modest and humble.

It is a beauty of things unconventional’ (Koren, 2008, p.7). Iki, too, praises the notion

of imperfection but introduces the appreciation of simplicity. Within graphic design,

simple shapes and colours limited to greys, browns and blue would be considered

Iki, much like some aesthetic qualities of minimalism (Parkes, 2017). Less is more (Mies van der Rohe, 1947), white space and emptiness are all other traits associated

with minimalism within Europe, that contrast the importance of shadows and

imperfection prominent within traditional Japanese design and aesthetic theory.

Japanese aesthetic principles at the core of Japanese design, originate from ancient

Japanese history and have developed to underpin what can be considered

sophisticated or attractive in modern day Japan (Reynolds, 2009). ‘There is no other

culture in which design and quality have played such a significant role in the day-to-

day life of the people’ (De Mente, 2011, p.2). The philosophies can be transferred

across all the art and design within Japan but are not limited to that alone as they

can also be considered a fundamental part of daily life (Keene, 1969, p.293). Traits

such as suggestiveness, irregularity, asymmetry, simplicity and perishability are

shared between the design principles of Japanese aesthetics and Zen Buddhism,

suggesting the origin of Wabi-sabi, Iki and Ma (Keene, 1969, p.297). Through the

following of Zen, principles of Wabi-sabi, Iki and Ma are all taught and engrained in

the Japanese way of life from an early age, forming a lifestyle attitude. In addition,

balance and harmony form part of the Japanese lifestyle (Theroux, 2009). Keeping

balance and harmony within graphic design is often the way of determining a

successful or unsuccessful piece of design (Skaalid, 1999). Typography must

balance and harmonise with imagery to be successful in a composition.

Japan found itself adapting to the changing world. They began the process of

creating new harmony between new influences and old traditions following the

second world war. After years of repression during the war, post-war Japan anticipated the global opportunity for mass-production and mass-marketing of

Japanese products (Hays, 2008). With this occasion not only came the need for

Western influences to maximise worldwide sales but came with the complication of

balancing ancient Japanese traditions. As the availability of Western products

increased in Japan, the curiosity for the Japanese to explore and emigrate

elsewhere increased (Haghirian, 2011, P.3). Following the war, Japan faced the

challenge of harmonising new, stimulating global influences entering the country and

the traditional, contemplated graphic design which had been within the country for

hundreds of years (Saito, 2016). ‘The changes that the West brought to Japan were

explosive and altered modes of dress and activities almost beyond recognition’ (Juniper, 2003, p.13). The influx of immigrants post war into Europe, particularly

Scandinavia, resulted in their society’s growing interest in foreign traditions, attitudes

and design (Learning from Japan, 2017).

‘Because of the large gap that existed between philosophical views of the world, the ideas of wabi-sabi were not seized upon, as were the immediately impressive artworks such as the silk kimonos, elaborate screens and swords’ (Juniper, 2003, p.29).

Simple, functional interiors of traditional Japanese houses appealed to post-war

Scandinavian architects and the use of natural materials for products appealed to

product designers (Eyþórsdóttir, 2011). From architecture and product design, the

influences spread into printed graphic design too. Japanese inspired packaging in

Europe would feature natural dyes and materials (Eyþórsdóttir, 2011). From deep

within the culture of the Japanese came the importance of nature. The geographical

aspect of Japan being covered in mostly dense forest, encouraged designers to

make use of the resource in terms of materials but also fuel for heating pottery kilns

(Learning from Japan, 2017).

Despite the influences of the West in Japanese culture, the balance with nature is

still ingrained in society (Grapard, 2008). Originating in the Heian era (794-1185

A.D.), Japan learnt to appreciate nature through its unpredictability and flaws and

was translated into aesthetic design with the term Wabi-Sabi. Wabi-Sabi, at the heart

of traditional Japanese design, embraces the unique, human qualities, which could

be considered the opposite of the minimalism’s ideal of success (Koren, 1994, p.8).

Although minimalism and Wabi-Sabi both react against the dominant, established

sensibilities of their time (19th century classism of the West and Chinese perfection of

the 16th century), minimalism favours form and a perfected final outcome whereas

Wabi-Sabi emphasises the journey to the final outcome and embraces any flaws

picked up along the way, thus making the individual outcome unique (Koren, 1995,

p.28). ‘These underlying principles are diametrically opposed to those of their

Western counterparts, whose values are rooted in a Hellenic worldview that values

permanence, grandeur, symmetry and perfection’ (Juniper, 2003, p.2). A traditional

sake cup is one of the most distinctive examples of Wabi-Sabi (fig.1). The most

typical sake cup will be textured with an irregular finish. It might also be repaired with

‘kintsugi’, which is the ancient Japanese process of repairing ceramics with gold

(Jobson, 2014) (fig.2). The process aspires to celebrate the repair as part of the

object’s journey as opposed to attempting to hide it, as Western design would

encourage. Germany’s minimalist graphic designer Jan Tschichold’s focuses on

grids and form within his work and directly contrasts Wabi-Sabi. The poster,

Konstruktivisten demonstrates his uniformed approach to design using simplicity

allowing the straightforward reproduction of his prints. ‘Diversity of the cultural

ecology is a desirable state of affairs, especially in opposition to the accelerating

trend toward the uniform digitalisation of all sensory experience’ (Koren, 1994, p.8). Therefore, it could be argued that European design is materially oriented and favours

mass production, whereas traditional Japanese design focuses on the journey from

start to finish of a product.

Tschichold was just one of many European graphic designers who embodied this

style of using systems and clean lines. Josef Müller-Brockmann was a Swiss graphic

designer and teacher whose work could readily be described as minimalist (Terror,

2009). In 1960, Müller-Brockmann visited Japan for the first time for the World

Design Conference in Tokyo (Unknown, 2011). Here, he networked with modernist

Japanese graphic designers such as Yusaku Kamekura. While Müller-Brockmann

described finding aspects of Japanese design and life hugely influential, he also

mentions in an interview with Yvonne Schwemer-Scheddin, the interest Japan had in

Europe at the time.

‘I think at first the best-known Japanese designers and architects came to my Sunday classes out of curiosity. I told them to study their own history, which contains everything they need for good design: The Noh theatre, the temples, the gardens. Their Japanese teachers at the time spoke only of Europe’ (Schwemer-Scheddin, 1995).

The Noh theatre especially proved influential for Müller-Brockmann. ‘In Japan, I saw

Noh theatre for the first time and was instantly captivated. Every movement of the

Noh actor is measured and bursting with tension. Nothing is left to chance, yet it is

full of life and poetry.’ (Schwemer-Scheddin, 1995). The uniformed, controlled

approach of Müller-Brockmann’s minimalist style might too have been influenced by

Noh theatre’s harmony and tension. The sets and costumes used in Noh theatre are

dramatic, changing shape and colour with different angles of light (Bethe, 2000). Noh

theatre is also discussed in depth in the essay In Praise of Shadows by Japanese

author Jun'ichirō Tanizaki. The essay outlines the importance of shadows within

Japanese home interiors and Noh theatre while also highlighting other ways

Japanese people differ from Western in their values. In addition, the essay outlines

the Western influence on Japanese design. Tanizaki states that within Noh or a

Japanese home, darkness is vital to emphasize light. Without the contrast of the two,

neither would be of any value. ‘We find beauty not in the thing itself but in the

patterns of shadows, the light and the darkness, that one thing against another

creates’ (Tanizaki, 1933, p.46).

The true value of shadows to accompany light has been disputed by other Japanese

graphic designers. Author, graphic designer and current art director of Muji, Kenya

Hara’s theories revolve around the notion of emptiness and brightness as the

vanishing point, as opposed to shadows (Hara, 2010, p. 2). The idea being it gives

the opportunity for the space to be filled, much like the Japanese aesthetic principle

of Ma (Hara, 2010, p.38). Ma is most commonly described as the ‘lack of the

unnecessary’ and the ‘importance of space between two structural parts’ (Nitschke,

2017). Minimalism too has these qualities but would be limited to the physical outcomes whereas Ma could be transferred to Japanese lifestyle beyond just

physical design. The importance of emptiness within Hara’s work comes from the

need for self-expression from the audience and the opportunity for the space to be

filled in a personal way to the observer each time. Although this prospect of self-

expression relies on the participation of the audience initially. ‘The mechanism of

communication is activated when we look at an empty vessel, not as a negative

state, but in terms of its capability to be filled with something’ (Hara, 2011, p.34). If

the vessel is already filled, it cannot present new opportunities. This empty vessel

with the possibility to be filled could be demonstrated in minimalist designs featuring

white space. The white space has the potential to be filled. ‘White is not just a colour.

White must be called a design concept’ (Hara, 2007, p.213). Emptiness, when

spoken about by Hara, is always portrayed in a positive way. In the West, emptiness

usually carries negative connotations of being unfinished or boring, whereas, in

Japan, emptiness possesses boundless possibilities.

The contradicting opinions of Tanizaki and Hara is likely due to the times in which

they grew up and wrote academically. Hara’s attention is focused on the empty

space with the potential to be filled, whereas Tanizaki believes the eye is drawn to

shadows and darkness within design. ‘An empty space is marked off with plain

wood and plain walls, so that the light drawn into it forms dim shadows within

emptiness’ (Tanizaki, 1933, p.20). Tanzizaki’s In Praise of Shadows was published in 1933, well before the internet he would have had little influence from the West. As

the internet evolved, global influences became more widespread and allowed for

easier communication (Pettinger, 2016). Hara would have been thirty-three years old

by the time the internet started making an impact globally. While the internet took

years to gain popularity, these influences in the early years of Hara’s career are

likely to have influenced him academically. Hara’s perception of the importance of

emptiness and white within design contrasts with very traditional Japanese design

aesthetics which stress imperfection and shadow, begging the question, do Hara’s

theories follow the Western perception of what Japanese design is? Perhaps,

involuntarily, Hara has been influenced by the Western opinion of what conventional

Japanese design is and thus has values that sit much closer to minimalism.

While Tanzizaki and Hara seem to have drastically contrasting academic opinions,

Hara and Müller-Brockmann’s opinions share far more similarities. The philosophies

of Ma and Iki can be reflected in his graphic design on a physical level. The qualities

of white space and removing all that is unnecessary of Ma and the simplicity and

sophistication of Iki are visible in Müller-Brockmann’s most well-known poster

designs. These traits are clearly identified in the Musica Viva Posters for the Zurich

Tonhalle poster series (fig. 4). Although these qualities within Müller-Brockmann’s

design are more carefully and tactically placed compared to the natural way Ma and

Iki spread into design. Müller-Brockmann’s work featuring geometric forms, where

proportions and spacing would be balanced with strict mathematical ratios would

have been strongly influenced by the grids discussed in his book Grid Systems in

Graphic Design (Kraft, 2015, p.1). Müller-Brockmann was a pioneer of European

graphic design and influenced peers. ‘So-called Swiss design is as much “Müller-

Brockmann” as it is any other single personage’ (Müller, 1996, p.7). This innovative style suggests an outside influence which set him apart from competitors. Thus,

suggesting Japanese design might have influenced the graphic designer in some

way.

Ludwig Mies van der Rohe’s less is more theory is another obvious area of common

ground between Japanese design philosophies and European minimalism. The

theory was originally applied to architecture of the early 20th century and has since,

spread into areas of design such as furniture and graphic design (Mertins, 2014).

The removal of anything unnecessary and keeping a level of simplicity and

sophistication could be described as the European equivalent of Ma and Iki. ‘In

nothingness, Ma enables’ (Abrahamson, 2013). Although the emphasis of less is

more is purely on the physical qualities unlike Ma and Iki which embody the whole

journey to the physical outcome. The timeframe of the theories is also drastically

different, less is more was introduced and gained popularity within the last one

hundred and twenty years whereas Ma and Iki have been around for many centuries

(Parkes, 2011).

While the superficial aspects of European minimalism and Japanese design share

many similarities such as the importance of white space and simplistic shapes, the

theory behind the two movements is radically different. The stark difference in culture

of the East and the West has inevitably changed the values of aspects of design

within these areas of the world (Clock, 2015). The importance of history and

traditions forms an enormous part of life in the East, whereas the traits and values

associated with capitalist culture could be considered more in line with the lifestyle of

the West (Mishra, 2014).

‘This ancient approach to life, which breathes new meaning into both the visual and decorative arts, is ambivalent toward modern Western culture, preferring instead a philosophy and design ethos more consistent with our flaws and organic nature’ (Juniper, 2003, p.3).

Designers who grow up in these two lifestyles will be consciously and

subconsciously influenced by the values of the countries. The fast-paced nature of

Western culture, focusing attention on the final outcomes, leads to different qualities

valued in the end results (Sangmpam, 2007, p.238). The opportunity for a poster to

be mass reproduced is a vital part of the design process for designers like

Tschichold and Müller-Brockmann. The design could be considered a failure if the

final outcomes are printed with errors and vary between each other whereas a

typical Wabi-Sabi sake cup is the opposite. The cup should show the journey of

production and any flaws or differences are valued (Richardson, 2016). These

features would fail to be understood if explained initially to a Western consumer

while the outcome could still be appreciated on aesthetic value.

The next part of this essay will explore the representation of Japan within Europe

and Europe within Japan. Understanding the cultures and how they perceive each

other will help identify whether design influences have happened naturally or

whether appropriation and Othering are more prevalent (Said, 1978, p.3).

Japonisme, introduced by the Learning from Japan exhibition at Copenhagen Design

Museum will also be explored (2017). Edward Said’s academic book Orientalism

(1978) will form a vital part of understanding the representation of the Orient in the

West.

Said was a Palestinian academic author and professor who wrote extensively on the

subject (Ruthven, 2003). He introduces the notion of the West’s perception of the

East not only being restricted to imagination, but stemming from the West’s need for

domination, power and authority (Said, 1978, p.16). ‘Orientalism as Western style for

dominating, restructuring, and having authority over the Orient’ (Said, 1978, p.44).

The attractiveness of the unknown is also fascinating to the West, demonstrating that

the exoticness of Japan to Europe is what people find especially exciting in terms of

visual imagery. Furthermore, Said clarifies the degrading means of the West

referring to those of the Orient as the Other (Said, 1978, p.36) Through the

ignorance of generalizing and fetishizing people in the East, Said could determine

three clear imperialist ideologies. The three ideologies were Homogenisation,

Feminisation and Essentialisation. Homogenisation could be described as the idea of

generalising all people from Asia and suggesting they are all the same, Feminsation

is the notion of Eastern culture being inferior to Western and Essentialisation is the

belief that areas within the region’s characteristics are not as important as those of

the general area (Said, 1978).

Many of the theories found in Orientalism can be discussed using Japanese

homeware retailer, Muji, as a case study. The brand was founded in 1979 and

initially sold forty products in a shop in Tokyo (Unknown, 2017). The brand has now

expanded to stock over seven thousand products in seven hundred and forty-six

shops worldwide (Killingsworth, 2015). Kenya Hara now works as art director of the

company and is responsible for many of their creative decisions. Muji’s brands itself

as no-brand, meaning they use very little advertising and rely on word of mouth for

customers (Shazni, 2017). It is derived from the phrase mujirushi ryshin meaning no

brand goods. According to Hara, much of the brand’s philosophies and

characteristics are in sync with traditional Japanese design. ‘The Japanese culture

that admires clean lines and simplicity dates much further back than Western

modernism, and it was in making this ad that I realized that Muji’s roots come from

this Japanese culture’ (Hara, 2015). While the brand originated in Japan and

therefore was originally created for a Japanese audience, the brand has proved

hugely popular across the world, demonstrated with the expansion in shop numbers.

(Killingsworth, 2015) ‘This is about being able to share products with consumers

worldwide, rather than only in Japan. This Japanese tableware can also be used for

western-style and Chinese meals’ (Koike, 2015, p.1). Although the perceptions of the

brand within Japan and outside of Japan vary hugely. Within Japan, Muji is sold at

local supermarkets as a brand for essential basics, whereas, within Europe, Muji

suggests exotic and is more likely to be compared to a high-end luxury homeware

brands (Lee, 2007).

The romanticizing of Japanese design and culture by the West is discussed by Said

within Orientalism. The term Japonisme is often used to describe the obsession.

‘After two-and-a-half centuries of isolation, Japan had become an object of

curiosity to the rest of the world’ (Lambourne, 2005). Phillipe Burty introduced the term in 1872 describing the influence of Japanese products on the French design

community (Weisberg and Burty, 1993, p.31). The influences then spread further

within Europe into the United Kingdom and Scandinavia. This relationship further

argues the idea of the West assuming authority over the East. With Japonisme,

European countries would borrow and appropriate traditional methods of printing

from Japan and mass produce them for a Western audience (Conte-Helm, 1986,

p.87). Following Japonisme, prints in the style of Hokusai appeared across Europe

but exploited a more hurried, indolent approach (Stonard, 2017). Designers in Europe selected designs to appropriate, further arguing the idea of authority and

depicting the Orient as inferior. The contemporary equivalent could be demonstrated

in the form of European graphic designers designing for a European audience with a

generalised idea of Japanese design. ‘There is a certain tradition of 'Orientalia', of

the faux-Oriental, that has been present here for a long time, and truly, there is

something in the quality of a good translation that can never be captured in the

original’ (Gibson, 2001). The sushi chain within the U.K., Yo!Sushi could be a prime

example of this. The founder, Simon Woodroofe introduced the idea of conveyor belt

sushi popular in Japan to the U.K. Without a Japanese background or having been

to Japan, the main concepts which underlie today’s Yo!Sushi came from

Woodroofe’s own perception of sushi restaurants in Japan (Smale, 2014). While

conveyor belt sushi restaurants in Japan are cheap to eat at and considered very

basic, Yo!Sushi has taken a more luxury dining approach (Smale, 2014). Conveyor belt sushi restaurants in Japan are considered virtually fast food chains and one of

the cheapest options for somewhere to eat but Woodroofe saw potential for

presenting the chain as a higher end restaurant with higher prices. This method of

branding within the U.K. shares similarities with Muji as mentioned. A basic product

or concept in Japan can be appropriated for an audience in the U.K. to become a

more luxury item and the owners can benefit from higher profit margins. As the

consumer finds the prospect of a Japanese product or brand exciting, this can be

exploited in the price of the item in the U.K. compared to in Japan.

The branding of Yo!Sushi, completed by Paul Bedford in October 2016 includes

Kanji symbols and circles (mimicking the circle on the Japanese flag) (fig. 5). These

symbols immediately associated with Japanese design used in this context is an

example Said’s Essentialisation. Within the branding, evidence of philosophies such

as Wabi-Sabi and Ma are difficult to identify. The adapting of Japanese imagery and

appropriating them to the British audience using the obvious examples suggests the

culture is limited to these characteristics. The idea that the whole country can be

summarised by these symbols also demonstrates the Feminsation notion. The words

symbolized by Kanji characters will be unreadable to many visitors in the restaurants

but the exotic nature of them would be appreciated instead. An interview with Ryan

Hageman, founder of Gurafiku blog, further supports this. When asked in an

interview with F News Magazine which Japanese posters are most popular to his

Western audience, he answered:

‘Those that incorporate Japanese text. Japanese designers use a combination of scripts; some only design using Roman characters, but for some reason those examples don’t seem as popular because they aren’t immediately identifiable as “Japanese.”’ (Hageman, 2014).

While the audience is unlikely able to read the Japanese text on the poster, the idea

of it makes a design more appealing. With the inability to read the text, comes the

notion of all text being considered the same, linking back to Said’s idea of

Homogenisation. This demonstrates the perceived fascination with the East.

Although the fascination, at times was reciprocated. As previously touched on within

this research, Muller-Brockmann’s visit to the World Design Conference in 1960

highlighted the interest Japan had in Europe with the best known Japanese design

teachers speaking ‘only of Europe’. (Schwemer-Scheddin, 1995). Further supporting

the notion of the perhaps East sees themselves as inferior to the dominant power of

Europe in some respects. The Japanese design teachers mentioned by Muller-

Brockmann in the interview would have seen Europe’s designers as superior if they

felt it necessary to teach their theories over those already engrained in their culture.

British clothing brand Superdry has used parallel branding techniques as Yo!Sushi in

terms of using Japanese characters to help entice customers (fig.6). The brand,

which was founded by Peter Bamford and Euan Sutherland, took inspiration from

Asahli Super Dry Beer uses Japanese Kanji symbols as one of the most

recognisable parts of the branding (Stefan, 2016). When translated, the Kanji

symbols make little sense to someone who understands them and have been purely

used for visual effect. It’s been debated by bloggers whether this is an example of

reverse parody of Engrish, mocking the way fashion garments in East Asian

countries can be found with English writing on that makes little sense (Ziemba,

2004). The use of Kanji symbols for purely aesthetic purposes was also embodied in

much of the work by the Designers Republic in the 1980s and 1990s (Burgoyne,

2009). This idea of taking an aspect of design such as Kanji symbols, which is not an original idea in Japan and exhibiting them as a new and exotic concept in Europe

could be considered an example of cultural pastiche. Parody and pastiche are

discussed in depth by Linda Hutcheon (Felluga, 2011) and Frederic Jameson (Felluga, 2011). respectively over their careers as academics. The notion of parody,

discussed by Hutcheon, shares many similarities with cultural appropriation

previously discussed in this essay.

The fetishizing of Japanese imagery and fascination with it, was discussed by

Tanizaki stemming from the idea of opposing design principles appeal to either

opposite: Japanese design intends to be imperfect whereas European aspires for

precision (Lynam, 2014).

‘The Westerner uses silver and steel and nice tableware, and polishes it to a fine brilliance but we object to the practice.’ … ‘On the contrary, we begin to enjoy it only when the luster has worn off, when it has begun to take on a dark, smoky patina’ (Tanizaki, 1977, p.18).

Tanizaki, too, recognized the appeal Japan had to the West because of the exotic

qualities. ‘The ‘mysterious Orient’ of which Westerners speak probably refers to the

uncanny silence of these dark places.’ (Tanizaki, 1977, p.33). The exotic element of

the unknown within the East is what Europe finds appealing. With Japanese design

sharing qualities with minimalism, it could be stated that minimalism borrowed from

Japanese design philosophies and appropriated them to hold a greater cultural

value.

In an attempt to discover the relationship between Japanese design and European

minimalism, this essay started by defining both Japanese design philosophies and

European minimalism as a development of modernism. By defining these

movements, initial similarities were discovered such as the exploration of negative

space and removing all that is unnecessary. While there were many similarities, it

was observed these were mainly aesthetic parallels. ‘The idea of simplicity comes

from Western contemporary design and takes a rationalistic form. But in traditional

Japanese design, simplicity has a slightly different character.’ (Hara, 2015). Japanese design philosophy Wabi-Sabi highlighted the appreciation of imperfection

and contradicted European minimalism. The works of European graphic designers

such as Muller-Brockmann, favoured uniformed grids, control and harmony within

design.

The theoretical relationship between Japan and Europe was explored through the

academic writings of Edward Said, aiding to demonstrate how the West perceives

the East as the lesser of the two. This cultural hierarchy in the 20th century has

formed the basis for the appropriation of Japanese design to this day. Yo!Sushi and

Superdry proved excellent case studies to demonstrate this. Japan is perceived as

exotic within Europe, with Eastern design perceived as escaping Western

constraints. ‘The East is a place of freedom from Victorian moral authority’ (Said,

1978, p.127). With brands using Kanji symbols to help sell their products within

Europe, the writing is intended to appeal to those who cannot read it, but will enjoy

its visual appearance. This appropriation of Japanese culture for the European

audience demonstrates the cultural hierarchy spoken about by Said. The capitalist

values of Western culture have taken advantage of the exotic nature of Japanese

design. Basic, low cost concepts such as conveyor belt sushi, have been made a

more upmarket dining experience for the Western audience, using the novelty of the

exotic to the company’s advantage.

It was discovered that the perception of Muji differs hugely between the intended

Japanese audience and the audience in Europe. While Muji’s ethos embodied some

traditional Japanese design philosophies such as Ma with the appreciation of the

‘empty vessel with the potential to be filled’, the simplistic approach contradicted the

traditional Japanese design writings of Tanizaki (Hara, 2015). Hara, the art director

of Muji, has an appreciation of emptiness and brightness, whereas Tanizaki stressed

the importance of shadows and darkness. Hara’s perception of Japanese design

embodied within Muji’s products seem to share far more similarities with Europe’s

definition of minimalism. A concluded explanation for this could be the impression

globalization has had on Muji. The inevitable influences across borders because of

the internet and global travel have spread into design.

Although, as someone undertaking research in the U.K., it was impossible to entirely

understand Japanese culture and how design philosophies integrate into life there,

the academic texts studied gave a sufficient understanding to conclude where the

similarities and differences were, in turn helping to understand the origins of

Japanese design and European minimalism. The two design approaches share far

fewer similarities than first thought. While there are obvious aesthetic similarities

shared, giving the impression of a similar origin, their values differ hugely and come

from very different places. The original values may have been different but the

inevitable influence of globalization invites the appropriation of design between the

two. The more globalized interpretations of contemporary minimalism within graphic

design relate to the changes in our international populations and contrast with the

modernist cultural interpretations of the twentieth century.

Concluding, these similarities between the Japanese design and European

minimalism are consciously or subconsciously portrayed by the designers. There is a

clear relation between getting rid of all that is unnecessary and minimal design

presentation (Koren, 1994, p.26). Major global influences on the design evolution

have included the after effects of World War, increases in international mobility

through immigration and travel, efficiency of communication and the World Wide

Web, and massive technological advancements in products and manufacturing.

These all, coupled with a population explosion has increased the need for speed,

effectiveness and efficiency in a minimalist design approach. However, this need

does not necessitate the loss of cultural identities and will still impact in Eastern and

Western graphic design as Japan can still export its way of life through design,

culture and technology. These globalizing influences and technological

advancements will continue to push forward the massive transformations that are

happening to our World and have ramifications on the directions of future design

movements the twenty-first century and beyond.

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