Explorations Fall 2013 Volume 5

8/13/2019 Explorations Fall 2013 Volume 5

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e x p l o r a t i onsTHE TEXAS A&M UNDERGRADUATE JOURNAL

Fall2013

|Volume5

IN THIS

I S S U E:


2/68

Fall 2013 | Volume 5

Cover art courtesy o Amber Shamma, a reshman Visualization major rom Friendswood, exas.

Copyright 2013exas A&M University

All Rights Reserved

CONTACT EXPLORATIONS

[email protected]

explorations.tamu.eduacebook.com/explorationstexasam

twitter.com/ExplorationsUGRsoundcloud.com/explorationstexasam

114 Henderson Hall4233 AMU

College Station, X 77843USA


3/68Fall 2013 | Explorations i

A Let ter f rom Pres ident Lof t ine x p l o r a t i o n sFall 2013 | Volume 5

Dear Readers o Explorations,

exas A&M is a very specialplace. I realized shortly aer

arriving as a reshman physicsmajor in 1967 that this universityoffers students the best o bothworlds: a culture that makes ourcampus eel small enough sothat strangers quickly becomeriends, but big enough toattract some o the worlds topresearchers.

Not only that, but I could workwith many o my proessorsto conduct major researcheven as an undergraduate.

I did not realize at the timehow extraordinary thoseopportunities were. Lookingback, I can state withoutquestion that working onimportant research projectswith aculty members as mentors gave me an advantage over graduates oother universities and helped launch my proessional career.

When I returned to Aggieland as President many years later, I was pleasedto find that while a great deal had changed since I was a student, exas A&Mcontinues to stand out among other top universities.

We are now one o the nations largest universities, offering more than 120

undergraduate degrees and 240 graduate degrees, but the Aggie Spirit isstronger than ever.

We have many more proessors today, and they include some o the worldsbest teachers, scholars and researchers. Tey are passionate about what theydo and dedicated to helping you succeed. I urge you to take advantage othe many opportunities available to get to know your proessors and workalongside them in the laboratory, in the field, or wherever this scholarshipleads.

Make the most o your time at this special place.

Gig em!

R. Bowen Loin 71

STUDENT EDITORIAL BOARDAnnabelle Aymond

MaryBeth Benda

Callie CheathamAaron GriffinSamir Lakdawala

William LinzMadeline MatthewsMatthew McMahon

Hilary PorterBobbie Roth

MASTHEAD DESIGNAndrea Roberts

PAGE LAYOUT/DESIGNAnnabelle Aymond

MANUSCRIPT EDITORGabe Waggoner

COVER ARTAmber Shamma

FACULTY REVIEWERSNancy Amato

Juan-Carlos BaltazarSarah Bednarz

Alexey BelyaninStephen Caffey

Kevin CummingsAshley CurrierDick Davison

Jose Fernandez-SolisJohn FordCarlos GonzalezTomas GreenJohn HansonRodney Hill

Raael Lara-AlecioJanet McCann

Christopher MenzelRita Moyes

Roger SchultzAdam Seipp

Alex SprintsonSusan Stabile

Manuelita UretaKimberly VannestBob Webb

akashi Yamauchi

FACULTY/STAFF ADVISORYBOARD

Dr. Sumana DattaDr. Larry Griffing

Dr. Duncan MacKenzieMs. ammis ShermanDr. Elizabeth ebeaux


4/68Explorations | Fall 2013ii

T a b l e o f

Natural gas is an invaluablenatural resource but recoverymay take a large environmental

toll.

PAGE 1

Water, Chemical

Additives, and TheirEffect on Shale

By Matthew Wiese

Heavy vessel traffic can increasethe risk o dolphin habitatdisruption, behavior, or physical

harm by boat propellers.

PAGE 4Bottlenose Dolphinsand Boat Traffic inthe Galveston Ship

Channel

By Anna Pennachi

Blood analysis is invaluable indetermining a patients health

but can be invasive unless analternative can be ound.

PAGE 8

DevelopingMinimally-Invasive

Biosensors fromFluorescent Dye and

Red Blood Cells

By Megan Poorman

Studies on the Qatar campus incollaboration with industry areinvestigating the potential o gas-

to-liquid based jet uels.

PAGE 11

Synthetic Jet Fuels

Produced fromNatural Gas

By Moiz Bohra

Creative non-fiction based oninterviews with veterans romthe Iraq and Aghanistan wars.

PAGE 14

Chasing the Sun

By Stephen OShea

In an effort to limit the effectso man-made climate change,policy-oriented solutionsdelve into a theoretical look atthe necessary cuts in carbon

emissions.

PAGE 17

Cap-and-Trade andGlobal Compromise

By Phillip Warren and

Mariah Lord

Emotion, color, contrast,antasy and strength providethe inspiration or our effect on

Mother Nature.

PAGE 21

Mother Nature andthe Coming Storm

By Rosa Bauelos

How and when did the firstAmericans settle in theAmericas? Te theory o coastal

migration is gaining traction.

PAGE 23

Two if By Sea:Modern

ArchaeologicalResearch into Arrivalof the First Americans

By Tomas Colvin

Te task was simple. Create amethod o teaching seismologyto middle school kids using

everyday objects.

PAGE 29

Mapping Subsurfaceswith Marbles andWrapping Paper

By Andrew DeCheck


5/68Fall 2013 | Explorations iii

C o n t e n t s

o reconcile novel engineeringapproaches with a traditional

method rom Aristotle.

PAGE 32

Aristotles Poetics

as a Framework forEngineering Design

By Justin Montgomery

A novel treatment or aneurysmsaims to resolve the shortcomingso the most current treatment

options.

PAGE 35

Smart Materials forAneurysm Treatment

By Jason Szaron

Do white tigers have to beunhealthy or can we breedthem to be both healthy and

magnificent?

PAGE 38

Genetic FactorsAssociated with CoatColor and Health in

White Tigers

By Sara Carney

Te railty and potential ohuman lie as evoked by music.

PAGE 41Only Human

By Peter Wong

An interview with Dr. Loin

Ever wonder why PresidentLoin wears bow ties? Find out

all about it!

PAGE 43

Why the Bow Tie?

By Madeline Matthewsand Matthew McMahon

What is reality? Musing aboutwhat photography captures and

what it doesnt.

PAGE 45

Walking a Fine Line

By Sara Muldoon

Watching ungal reproductionto gain insights or disease

treatment.

PAGE 47

Fungus Among Us:Hitting a Moving

Target

By Lauren Puckett

Leaner and tottering mice carrya unique mutation that makesthem a possible model or human

seizures.

PAGE 50

Using Mutant Mice toUnderstand Seizures

By Vivek Karun

Using engineering technology tocreate art that moves.

PAGE 53

The Pop-Op MorphingWall: A Fusion of

Engineering and Art

By William Whitten


6/68Explorations | Fall 20131

INTRODUCTION

What would the world look likewithout cars, cell phones, computers,and other conveniences that seem soundamental to lie? Tese examplesmay seem only distantly connected,but they share a crucial bond: each de-pends on some orm o petroleum tobe created or or proper unctioning.oday, every country that competesglobally relies on petroleum to keepsociety moving orward. In recentyears, increases in worldwide energy

demand and decreases in proven con-ventional reserves have caused the o-cus o the oil and natural gas industryto shi rapidly. Companies are nowexploiting deeper and more danger-ous offshore resources to supply theworlds continuously growing energyneeds. Although these resources offerenticing rewards i properly tapped,they also pose greater risk. Te tini-est mistakes in deepwater operationscan lead to environmental disasters.Tough the chance o these incidentsoccurring is oen low thanks to strin-

gent saety standards, the risk willalways remain when drilling in theunorgiving environments where thesereserves are located.Considering the risks associated withdeepwater development, the industryhas begun to rapidly develop a lessconventional method o petroleumextraction. Te recent combination otwo established but independent oilfield operations, horizontal drillingand hydraulic racturing, has allowed

companies to produce clean-burning

natural gas rom saer onshore sourcesmade up o a type o rock called shale.

BACKGROUNDNatural gas resources rom shale areonly commercially accessible now thathydraulic racturing and horizontaldrilling are being used together. Hori-zontal drilling allows operators to drillalong the length o underground rockormations, situated relatively parallelto the surace o the earth. Hydraulicracturing methods are executed by

pumping enormous volumes o waterat high pressures, which breaks sub-surace rock and creates flow pathsknown as ractures that are ractionso an inch wide and hundreds o eetlong. Aer racturing, a large amounto petroleum previously trapped inrock underground has a clear path to awell where it can be produced.1

In the 1980s and 1990s, Aggie petro-leum engineer George P. Mitchelland his company pioneered the use ohydraulic racturing and horizontal

drilling together, giving the petro-leum industry the ability to economi-cally extract shale gas resources. Alsoknown as an unconventional resource,shale is already changing the worldenergy market. Also, a large amounto available reserves coupled with analready extensive energy inrastructurehas positioned the United States at theoreront o the economic and techno-logical development associated withnatural gas resources produced romshale.

PROBLEM

With all their promise, these new re-sources pose challenges in extraction.Using fluids that contain water cancause two major negative interactionswith shale: swelling and sloughing. Inthe presence o water, some types oshale are absorptive, like a sponge orwick, which causes the rock to swell aswater is added. Te affected shale canthen slough, which means it will allrom the walls o a drilled well. When

drilling occurs, the sloughed rock canfill in the borehole and cause severalproblems.2

Te fluid used in most shale gas rac-turing operations consists primarily owater; sometimes it makes up at least98% o the total fluid used. Duringracturing, an incredibly large amounto this water-based fluid is pumpedinto direct contact with shale rock

Shale gas has the potential to be a prominent source o clean burning natural

gas or the uture. However, there are environmental concerns related to theimbibition o water by shale rock. Several chemicals, such as Aerogel, may be ableto decrease the amount o imbibition when applied to shale rendering shale gas

production more environmentally riendly.

By Matthew Wiese

Water, Chemical Additives, andTheir Effect on Shale

Today,that compeon petroleu

movin


7/68Fall 2013 | Explorations 2

at the bottom o a well. One area oPennsylvania has wells ractured in16 different sections called stages,with each stage taking approximately225,000 gallons o water. As manyas eight wells can exist on a well site,and each field has many sites. Tere-ore, large amounts o water are nowbeing orced into rock ormationsknown to react in possibly adverse

ways when the two come in contact.Tis concept has led industry re-searchers to look at how absorbedfluid used to racture shale mightaffect natural gas production. Also,leaving these high water volumes inthe ground raises questions abouthow the hydraulic racturing fluidwill affect shale ormations aer rac-turing is complete.3

Such considerations have generatedtwo schools o thought on racturing

fluid absorption by shale ormations.Some researchers are consideringthat preventing or minimizing fluidabsorption by subsurace shale is theproper course o action when deal-ing with a ormation aer a racturingoperation. Tese researchers believethat returning the most racturingfluid possible minimizes fluid volumesthat shale ormations absorb anddecreases the overall environmental

impact o racturing. Although de-creased absorption aligns with a moreenvironmentally riendly viewpointor hydraulic racturing, the impact oincreased water return on long-termnatural gas production rom a well isunknown.Other industry experts theorize thatwater-based racturing fluid does notharm the environment when subsur-

ace shale absorbs it. Tese researchersare now trying to increase the amounto racturing fluid that shale absorbsaer a hydraulic racturing operation.By doing this, they can decrease thecost o disposing o water returnedto the surace aer racturing andpossibly increase natural gas produc-tion over the lie o a well. However,whereas the oil industry sees this lacko water regression as a reduction indisposal costs, environmentalists seethis decrease in return as loss o a vitalresource. Tese general viewpoints are

the basis or much private and aca-demic research.PROPOSED SOLUTIONo clariy the absorptive properties oshale, my adviser and I started withthe general goal o identiying differentchemical additives and observing howthey affected shales affinity to absorbwater-based fluids.Nearly all types o shale are nega-tively charged at the surace o their

constituent minerals. Because watermolecules have a slight positive chargeat one end, attraction exists betweenwater and shale that pulls water mol-ecules into pores in the rock. In thepetroleum industry, such fluid absorp-tion into rock is called imbibition. Teability to influence imbibition by usingchemical additives served as the initialbasis or our research.We began by identiying substances wethought would either limit or increaseimbibition by considering chemicals

used in similar applications inside andoutside the oil industry. Tis criterionle a large range o possible candidatesor testing.First, we considered chemicals de-signed to alter the interactions be-tween suraces and fluids. A simpleexample is hand soap. Using wateralone on your hands does not clean

them as well as a mixture o waterand soap. With just water, the watermolecules tend to stick to themselvesinstead o entering your pores to cleandirt and remove skin oils and bacteria.By using hand soap, you break the co-hesive tendency o water and allow itto flow into your pores and clean themout. Hand soaps are suractants, chem-icals that affect the interaction o fluidswith a surace or another fluid. Tesesurace-modiying characteristics ledto the selection o the first two chemi-cals or testing, a negatively charged

and a positively charged suractant.Tese two suractants are expected toincrease water absorption into shalesamples.4

We identified the next chemical withthe intention o limiting imbibition.We needed a chemical that could de-crease waters tendency to enter poreson the ace o shale exposed to anaqueous solution. Analysis o currentresearch showed that a class o chemi-cal is already being tested that tends toprevent adverse shale behavior in oth-

er applications. Researchers have add-ed nanoparticles (spherical particlesapproximately 109m, or one-billiontho a meter, across) to water-baseddrilling fluid; results indicate that thesetiny particles might be a viable wayto minimize fluid imbibition.5Resultsrom recently published work sup-ported the viability o nanoparticles asa possible solution to our problem.5

Tese two basic classes o chemicalalong with other accepted industryconventions or affecting fluid imbibi-

tion into shale served as the basis orour research groups study. More addi-tives, such as microemulsions and ad-ditional polymers, have been identifiedas possible test subjects and are beingevaluated inside and outside the petro-leum industry.6,7

PAST, CURRENT, AND FUTUREWORKTe projects first objective beyondidentiying candidate chemicals was to

FIGURE 1: Experimental Setup

y countryobally relieskeep societyward.



develop a method or experimentation.Figures 1 and 2 show the unctionalsetup.

We obtained a balance that can con-tinuously weigh samples suspendedbeneath it. We use this capability tohang a cylindrical sample o shalebeneath the balance, which sits on aspecially constructed mezzanine. Ten,

a jack raises a beaker ull o water con-taining the additive to be tested untilit touches one ace o the shale sample.At this point, the sample begins toabsorb the solution. Over 24 hours, acomputer continuously records massreadings. Te change in mass indicateshow much fluid has imbibed. We canthen determine the degree to whicheach chemical minimizes or increases

imbibition by comparing results withexperiments executed with pure water.Te immediate uture direction orthis project is to begin experimentingwith chemicals selected as test can-didates. Experiments with identifiedchemicals will be completed in con-junction with trials using potassiumchloride salt as a water additiveal-ready an accepted industry conventionor limiting solution imbibition intoshale ormations.8Having these datawill allow us to compare the results

rom potentially expensive chemicalswith those o relatively cheap indus-try standards. By doing this, we willbe better able to analyze the financialaspects o adding any new chemicalsin an actual racturing operation. Anychemical added to a racturing fluidmixture, even in a small quantity, cansubstantially increase the price o anoperation because o the large fluidvolumes used. How economic addingthese new chemicals is depends on

how much their effect on imbibitionmight increase overall natural gas re-covery rom a well.In addition to additive analysis, an-other dynamic affects the uture o thisproject: shale properties vary greatlyrom ormation to ormation.9Shalesamples rom different parts o theworld will not react to a certain chemi-

cal in the same way. In light o this, wewill obtain rock samples that parallelthe characteristics o the most highlyproductive regions in shale gas devel-opment and then retest each additiveto gain results specific to each area.Much remains or us to learn. Becauselittle research that directly parallelsthese experiments has taken place, welack an established, clear-cut scientificbase to guide the project orward inour exact application. Although thistask may seem daunting, its general

objectives encompass a research areawith great potential. Trough thisinterdisciplinary initiative supportedby private and public sectors, we hopeto establish a better understanding oshalefluid interactions. Tese resultscould lead to increased natural gasproduction averages industry-wideand the mitigation o environmentalimpact rom hydraulic racturing op-erations in the uture.

FIGURE 2: Shale sample in contact with

solution

REFERENCES

1. King GE. Hydraulic racturing101: What every representative,environmentalist, regulator,reporter, investor, university re-searcher, neighbor and engineershould know about estimatingrac risk and improving rac per-ormance in unconventional gasand oil wells. Presented at the2012 SPE Hydraulic Fracturingechnology Conerence. SPE-152596-MS.

2. Civan F. Water sensitivityand swelling characteristics opetroleum-bearing ormations:Kinetics and correlation. Pre-sented at the 2001 SPE Produc-tion and Operations Symposium.00067293.

3. Brannon HD, Daulton DJ,Hudson HG, et al. Te quest toexclusive use o environmentallyresponsible racturing productsand systems. Presented at the2012 SPE Hydraulic Fracturing

echnology Conerence. SPE-152068-MS.4. Lane R, Aderibigbe A. Rock/

fluid chemistry impacts on shaleracture behavior. Presented atthe 2013 SPE International Sym-posium on Oilfield Chemistry.SPE-164102-MS.

5. Hoelscher KP, Steano GD,Riley M, et al. Application onanotechnology in drilling fluids.Presented at the 2012 SPE Inter-national Oilfield NanotechnologyConerence. SPE-157031-MS.

6. Penny GS, Dobkins A, PursleyJ. Field study o completionfluids to enhance gas productionin the Barnett shale. Presentedat the 2006 SPE Gas echnologySymposium. SPE-100434-MS.

7. Wu Q, Sun Y, Zhang H., et al.Experimental study o rictionreducer flows in microractureduring slickwater racturing.Presented at the 2013 SPE Inter-national Symposium on OilfieldChemistry. SPE-164053-MS.

8. Carminati S, Gaudio LD, ZausaF, et al. How do anions in water-based muds affect shale stability?Presented at the 1999 SPE Inter-national Symposium on OilfieldChemistry. 00050712.

9. Jacobi DJ, Gladkikh M,LeCompte B, et al. Integratedpetrophysical evaluation o shalegas reservoirs. Presented at theCIPC/SPE Gas echnology Sym-posium 2008 Joint Conerence.SPE-114925-MS.



INTRODUCTION

Riding the wake o the Bolivar Ferry, swimming underthe Pelican Island Bridge, and rolicking in exas A&MUniversity at Galvestons (AMUG) boat basin are a ewactivities associated with dolphins in Galveston Bay (Figure1). A population o common bottlenose dolphins (ursiopstruncatus) inhabits the ship channel behind AMUG. Tisis surprising considering the heavy boat traffic associatedwith the Galveston and Houston Ship Channels. Cargoships, tankers, tugs, barges, cruise ships, trawlers, andrecreational boats use these waterways daily.Dolphins probably remain in the busy Galveston ShipChannel or the abundant ood supply in its deep, dredgedwaters. Te thriving shrimp population in Galveston Bayserves as an important ood source or local dolphins.1he

likelihood o capturing ood attracts fishing boats, shrimptrawlers, and cetaceans to shrimp-abundant areas (Figure2).2

Tis paradox o dolphins being attracted to a busyship channel initially sparked my interest to study thedolphins in Galveston. AMUG offers the opportunityto study marine mammal behavior rom the convenienceo campus. Marine mammal researchers travel the worldto learn about populations and habitats such as those inGalveston. Previous studies have ound that Galvestondolphins appeared to be part o an open population, werepresent year-round with peaks in spring and all, andexhibited what appeared to be scars resulting rom human

interactions.1

However, to my knowledge, whetherthe heavy boat traffic associated with the Galveston andHouston Ship Channels affects dolphin behavior has notbeen extensively studied.Te Galveston Ship Channel is an easily studied area whereresults will have broader applications to Galveston Bayand Houston Ship Channel, making it an important areato assess how development affects wildlie conditions. Anestimated $5.25 billion expansion o the Panama Canal isexpected to be completed in 2015 and will greatly affectthe GalvestonHouston complex. Te Panama Canal linkstrade between the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Tough thistrade route has been extremely successul since its opening

in 1914, its current size cannot effectively accommodatethe number and size o modern cargo ships, some o whichrequire a depth o 50 eet (http://www.portoouston.com/about-us/overview/). Houston, having a channel deptho 45 eet, would be able to accommodate these massiveships only at high tide or when the ships are not at carrying

Bottlenose Dolphins and Boat Trafc in

the Galveston Ship ChannelBy Anna Pennacchi

Current research indicates that, despite the number o shipsin the Galveston Ship Channel, the population o bottlenosedolphins living in the Channel is relatively unperturbed.However, with the expansion o the Panama Canal whichwill lead to increase ship traffic, it is likely that the behavioro bottlenose dolphins in the Galveston Ship Channel maychange as their social patterns are at risk. Monitors are in

place to observe adaptations as they develop.

FIGURE 2: Dolphin oraging behind a shrimp trawler in theGalveston Ship Channel.

FIGURE 1: A mother and cal pair bow-riding in the wake o aship in Galveston Bay.



capacity. Consequently, expansion and accommodationprojects are under way in the Houston and Galveston Bayports to acilitate transport o more and larger ships (http://www.portoouston.com/about-us/overview/). Researchersexpect the increase in dredging associated with expansionconstruction to have economic and environmental effectson Galveston Bay, including raising water salinity andincreasing air pollution, which could negatively affectwildlie in the area, including dolphins.

Because o the large volume o recreational, commercial,and industrial boat traffic in the Galveston Ship Channel,assessing daily patterns o dolphins, boats, and boat typesis crucial. A ormal study o how boats affect dolphinbehaviors in the Galveston Ship Channel is especiallyimportant at a time when both boat traffic and boat sizeare expected to grow. An increased understanding o whatbehavioral changes, i any, various types o boats elicit romthe local bottlenose dolphin population is necessary beoreexpansion o the Galveston Ship Channel. Mitigationprotocols could be implemented once a baseline level obehavioral responses to vessel traffic has been established.I predicted a decrease in the presence o dolphins withincreasing boat traffic. I also predicted a decrease in social

behavior and an increase in traveling behavior as vesseltraffic increased, as noted in previous studies o short-termbehavioral shis o dolphins during periods o heavy vesseltraffic.3

METHODSWe conducted hour-long surveys rom a shore-basedstation along the Galveston Ship Channel three times dailybetween 8:00 and 9:00 (morning), 12:45 and 2:45 (midday),and 4:00 and 6:00 (aernoon) in AugustDecember 2012.Te observation pier is conveniently located directlybehind AMUG and extends into the channel, offering anunobstructed view o the dolphins and boats passing by

(Figure 3). Te pier is adjacent to the AMUG boat basin,and students and Galveston locals use the pier or flounderfishing in cool weather. Shore-based observations do notinterere with dolphin behavior, whereas a research vesselpotentially could. However, every Friday, researchers inthe Marine Mammal Group at AMUG also took a smallresearch boat out on the Galveston Ship Channel and intoGalveston Bay to collect supplemental data that our shore-based station might not detect.

Each survey recorded dolphin group size, number o boats,type o boats, and predominant behavior o dolphin groupsI collected data when dolphins and boats entered my lineo vision, and I ollowed them until either they le myline o vision or my 1-hour observation ended. I defined agroup o dolphins as one or more individuals engaged inthe same behaviors within my line o vision. I categorizedthe behaviors into five groups: traveling, socializing,oraging, resting, and unknown (able 1). I dividedboats into two categories: industrial and nonindustrial.Industrial boats included cargo ships, tankers, barges, andtugs. Nonindustrial boats included research vessels and

recreational boats, such as sailboats, speedboats, fishingboats, yachts, and kayaks.I used Microso Excel 2010 to perorm statistical analyses.I ran chi-square contingency tests to assess changes inbehavior o dolphin groups in relation to group size, time oday, and number o boats. I also used contingency tests todetermine the relationship between boat type and dolphinbehavior, as well as time o day and vessel traffic.RESULTSI saw dolphins on 98% o the survey days. O the 80 groupsrecorded, I observed 555 dolphins. Dolphin group sizes

ranged rom 1 to 32 individuals, with an average groupsize o 7. Boats were present 86% o the time dolphinswere recorded. Foraging was the most common behaviorobserved in the Galveston Ship Channel. Chi-squarecontingency tests indicated that dolphin behaviors variedstatistically significantly in relation to number o boats.As the number o boats increased, the number o dolphingroups exhibiting traveling behaviors progressivelydecreased (Figure 4). Te number o dolphin groupsexhibiting oraging behavior significantly decreased as thenumber o boats increased (Figure 4). Socializing behaviorwas significantly highest with an intermediate number oboats and was lowest with a small number o boats (Figure4).

FIGURE 3: Study area in the Galveston Ship Channel.AMUG is denoted by the universitys logo. Yellow arrowidentifies the observation pier where I observed dolphins

and boats during hour-long ocal ollows. Black linesindicate my line o vision, approximately 0.5 km2in area.Red line indicates the 0.7-km width o the channel (per

Google Maps).

Causeway

Pelican Island

Observation Pier

0.7km

Galveston Island

ABLE 1: BEHAVIORAL CAEGORIES

Category Description

raveling

ocializing

oraging

Resting

Unknown

Individuals swimming in one generaldirection

Group touching, splashing, mating, orleaping out o water

Searching or or ingesting prey,indicated by long dives and sometimesflukes out o water

Swimming slowly with slow suracing,typically in one general direction

Unable to clearly identiy behavior



Dolphin behaviors varied statisticallysignificantly in relation to group size. Foragingbehavior significantly decreased as groupsize increased, whereas socializing behaviorincreased significantly with increasing groupsize (Figure 5). raveling behavior wassignificantly higher with smaller group sizes(Figure 5).Te type o boat varied statistically significantly

with time o day. Te number o industrial boatsincreased significantly in the aernoon, whereasthe number o nonindustrial boats was lowest inthe morning, peaked midday, and decreased inthe aernoon (Figure 6).Most important, size o dolphin groupsvaried statistically significantly in relationto boat type. I ound significantly smallergroups in the presence o industrial boatsthan with nonindustrial boats (Figure 7). Isaw no dolphins when the highest number ononindustrial and industrial boats was present(Figure 7).

CONCLUSIONTe high rate o common bottlenose dolphinsightings rom a stationary position duringthe study period (98% o days) indicatesthat dolphins requently use the GalvestonShip Channel, and it supports the need tounderstand their behavioral responses to boatsbecause expansion o the Panama Canal willincrease boat traffic. Whereas the GalvestonShip Channel makes up less than 1% o theentire Galveston Bay, dolphin presence andoraging behavior are higher in the Galveston

Ship Channel than other areas o GalvestonBay. Tis finding indicates that ood availabilitymay be more important to dolphins in habitat-use decisions than other physical environmentactors, such as isolation rom industrialdevelopment (http://www.galvestonpilots.com/HOGANSACSharingourbay.pd).I observed oraging behavior most oen whenew boats were present, suggesting a decrease innet oraging and lowered activity budgets in thepresence o many boats. Socializing behaviormay be more a unction o group size than onumber o boats. My results were consistent

with those o a previous study that ound thatthe largest groups exhibited social behavior andthe smallest groups exhibited oraging behaviorin the Galveston Ship Channel.1Coastal andconfined water systems, such as ship channels,typically supply a predictable and consistentood source, which may indicate why smallergroups have been observed oraging in theGalveston Ship Channel.1Te short-termdisruption o critical behaviors (oraging,resting, and socializing) can lead to a long-termoverall reduction in critical behavior, which ispotentially harmul to dolphin fitness.4,5

FIGURE 4: Dolphin behaviors varied statistically significantly in relation to boattraffic.

Distribution Frequency o Dolphin BehaviorsRelative to the Number o Boats

Numbero

fDolphinGroups

25

20

15

10

5

0

Number o Boats

0--1 2--4 5+

raveling

Socializing

Foraging

FIGURE 5: Dolphin behaviors varied statistically significantly in relation todolphin group size. Socializing behavior significantly increased and oraging

behavior significantly decreased with increasing group size.

Distribution o Dolphin Behaviors

Relative to Group Size

NumberofDolphinGroups 20

1816141210

864

20

Group Size

1--3 4--7 8+

raveling

Socializing

Foraging

FIGURE 6: Distribution requency o boat type. Blue = nonindustrial boats,ncluding sailboats, speedboats, fishing boats, trawlers, yachts, and kayaks. Red =dustrial boats, including container ships, barges, and tugboats. Te three times oday are morning (8:009:00), midday (12:451:45), and aernoon (4:006:00).

Distribution o Boat ypesRelative to ime o Day

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

NumberofBoats

Morning Midday Aernoon

ime o Day

Nonindustrial

Industrial



I ound smaller groups in the presence o industrial boatsthan with nonindustrial boats, possibly owing to increased

group cohesion. Previous studies ound that bottlenosedolphins increase group cohesion, possibly or enhancedcooperation, in the presence o boats.3,6

Knowledge o a dolphin populations daily patterns can beuseul or suggesting regulations when human activitiesbegin to disturb baseline dolphin behaviors. Althoughdolphin behaviors did not change with time o day, boattype varied. My data indicate that the highest boat trafficoccurs in the aernoon in the Galveston Ship Channel,representing an important consideration or amendmentsto uture boat regulations. In previous studies and rompersonal boat-based observations in Galveston Bay,oraging behavior was highest in the morning.7Althoughoraging behavior was not highest in the morning at mystudy site, I do not know whether most dolphins areoraging statistically significantly more in the morningarther down the ship channel and in Galveston Bay.Further assessment o daily patterns in the Galveston ShipChannel should incorporate boat-based observations todetermine whether oraging behavior increases in themorning in relation to shrimp trawlers and decreases in theaernoon in relation to increased ship traffic.I observed no dolphins when the highest number oboats was present. Tis statistically significant findingconfirms my prediction that boat traffic influences dolphinpresence. Because boat traffic will undoubtedly increasewith expansion to accommodate post-Panamax vessels,I recommend low-intensity monitoring o the dolphinsin Galveston Bay and the Galveston Ship Channel, withspecial attention to behavioral responses to ships. Futurestudies o bottlenose dolphin behaviors in the GalvestonShip Channel would benefit rom collecting data acrossseasons to increase understanding o how dolphins use shipchannels year-round.Overall, the dolphins in the Galveston Ship Channel showsigns o adapting to the high boat traffic. Te consistencyo dolphin sightings and exhibition o oraging andsocializing behaviors indicate that dolphins are thriving

in this unusual habitat. Tough the dolphins in Galvestonappear relatively unperturbed by boat traffic in the pastand present, I cannot assume that this will be the case inthe uture, especially with the upcoming changes. Futurestudies that will reassess the idea o an open populationconsisting o resident and transient dolphins in theGalveston Ship Channel will be able to determine dolphinsite fidelity beore, during, and aer the expansion o thePanama Canal. Although monitoring short-term behaviorsis time and cost efficient, long-term studies should be

implemented in Galveston Bay.ACKNOWLEDGMENTSI thank Dr. Bernd Wrsig, Dara Orbach, Sarah Piwetz,and Ashley Zander o the Marine Mammal ResearchProgram at AMUG. I also thank the exas Institute oOceanography and the exas A&M University HonorsProgram.REFERENCES

1. Fertl DC. Occurrence patterns and behavior obottlenose dolphins (ursiops truncatus) in the

Galveston Ship Channel, exas. exas Journal oScience1994;46:299317.

2. Fertl D, Leatherwood S. Cetacean interactions withtrawls: A preliminary review.Journal o Northwest

Atlantic Fishery Science1997;22:2192483. Nowacek SM, Wells RS, Solow AR. Short-term

effects o boat traffic on bottlenose dolphins, ursiopstruncatus, in Sarasota Bay, Florida.Marine MammalScience2001;17:673688.

4. Lusseau D, Higham JE. Managing the impacts odolphin-based tourism through the definition ocritical habitats: Te case o bottlenose dolphins(ursiops spp.) in Doubtul Sound, New Zealand.ourism Management2004;25:657667.

5. Steckenreuter A, Mller L, Harcourt R. How doesAustralias largest dolphin-watching industry affectthe behavior o a small and resident populationo Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphins?Journal oEnvironmental Management2012;97:1421.

6. Bejder L, Dawson SM, Harraway JA. Responsesby Hectors dolphins to boats and swimmers inPorpoise Bay, New Zealand.Marine Mammal Science1999;15:738750.

7. Henderson EE. Behavior, association patterns, andhabitat use o a small community o bottlenosedolphins in San Luis Pass, exas. M.S. thesis, exasA&M University, College Station, exas, 2004.

FIGURE 7: Distribution requency o dolphin group size (0, 14, and5) in relation to boat type (blue = nonindustrial boats, including

ailboats, speedboats, fishing boats, trawlers, yachts, and kayaks; red =industrial boats, including container ships, barges, and tugboats).

Distribution o Dolphin Group SizesRelative to Boat ype

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

0

N

umberofBoats

1--40 5+

Dolphin Group Size

Nonindustrial

Industrial



BACKGROUND

For physicians, blood analysis is invaluable in determininga patients health. One analysis can yield inormation

about blood analyte levels (such as glucose in diabetics),organ unction, and disease progression. However,obtaining these readings requires drawing blood rom thepatient, which can be invasive and painul, andunlessrepeatedoffers no insightinto trends in analyte levels.Although these side effectsmay be tolerable or anannual doctor visit, theycan lower quality o lie orpatients who require bloodanalysis more oen. Forexample, diabetic patientsare advised to measure their

blood glucose levels via a finger prick test 510 times perday. Doing this every day over a lietime is not only timeconsuming and painul but also causes inflammation andcalluses to orm where the blood is drawn. Tese callusesand inflammatory reactions make drawing blood even moredifficult, causing urther complications. Tus, a minimallyinvasive alternative to the standard finger-prick method isneeded that can continuously monitor changes within thebody and cause no harm to the patient. Minimally invasiveimplantable biosensors could be the solution.

Because o problems with bioouling (the bodys naturalimmune response to attack any oreign object), researchershave turned their search toward modiying sensors tobe more biocompatible. However, evading the immuneresponse o the body is more complex than simply makinga sensor more biocompatible, and issues remain withimplanted devices losing unctionality over the long term.Tis is where creative engineering comes into play. I thebody will reject anything oreign, why not make a sensorthat is made out o the body? My research ocuses onplacing the sensor chemistry inside red blood cells (RBCs),hiding the oreign object rom the immune system behind aaade o the patients own body.1

CONCEPT

Te ideal biosensor would have access to the substance it istrying to measure, could be manuactured inexpensively,and would last a long time in the body. RBCs meet thesecriteria. Tese cells have a simple structure that could beeasily manipulated to carry sensing chemistry within thecytoplasm, are available in mass quantity within the body,and are always in direct contact with blood plasma. RBCmembranes are also permeable to many blood analytesand molecules, which would enable any sensing chemistrywithin to directly measure blood analyte levels. Te medicalfield already has the equipment and procedures needed

to extract and manipulate these cells, making creation oRBC sensors straightorward. A patient who needed tohave biosensors implanted would undergo a process similarto donating blood where blood is removed through anintravenous tube. Cells could then be isolated, convertedinto sensors, and returned to the bloodstream in about anhour. Te RBC sensors would last in the body as long as anormal RBC does, about 120 days.2

IMPLEMENTATION

Te key to using RBCs as sensors lies in properlyencapsulating the sensing chemistry within the cells. Myproject uses fluorescein-based fluorescent dyes as the

sensing molecules. When excited with a laser, the dye willemit light in direct proportion to the pH o the surroundingenvironment. Because RBC membranes are permeableto hydrogen ions, which are involved in determining pH,

the dye encapsulated inan RBC can respond tochanges in pH outsidethe cell. By shining lighto a certain wavelengthon cells containing thedye and measuring theintensity o light emitted,one can obtain an

Blood analysis has relied on the collecting anddrawing o blood samples rom a patient, whichcan be tedious or painul to the patient. Implantedsensors would be less invasive, but they may berejected as oreign by the bodys immune system.By enclosing a sensor within a red blood cell, it isin an immune protected environment. pH can bemeasured non-invasively by using fluorescein as a

sensor within red blood cells. Tis may be a model tobe extended to other analytes.

DEVELOPINGMINIMALLYINVASIVE

BIOSENSORSFROMFLUORESCENTDYE AND REDBLOOD CELLS

By Megan Poorman

Doing this every day overa lifetime is not only timeconsuming and painful



accurate reading o the environmental pH (Figure 1).

For medical use, a pH-sensitive dye is perhaps notthe most applicable, but the concept could easily beapplied to a fluorescent glucose-sensitive dye or use indiabetic patients. Such sensors could be implanted in thebloodstream to measure blood glucose levels. Te userwould simply use a calibrated device to shine light on anarea o the patients body where the skin is thin, such asthe inside o the wrist, and obtain a reading based on the

light that the device collects. Tis reading could then bedisplayed on the device, stored or tracking, or sent to aremote location or analysis. Tis remote-sensing abilitywould save time and money by allowing blood tests to beperormed quickly.

BIOSENSOR ENGINEERING

Various ways exist to load RBCs with fluorescent dye,some more efficient at creating stable and homogeneoussensors than others. Most methods use an osmoticapproach, during which the concentration o ions in theextracellular environment is decreased to cause the RBCsto take up water and swell (Figure 2). Te cells are swollento a point just beore bursting when small pores orm inthe membrane. Trough these pores fluorescent dye can

diffuse into the cell. Te ion concentration is then adjustedto return cells to their original size, sealing the dye insidethe cell. Figure 3 shows biosensors created using an osmotictechnique called hypotonic preswelling. Tis method againuses pores to load dye into the cells, but the approach betterpreserves cell characteristics such as membrane stabilityand hemoglobin content than other methods. Preservationo these characteristics makes the cells more likely to have anormal lie span and unction as normal RBCs in the body.

Tese techniques have demonstrated the viability o RBC-encapsulated sensors. A challenge remains, however, inincreasing the efficiency o ways to create the sensors.

Figure 3 shows that although many RBC sensors are presentin a typical sample, only a ew respond with fluorescence.Tus, a new method is needed that is more efficient atencapsulating dye. I am extending my research to developa new loading method that uses cell-penetrating peptides(short protein ragments that can directly penetrate a cellmembrane) that could be more efficient at creating sensorsthan osmotic-based methods.3

IMPACT

Te initial results using RBC sensors made rom fluoresceinare promising, but many advances must be made beorethese sensors are ready or use in the clinic. Tese RBC

FIGURE 2: Osmotic approach to loading RBCs with dye.An RBC is swollen until lysis pores orm, through which

hemoglobin and dye can diffuse. Once dye is inside the cell, thecell returns to its original volume, encapsulating the dye.

FIGURE 1: (A)Emission spectra obtained rom RBC sensorsloaded with dye in different pH environments demonstrating

response o sensor to changes in pH. (B)Maximum intensities ospectra rom Figure 1A plotted against pH o the environment;

change in intensity o sensors in response to change in pH can berecorded and used to calibrate the sensor.

Emission spectra obtained rom sensors at different pH values

Maximum intensity o light rom sensors at different pH values

A

B

Intensity(au)

Wavelength (nm)

pH

RelativeMa

ximumIntensity

7000

6000

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200

1

0.8

0.66 6.2 6.4 6.6 6.8 7 7.2 7.4 7.6 7.8 8

This is where creativeengineering comes into

play.



sensors have great potential to circumvent many problemsassociated with existing implantable biosensors. Teywould be completely biocompatible, provoking no immuneresponse within the body and preserving the ability othe sensor to unction. Te sensing method would beminimally invasive, allowing patients to avoid the pain andcomplications associated with drawing blood repeatedly.RBC sensors, once implemented, could greatly improve thequality o health care by eliminating unwanted side effectso some treatments and making health care more accessible

daily. Incorporated into point-o-care testing platorms(systems that bring the diagnosis and medical care to thepatient instead o the doctors office), an RBC sensor systemcould remotely deliver a real-time assessment o a patientshealth to a physician and track data over time, greatlyimproving speed and quality o diagnosis.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I thank Dr. Kenith Meissner and doctoral candidate SarahRitter in the Department o Biomedical Engineering ortheir mentorship and guidance. I also thank Dr. Jean-Philippe Pellois and doctoral candidate Kristina Najjarin the Department o Biochemistry or help with cell-

penetrating peptides.

REFERENCES

1. Ritter SC, Milanick MA, Meissner KE. Encapsulationo FIC to monitor extracellular pH: A step towardsthe development o red blood cells as circulatingblood analyte biosensors. Biomedical Optics Express2011;2:20122021. doi:10.1364/BOE.2.002012.

2. Hamidi M, ajerzadeh H. Carrier erythrocytes: Anoverview. Drug Delivery2003;10:920.

3. Kwon Y, Chung H, Moon C, et al. -Asparaginaseencapsulated intact erythrocytes or treatment oacute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL).Journal o

Controlled Release2009;139:182189. doi:10.1016/j.jconrel.2009.06.027.

FIGURE 3: wo views o a single sample o RBCsensors created using the hypotonic preswelling methodimaged with (A)phase microscopy and (B)fluorescence

microscopy.

A

B



As the price (and potential environmental problem) o crude oil rises, searches or a synthetic jet uel similar to conventiona

jet uel, relying on natural gas instead o crude oil, have intensified. Qatar has the third largest natural gas reserve in theworld, making the project particularly interesting to Qatar Airways. By examining the physical properties o various blendso aromatic and paraffin compounds, it is hoped that researchers will be able to predict the properties o any blend o

synthetic jet uel reliably.

INTRODUCTION

On January 9, 2013, a Qatar Airwaysflight flew rom Doha to Londonpowered by a 5050 mixture oconventional oil-based jet uel and asynthetic uel derived rom natural gas,

called synthetic paraffinic kerosene(SPK). Tis flight had a twooldsignificance. First, SPK produces lowerlevels o sulur oxides, nitrogen oxides,and particulates upon combustion(E. E. Elmalik, B. Raza, S. Warrag, E.Alborzi, and N. O. Elbashir, submittedor publication) than conventional jetuels, and Qatar Airways seeks thesedesirable traits in its bid to improveair quality around busy airports.Second, Qatars abundant and cheapnatural gas resources1(third largestin the world) enable Qatar to produce

economically viable value-addedproducts rom raw natural gas. TeShell Oil Company operates theworlds largest gas-to-liquids plant inQatar and produces SPK, among otherproducts.

With the price o crude oil rising, gas-derived uels are increasingly beingrecognized as a better alternative.Tough they are nonrenewable uels,they burn cleaner and more efficiently,and they are saer to produce. Moreimportant, gas-derived uels are

compatible with the current liquid uelinrastructure; hence no modificationsneed to be made to aircra enginedesigns. Te immediate uture thus

lies in synthetic uels that can beproduced chemically rom sourcessuch as natural gas, which is cheap, isabundant in countries such as Qatar,and can be converted into variousvalue-added products.

But Qatar Airways could notincrease the ratio o synthetic jetuel beyond 50%, a long way romthe ambitious goal o replacingconventional jet uel. Synthetic jetuels lack certain chemical compoundscalled aromatics that are inherentlypresent in conventional jet uels. Techaracteristic smell o gasoline comesrom its aromatic content. Te uelsystem within an airplane consistso pipes with joints sealed by rubberO-rings. Aromatics cause these ringsto swell, thus sealing the joints and

preventing uel leaks (Elmalik et al.,submitted). Aromatics must be addedto synthetic jet uels to mimic theswelling effects o conventional jetuel, while still limiting them as muchas possible (they are responsible orparticulate emissions).

RESEARCH QUESTION

Our broad research question: what isthe ideal composition or a syntheticjet uel that can replace conventionaljet uel? Qatar Airways took the

initiative to begin answering thisquestion. Te company createda research consortium involvingShell Oil Company, RollsRoyce,

the University o Sheffield (UnitedKingdom), DLR (the GermanAerospace Center), and exas A&MUniversity at Qatar. Researchers atexas A&M Qatar are involved in thesearch or optimum synthetic jet uelsthat will revolutionize commercial

aviation. Our work as undergraduateresearchers consists o runningcharacterization experiments on uelsamples, perorming statistical analysison the results, and building a graphicmodel that highlights the optimumuel blends.

EXPERIMENTAL ACTIVITIES

We carried out the experimentalactivities or this research atexas A&M Qatar in the FuelCharacterization Laboratory, an

advanced acility designed to supportresearch activities in uel processingand uel characterization. TeAmerican Society or esting andMaterials (ASM) specifies limits onthe physical properties (e.g., reezingpoint, energy content, flash point, anddensity) o a potential jet uel, and thetests we perorm are required or jetuel certification.

Synthetic jet uels are made up odifferent types o hydrocarbons(specifically, paraffins). We are

studying the effects o isomers, thatis, normal paraffins, isoparaffins,cycloparaffins, and aromatics, as thebuilding blocks o synthetic jet uel.Tese isomers have different molecularstructures as displayed in Figure 1,and these structural differences lead todifferences in physical behavior.

We prepare blends containingdifferent ratios o these paraffinic andaromatic blocks. Te composition oa uel blend determines its physical

FIGURE 1: Understanding isomers: normal hexane, isohexane, cyclohexane, andaromatic benzene. Structural differences lead to differences in physical properties.

Synthetic Jet FuelsProduced fromNatural Gas

By Moiz Bohra



properties, such as flash point, reezingpoint, heat content, density, andviscosity, all o which we measure.

Te first phase o our project involvedpreparing 32 uel blends by combiningthe normal, iso-, and cycloparaffins

(three building blocks in syntheticjet uel) and studying the effect ohydrocarbon constituents on thedescribed physical properties. Tenext phase involved preparing 21new blends with the addition omonoaromatics and studying the effecto aromatics on the physical propertieso the uels. We used statistical analysistools to build a visualization model othe results.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS ANDVISUALIZATION

We used Matlab to analyze thecharacterization data obtainedrom the lab. Te analysis usesthe experimental data points tomake a model that can predictthe composition (and thereoreproperties) o any blend o jet uel(Elmalik et al., submitted). Althoughlinear interpolation between justa ew data points can predictproperties such as density (whichvary linearly with composition),interpolation revealed no

experimental observationsor properties that showedmore nonlinear behavior (e.g.,reezing point). Te alternativesolution was Matlabs neuralnetwork toolbox, which creates amathematical unction that canlink the input data (compositiono uel blends) to the target data(physical properties o blends).

Tus, the neural network used 35data points to generate 1,000 new

data points (blend compositions andtheir associated properties). Tesenew data points served as the basisor a visualization model that couldpredict the physical properties o ahypothetical blend without the needor new experimental tests.

We used Matlab to plot thecompositionproperty trends thatthe neural network produced. Wecreated an optimized plot thatoverlaid reezing point, flash point,heat content, density, and viscosity toshow the optimum region where theblend compositions met the ASMstandards we were testing (Figure 2).

Adding aromatics brought anotherdimension to the plots. Our researchcolleagues build 3-D visualization

models and highlight regions o specialinterest (optimum blend region;Figure 3). Tese plots can be dissectedto ocus on regions that meet ASMstandards, allowing us to find andprepare optimized synthetic jet uelblends that could one day replace oil-based jet uels.

FUTURE WORK

Our current research interest is tounderstand the role o aromatics insynthetic jet uel. We are conducting anew experimental campaign to obtaindata or 65 new blends, and we will

use the gathered data to refine our 3-Dmodel. We would also like to explorethe role o carbon chain length, theeffects o various other paraffinicbuilding blocks, and the challengesassociated with blending conventionaljet uel with synthetic uels. Tesecrucial questions need to be answeredbeore replacing oil-derived uelswith synthetic uels is easible incommercial aviation.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We thank Dr. Nimir Elbashir,associate proessor o chemicalengineering, exas A&M Universityat Qatar. We also thank ElatihElmalik and Rehan Hussain, researchassociates at exas A&M University atQatar.

REFERENCE

1. Hulbert M. Qatar plays astrategic LNG game.Middle East

Magazine 2012;437:3839.

FURTHER READING

Marien, Michael. World energyoutlook 2012. World FutureReview2012;4.4:9095.

FIGURE 3: Tree-dimensional model ordensity versus composition (work in progress).

Experimental Data Points Generated Data Points Optimised Plot

No.of

ComponentsMatchingASTM

FIGURE 2: Generating data points rom neural network output, then finding region o optimum properties (or three-component uels). Maroon region shows optimum blend region.

a a



WARNING:

Te ollowing story contains explicit language thatmay be offensive to some audiences.

Reader discretion is advised.



By Stephen OShea Chasing the Sun

Te narrative o the combat veteran rom the Iraq andAghanistan wars over the past decade has been largelyobscured. Tis is not only because o the lack o mediaattention and a nationwide numbness o the prolongedconflict but also because o a lack o creative publication.Plenty o reporters have published journalistic accountso events or experiences, and several veterans themselveshave published firsthand memoirs o their toursbuta literary publication to represent the conflict or thegeneral public is lacking. Trough the hundreds osources we have gathered (rom news articles to journalsand blog posts), as well as our interviews with dozenso combat veterans, I have developed short stories that

represent the experiences and themes o the soldiers whohave ought or our nation in its most recent wars. Tesestories, though independent, depict a large scope o thecombat and experiences through an interconnected webo scenes and characters in the structure o a short storycycle (the likes o Dubliners,by James Joyce, or In Ourime,by Ernest Hemingway). Tey also hopeto developoff the evolving style o war narratives ollowing imOBrien and Anthony Swafford. Trough this project, Ihope to reach the general public to spread awareness othe experiences o our soldiers overseasto tell their storyin a style and medium that will encourage people to listen.

Tis particular story illustrates the tension o daily

patrols through the threat o improvised explosivedevices (IEDs). I chose to portray this subject throughthe experiences o a marine in a quick-response team,modeling a story rom one o our interviews. Techanges I made include the characters, setting, andseries o events. Te elements I chose to keep consistentwith the combat veterans telling were the details oboth the aermath o the injury and the emotionsand motivations o the average ground-level grunt.

Te interviews themselves have been incredibly helpulor the production o combat-related stories. Havingnever experienced the terrain mysel, the trauma o theexperience, the memory o the events, or recollection oemotions involved in such an experience, drawing rom the

details o various interviewees allows me to portray a level overisimilitude otherwise unavailable to the inexperiencedauthor. For instance, in this story I combined severalstories rom different interviews to encompass a broaderportrayal o the IED threat and the tensions o patrol. Inaccomplishing this, I can reach out to an audience beyondthe discriminate class o combat veterans while stilltelling their story (or a combination o their stories) inone narrative. With the vast array o stories and narrativesavailable rom the thousands o veterans, this techniquehas been helpul in narrowing the scope o my projectto the trends and general themes o my overall research.

esse grinds his oot in the sand, holding perimeteraround a convoy in ull gear. He digs a hole in thedirt, pushing sand out and watching it pour back.Ten nudges the earth again.

Whatcha think, Jess? asks Pensley. He leans against theirarmored Bradley, scanning the horizon. Reckon wellmake chow?

Jesse shrugs, his M-16 rising in the shade. Tey oughtabe on their last circle now. Probly pull up dry, but whoknows.

Te sniper had nicked a grunt o the stranded convoy longago and would be well hidden now. Vehicles were repairedrom the IED blast and night was coming. I were releasedsoon, ood might be hot.

Pensley purrs. Gawd, its been a while. Another MREpiecea plastic shit and Ill be sharting Skittles.

aste the rainbow, Jesse adds.

Tey hadnt slept at base, in a bed, or six days. Lie with aQuick Reaction Force was subtle suffocationliving out oa Bradley, sleeping in the desert cramped within vehicles,shoveling down Meals Ready to Eat.

Jesse spots Lieutenant Davis approaching.

Whatre you staring at, Private? their Commander taunts.Yer pretty ass, I reckon, laughs Pensley.

Davis flashes a smile.

You brush those teeth with baking soda, sir? says Jesse.

Okay, Davis laughs. And get off the damned Bradley,Pense. You make a fine-ass target, standin there.

Pensley thrusts orward with a dramatic groan, standing inmock attention.

At ease, Specialist, Davis grunts. Listen, outer patrolis pulling in soon. Well escort this convoy to the nearestcheckpoint and head or base.

Tank God, says Pensley.

Davis lis a handsetto his ear. Tats the call. Get ready torollwe leave when the outer squad pulls in.

He rounds the Bradley to prepare the platoon, and Jessesuppresses his excitement.

J



hatcha think about that? Pensley asks.Hot meal on a hot night. Sounds betterthan pussy.

Now isnt that sad, Jesse mocks. He calculates theirdrivetwo hours to base and the sun already hovering overthe western hills. Lets load up.

Pensley climbs in as driver and Jesse mounts the turret. Hewatches the remaining marines pile in with Davis behind.Te lieutenant hoists himsel beside Jesse, standing at theturret, and the two watch a growing cloud o dust to thesouth. A train o beige Humvees stirs dry gravel. Slantedrays o aernoon light pierce the dusty haze, glinting off themetal hoods.

Tats it, Davis shouts, slamming a hand on the Bradleysroo. Move out!

Teir vehicle roars to a start, its tracked wheels stuttering,then surging orward. Jesse eels warm air combing the

short hair on his neck. Heshis his shoulders to let drywind leak under his helmet,tingling his suffocated scalp.

Tey watch the convoy align.Jesses platoon anchors,leading their our QRFvehicles. Soon sand romorward Humvees spraysupward, lashing his ace.Jesse pulls on his goggles andsettles his gaze beore them.Te sun glows white through

a veil o dust, hovering like a hot, bright moon.Te world blends to beige haze and the steady roar oengines drowns out thought. Jesse kicks into an automatic,brain-numbing vigilance. He surveys with the turret optics,breaking the terrain into grids and searching, fighting thevoice o his stomach.

Te sun touches a row o hills to the west when their squadpulls through the checkpoint. Tey drop off the damagedHumvee with its convoy and continue their pursuit o thesun.

Teir vehicle now leads. With his turret, Jesse scans the

clear horizon looking or dead animals, tires, trash, brokenconcreteanything different. Tey move aster alone, thesun ading behind a jagged, blinding horizon. Maybe anhour le to base i they push through dusk.

Jesse turns to Davis and catches him in a stoic trance,staring at the crescent sun. His ace is dirty rom themany days o patrol. Te shadowed lines o his eye darkenbeneath angled light.

You think well make base? Jesse shouts.

Davis shrugs, pulling out a box o Marlboros. Im planninon it, he says. Davis offers a cigarette to Jesse and the twoignite. Jesse eels the acidic warmth burn down his larynx,stimulating his entire body. Te smoke is epinephrine ona dull day, antidote or exhaustion. I figure we get in rightaer dusk and no onell give too much shit or us drivinlate.

Jesse eels a flutter in his gut like gratitude. It converts to alurching growl.

Ah, shit, Davis spits, throwing out his cigarette. Jesseollows with his optics and spots the source o Davissdistress. A route clearance team is scanning or IEDs,spraying dust as they inch painully orward.

Teyd have to be an hour behind, Jesse curses.

Davis sighs beside him. Yeah, well theyre not gonna pack

up or us.Te Bradley slows to a halt andthey hear Pensley rom below.Te curses float up in a creativestream . . . Fuckin son o agoddamned mother-uckinpickle-dick prick shit-on-my-

ace!

Jesse fights a grin one momentbut groans the next. Teirmeal is at stake, and the wholeplatoon knows. Men grumble

audibly behind him.Wait, says Davis, squinting down the highway. Checkand see i thats a bypass road. Up to the le.

Jesse glimpses through the optics and nods.

Call command, says Davis. See i we cant get em topause aer the ork. Well get around em.

Jesse dials Control and receives the go-ahead momentslater. Te men all holler and clap to the news as theycircumvent the bomb squad. Te Bradley skids back ontothe highway with Pensleys eager maneuverings.

Tank the sweet Lord, Jesse cries in victory. Wedvebeen out all night!

Davis grins in relie and their Humvee rolls smoothly in thedarkening twilight.

Lets just hope that . . .

The world blendstobeige haze and thesteady roarof enginesdrowns out thought.

W

* * *



esse. Davis leans over Jesse, shaking hisshoulders violently and bleeds on him with hiscut ace, yelling over empty noise in the silence.Jesse realizes hes outside the vehicle, lying onthe ground. Teres light rom a fire, flickering

through a film o dust. A ringing, throbbing in his ear. Jesselis his head.

Jess! a muted voice, hands on his shoulder. Jesse, youall right? Jesse tries to brush them off, to stand. Te wordsreach him like driing waves.

Screams filter through the empty noise. Steam fills the air.Everything is on fire in the air, but when he looks its toodarkjust flickering silhouettes racing in the sunlike fire.He eels wet on his ace, tastes the thick sweat like dirt andoil wetting his lips.

IED, Davis shouts, but Jesse cant hear. Tere is ringing.And yells and gunfire and the silent throbbing in his ear.

Screaming, he mutters,tries to stand. Stop thescreaming . . .

Gunshots pepper theair, tracers rom M-16s.Someone yells to pull outthe driver, pull out thedriver. Jesse stands.

Dont! someone yells.Stop him! Hands arepulling him back andhe resists, charging the

flames.My gun!

Jesse, Davis shouts. Jesse, stand down!

Someone get my ucking gun!

Jesse sits, with an orblike sun moving across his gaze.

Broke your nose all right, a voice tells him. Jesse eels thedamp blood draining down his lip and chin. Probably aconcussion, too. Just stay seated, you hear? Evacsll be heresoon.

Gunshots and a whistle blast o alling mortar.

My gun, Jesse mumbles, trying to stand. His musclestremble with adrenaline, unsteady. Hands keep him down.

A group o soldiers are rocking the drivers seat o theBradley.

One! wo! Heave!

Jesse knows that Pensley is screaming. He catches a glimpseo metal pinning the kids leg. Engine burst through thehood and landed on his lap. Jesse sees the mangled ront otheir Bradley, twisted and broken like silver glass. A groupo soldiers rock the drivers seat o the Humvee. Pensley isscreaming.

Youre gonna be okay, Jess, says Davis.

Fingers clog Jesses nose as the flashlight asks him to ollowwith his eyes. It moves slowly

or not at all.Te screamsand everythingis steaming. Gunshots fire atalling mortar but the blastscreep orward, breakingdunes o dust in theirthunderous leaps. It is darkexcept or the occasionalspark o mortar whistlingin crescendo, shudderingagainst the cool earth.

Air presses down on him.

Jesse is lied and guided tothe Medevac, dazed and stumbling. Other men sit and liewith him, but he looks out and up into the sky, glowingdark and starry like the sun had exploded into a thousandragments o white light.

Cool desert air rushes through the rising chopper, andJesse thinks o summer camping in exas. Hum o thechopper buzzes into a comortable warmth and he pictureshis ather, his brother, hiking in Big Bend. Te dusty earthdry. He wonders i theyll climb the South Rim tomorrowor see the Window at sunset. Hearing the crackle o Dadscampfire set, he breathes the rugged desert air, restingbeneath a hollowed sky.

Everything is on rein the air, but when helooks its too darkjustickering silhouettesracing in the sunlike

re.

J

Research for "Chasing the Sun"through the Summer Scholars

Program was proudly supported by:MELBERN G. GLASSCOCK

CENTER FOR HUMANITIES RESEARCH

T E X A S A & M U N I V E R S I T Y

LIBERAL ARTS



Various attempts at implementing measures to limit climate change, such as Kyoto and Copenhagen, have been ultimatelyunsuccessul. Nevertheless, there are lessons to be learned or uture proposals, including the importance o inclusion o allnations and a binding agreement among all signatory nations. Te authors present a proposal, based in part on a Cap-and-

rade policy or carbon emissions, to reduce worldwide carbon emissions to pre-2000 levels by 2060.

INTRODUCTION

Climate change represents one o thegreatest concerns o this generation.Tis article examines the climateissues acing the worlds leaders, notesthe collective ailures o cooperativeinstitutions and explains them, andpresents possible solutionstechnicaland policy oriented. With the trackrecord o climate-conscious policies

and the current political atmosphere,a universal compromise similar toour resulting proposal is unlikely.Tis work does, however, present apolicy proposal with cuts to globalcarbon emissions that would limitclimate change to manageable levels(2.83.2C).

BACKGROUND

Kyoto Protocol

International actions to limit the

effects o climate change have spanneddecades, but the 1997 Kyoto Protocolrepresented the first major cooperativesolution. Te Kyoto Protocolcontractually bound member countriesto cut carbon emissions by 5.2%compared with 1990 levels. Te KyotoProtocol divides the world into AnnexI and Annex II countries, with AnnexII countries having no obligation tocut emissions.1Annex I countriespromised to aid developing countriesfinancially and technologically. TeUnited States never ratified the Kyoto

Protocol because o these stipulations,arguing primarily that Annex IIcountries should also curb emissions.1Te lack o U.S. participationremains a primary ailure o theKyoto Protocol. Te United Statesoriginally agreed to the proposal, butthen President Clinton indicated atthe time that the United States wouldnot participate i China and India didnot also. In 2012, countries agreed tothe Doha Amendment to the KyotoProtocol, which binds Annex I nations

to a reduction o greenhouse gaseso 18% compared with 1990 levels by2020.

Copenhagen Accord

Te 2009 Copenhagen Accordrepresents a multilateral politicalagreement between the UnitedStates, China, India, Brazil andSouth Arica.2p966Te nonbinding

agreement intends to limit warmingto between 1.5 and 2 C, but estimatesindicate that the commitments wouldlimit warming only to just under 4C by 2100.2Although the accordattempts to outline goals in terms odegrees o warming, climatologistsat the U.S. Modeling ConsortiumClimate Interactive indicate that thegoals do not match the commitments.2In contrast to the Kyoto Protocol,the Copenhagen Accord remainsnonbinding or participants.

Lessons Learned rom Both

Te proposal in this work attemptsto address concerns and ailures oprevious agreements, allowing oreconomic development o poorernations while including thesenations in the cap-and-trade system.o urther the goal o eradicatingpoverty, this proposal will ocus onper capita emissions, which are vitalor human development, insteado ocusing on total emissions ora country. Any new proposal must

counteract the lack o participation othe Kyoto Protocol while maintainingscientifically easible goals, somethingthe Copenhagen Accord ails at. Teguiding principles o the outlinedagreement are as ollows: flexibility orindividual countries in their policy anddecision making, inclusion to bring allcountries regardless o developmentinto the old o a binding agreement,poverty eradication (equality) to afforddeveloping countries economic growthwith the aid o developed nations, and

cap and trade on a per capita basis.

ECONOMIC SOLUTIONS

Cap and rade: Current Examples

Cap-and-trade policies reer to fixedcaps on something, here carbondioxide, which decline over time.Cap-and-trade policies policies arewidely considered a market-based

system because they allow or tradingo these carbon dioxide allowances,which encourages firms to limittheir emissions so they can sell theirallowances. According to the EuropeanUnion, which established the largestcarbon-trading scheme in 2005, thereis a cap, or limit, on the total amounto certain greenhouse gases that canbe emitted by the actories, powerplants and other installations in thesystem. Within this cap, companiesreceive emission allowances whichthey can sell to or buy rom one

another as needed (http://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/ets/index_en.htm).Although the EU houses the largestcomprehensive cap-and-trade systemto date, other countries, such as ChinaSouth Korea, Australia, and NewZealand, are in the process or havealready developed similar systems.Te United States has experience withcap-and-trade programs, albeit notassociated with carbon dioxide. In1980, the Environmental ProtectionAgency established an acid rain cap-and-trade program to deal with rising

sulur and nitrous oxide concerns withastounding success. Figure 1 highlightssome acts associated with the EPAsacid rain program.

A national carbon cap-and-tradesystem has yet to gain significanttraction in the United States, butcertain states have established regionalagreements3:

Te Regional Greenhouse GasInitiative covers the power sector

Cap-and-Trade and Global CompromiseBy Phillip Warren and Mariah Lord



o 10 northeastern states and hasbeen active since 2009.

Te Western Climate Initiativecovers seven western states andhas been active since 2012.

Te Chicago ClimateExchange is avoluntary marketestablished in 2003that holds bindingcontracts with500 universities,

businesses, and cities.

Cap and rade/Carbonaxation

A carbon tax attempts to level theplaying field o all renewable andlow-emission orms o energy. Byremoving the need or subsidies, acarbon tax attempts to put all ormso energy generation on a levelplaying field instead o orcing thegovernment to pick alternative energywinners and losers. According to

economist James Griffin, a carbontax establishes an observable pricethat society is willing to pay or CO

2

abatement and creates a more levelplaying field or new technologies.4p156Griffin also denounces national cap-and-trade systems because a carbontax would be much more transparentthan tradable emissions allowancesand potentially less subject tomanipulation.4p7

Some economists recommend ahybrid system, combining aspects

o a cap-and-trade and a carbon-taxation scheme. A price collar setsa price ceiling and floor betweenwhich carbon prices can vary in a cap-and-trade system.5Selling emissionspermits to industrial sites instead ogiving them out represents anotherhybrid system, generating revenue orgovernments. Similar to a taxationsystem, this keeps the market-basedtrading aspects o a cap-and-tradeprogram.

Because approaches to mitigatingcarbon emissions are controversialamong economists, this proposal willnot attempt to endorse any specificenergy policy. Because an international

tax system is not possible, a cap-and-trade scheme remains the ocus o thisproposal. In the spirit o flexibility,each country would adopt its owncarbon dioxide mitigation policy.

As the largest current cap-and-tradesystem, the EU Emissions radingSchemepresents a viable evaluator

or this type o international system.Because the EU deals with a group ocountries, their system could serve asa model, allowing the United Statesto adopt certain policies and modiyothers. wo major criticisms o the EUscheme exist6:

1. Overallocation o emissionspermits has led the price o thesepermits to plummet duringtrading.

2. Countries not bound byreduction goals have accepted

the heavy industry and resultingpollution.

When the EU asks industrialsites or their business-as-usualemissions, these sites can land largeprofits by overestimating theirneeds and selling the emissions toother firms. Tis approach causesoverallocation o emissions permits.Changes in the economy, notably aneconomic downturn, exacerbated theoverallocation problem by inhibiting

overall energy consumption.Establishing baselines and requiringtransparency rom governmentsand businesses remain the bestmethods to avoid overallocation.

For an internationalsystem, baseline per capitaemissions calculations,inclusion o all nationsto eliminate leakage,and transparencywould represent the

primary ocuses duringestablishment.

TECHNICALSOLUTIONS

Te ambitious proposal describedbelow can be met, in part, withtechnical solutions. Several promisingsolutions include the ollowing:

Nuclear electricity generation7

Nuclear energy generationtypically involves controlled

fission o uranium, whichgenerates heat.

Nuclear energy generationaccounts or 20% o the U.S.energy portolio.

Nuclear energy is notcurrently carbon neutralbecause o the energy requiredto harvest nuclear uel (usuallyuranium).

Carbon capture and storage8 Carbon capture and storagedescribes a process oextracting carbon dioxide

rom ossil uels duringcombustion and injectingit back into undergroundgeological ormations. According to the U.S.Environmental ProtectionAgency, 95% o the largeststationary sources o U.S. CO

2emissions are within 50 mileso a candidate geological site. Groundwater contaminationremains an environmentalconcern.

FIGURE 1: Facts about U.S. Environmental Protection Agencys Acid Rain Program. Source: U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (http://www.epa.gov/captrade/).

International actions to limitthe effects of climate changehave spanned decades

CASE STUDY SUCCESS: EPAS ACID RAIN PROGRAM

Program active since 1980 Sulur and nitrogen oxide emissions reduced by 55 - 60% 580 - 1,800 lives saved rom respiratory complications Every dollar spent on administration reaps $40 o health/environmental



Hydrogen9

Pure hydrogen does notexist in nature; it appearsin compounds with otherelements (such as water orhydrocarbons).

Hydrogen can be harvested byelectrolysis (separating water

into hydrogen and oxygen)and gasification o ossil uels. Remaining technical issues

include the energy necessaryto harvest hydrogen as well tostore and transport it.

PROPOSAL

We propose an integrated cap-and-trade system that involves a tieredsystem o countries that includes allcountries, regardless o development.

In 2007, the International Panel onClimate Change publishedMitigationo Climate Change, reporting on thecurrent state o climate change. Tisreportanalyzes both short- and long-

term options or mitigation. able 1shows several different stabilizationscenarios. Te report recommendsa stabilization level o 445490 partsper million o atmospheric carbondioxide, stabilizing warming at 2 C,estimating that this would reduceglobal gross domestic product by at

least 3%.10Considering current globaleconomic conditions and the measuresnecessary to reach 445490 ppm, wehave determined that 535590 ppmrepresents a more realistic target.Tis revised goal would limit thetemperature increase to 2.83.2 C andreduce global GDP by between 0.2 and2.5%.10

Proposal Focus

Tis proposal measures progressin terms o metric tons o carbon

emissions per person, as opposed tocapping a countrys emissions solelyon total amount; doing so would notaccount or population changes. Byaccounting or population changes

and estimates, we hope to includesocial considerations, such as poverty,as an integral part o the goals. Tisproposal ocuses on the rightmostcolumn o able 1. According to theU.S. Census Bureau, in 2000, globalcarbon emissions totaled 23,738.368million metric tons, or 3.88 metric

tons per person (http://www.census.gov/population/international/data/worldpop/table_population.php). By 2060, i we assume a globalpopulation o 9 billion, annual percapita emissions would need to allto between 2.5 and 3.0 metric tonsto keep global carbon emissions toyear 2000 levels. According to theIntergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange, this proposal would result inthe planets warming by 2.83.2C.

Mitigating climate change must not

severely limit the advancement odeveloping countries, which wouldslow poverty eradication. Recognizingthe vast differences between countries,we have divided the countries on thebasis o the Human DevelopmentIndex, a measure that comparesactors such as lie expectancy, literacyeducation, and standards o living orcountries around the world. Countriesare thus divided into one o our tierso human development: (1) very high,(2) high, (3) medium, and (4) low(Figure 2).

Stipulations and Inormation

Keep the ollowing in mind whenconsidering the proposal:

Te proposal focuses on goalso flexibility, inclusion, andequality.

Countries meet every year todetermine per capita limits orthe ollowing year, primarily onthe basis o proposals submitted

Stabilizationlevel

(ppm CO2-eq)

Global mean tempincrease above

preindustrial atequilibrium (C)

Year CO2emissions

peak

Reduction in year2050 CO2emissions

compared with 2000(%)

Year CO2emissions

return to year2000 level

445490 2.02.4 20002015 85 to 50 20002030

490535 2.42.8 20002020 60 to 30 20002050

535590 2.83.2 20102030

30 to 5 20202060590710 3.24.0 20202060 10 to 60 2020>2100

710855 4.04.9 20502080 25 to 85 >2090

8551130 4.96.1 20602090 90 to 140 >2100

ABLE 1: IPCC CLIMAE SABILIZAION SCENARIOS10

(Boldace reflects data or proposal outlined in this article.)

FIGURE 2: Human Development Index Map. Source: Human DevelopmentReportsUnited Nations Development Programme. Indices & Data. United

Nations. http://hdr.undp.org/en/statistics.

Human Development Index (HDI) value (2001)

Very high

High

Medium

Low

No data



by each country. Emissions trading is done in

large quantities and distributedper capita, noting that per capitalimits are the prevailing goals.

Market prices determine price ofcarbon permits.

An independent United Nationscommittee would supervisethis agreement and determine

sanctions. Te committee wouldalso place countries into theirrespective tiers, according to theHuman Development Index.

Each country would beresponsible or its own 50-yearplan, according to its baseline percapita emissions level.

Te proposal sets the world onan equal emissions playing fieldby 2060.

ier System

ier 1 is allowed 5 years to increaseemissions i necessary and implementtechnical and policy solutions. ier 2is allowed 10 years, tier 3 is allowed 15years, and tier 4 is allowed 20 years.Beyond that stipulation, each countrycreates its own emissions reductionplan, subject to UN approval. able 2indicates a sample reduction plan oreach tier.

CONCLUSION

From the European Union Emissions

rading Schemewe note theimportance o inclusion to eliminateleakage o carbon dioxide, as wellas effective baselines and overalltransparency o the agreement.Countries could also adopt orincentivize certain types o technicalsolutions, including nuclear energygeneration, carbon capture andstorage, and hydrogen-basedtransportation.

Tis ambitious policy proposalexamines the drastic cuts necessary

to reduce emissions and stem the tideo global climate change. Te KyotoProtocol and Copenhagen Accordteach us that inclusion o all countriesand binding agreements must remaincornerstones o any uture endeavor.Under this proposal, each countrywould be responsible or creating itsown policy or addressing climatechange, creating flexibility. Somepossibilities include national cap-and-trade systems and carbon taxes, orsome combination o the two.

Phase duration(yrs)

Emissionsbeginning ofphase

Emissionsend of phase

% Change(metric tons perperson)

Tier 1United States

5 17.7 18.8 5

15 18.6 14.0 25

10 14.0 9.8 30

10 9.8 6.9

3010 6.9 2.7 60

Tier 2China

10 4.6 8.1 75

15 8.1 6.1 25

15 6.1 4.3 30

10 4.3 2.7 37.5

Tier 3India

15 1.2 8.1 575

15 8.1 6.1 25

10 6.1 4.6

2510 4.6 2.7 40

Tier 4Democratic Republic of the Congo

20 0.04 8 2000

10 8 6 25

10 6 4.5 25

10 4.5 2.7 40

ABLE 2: HEOREICAL SAMPLE OF REDUCION PLANS

REFERENCES

1. olleson J. Showdown nears

or climate change deal.Nature2011;479:454455.doi:10.1038/479454a.

2. olleson J. World looks aheadpost-Copenhagen. Nature2009;462:966967.

3. Kim HS, Koo WW. Factorsaffecting the carbon allowancemarket in the US. Energy Policy2010;38:18791884.

4. Griffin JM.A Smart EnergyPolicy: An Economists Rx orBalancing Cheap, Clean, andSecure Energy. New Haven,

Conn.: Yale University Press,2009.5. Cleetus R. Finding common

ground in the debate betweencarbon tax and cap-and-tradepolicies. Bulletin o the AtomicScientists2011;67:1927.

6. Stephenson J. Lessons Learnedrom the European UnionsEmissions rading Schemeand the Kyoto Protocols CleanDevelopment Mechanism.Washington D.C.: U.S. GeneralAccountability Office, 2008.

7. Snedden R. Nuclear Energy.Chicago: Heinemann Library,2002.

8. U.S. Environmental ProtectionAgency Office o Water. EPAProposes New Requirements orGeologic Sequestration o CarbonDioxide. Report EPA 816-F-08-032. Washington, D.C.: EPA,July 2008. http://www.epa.gov/saewater/uic/pds/s_uic_co2_proposedrule.pd.

9. Ogden J, Rubin ES. Te outlookor hydrogen cars. Resources

Magazine, March 2009. http://www.rff.org/Publications/WPC/Pages/03_09_09_Outlook_or_

Hydrogen_Cars.aspx10. Intergovernmental Panel onClimate Change. Summary orpolicymakers. In Climate Change2007: Mitigation.Contributiono Working Group III to theFourth Assessment Report othe Intergovernmental Panelon Climate Change, edited byB. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R.Bosch, R. Dave, and L.A. Meyer.Cambridge, UK: CambridgeUniversity Press, 2007.



Rosa

Mother Nature ay painting representsMother Nature,suffering rom the gray

storm happening around her.I chose this subject because Ihave always been interested innature and how the creatures onEarth are affecting it every day.Furthermore, like many others,I find much inspiration in thecurves and grace o the emalebody, so I decided to portray thecentral theme o Mother Natureby creating an elongated versiono a emale silhouette. I think thiselongation creates a eeling ootherworldliness, o somethinglarger and more magical simply

disguised as human.

My depiction o Mother Naturecontinues in a common image:the tree. Although it is a symbol

oen used to represent natureand its ruits, my interpretationis slightly darker. Te treerepresents everything affectingMother Nature: animals,humans, and our activities.All these things are, in a way,draining the lie rom nature. Atits base, my tree is golden andull o vitality, but as it expands,its branches become twisted anddarker, with lie being lost, untilits branches begin to get lost in

the surrounding storm.

Te subject o lost lie is darkerthan the inspiration or most omy paintings. In act, I initi

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Explorations Fall 2013 Volume 5