Nanotechnology and Innovations in the Medical Field: Applying the Precautionary Principle to Smart DrugsSynopsis

The concept of nanotechnology is associated with the manipulation of matter at the scale of atoms and molecules. The potential medical applications of nanotechnology are significant, with human-engineered devices interacting with biological processes in sophisticated ways. An example of such an application would be the creation of a "smart drug," a nano-scale device designed to perform a particular medical task. Examples of such tasks range from destroying cancer cells and cleaning out clogged arteries to constructing needed proteins or mimicking anti-bodies.

Although this technology promises to deliver numerous benefits to society, there are also concerns associated with manipulating living material at this scale. The concerns include:

• Environmental contamination. Smart drugs and other nano-devices used in medical applications could contaminate the environment after being expelled from the body.

• Mutation. Smart drugs or other nano-devices capable of manipulating organic molecules could interact with cellular activity in unexpected ways.

• Runaway condition. A smart drug or nano-device capable of replicating itself could result in a runaway condition.

• Weapons. This technology has the potential to be used as a weapon that would be difficult to control.

Clearly, the technology is in its infancy. The applications referred to above--and the concerns that come with them--are years away. However, successful innovations can diffuse rapidly, and addressing concerns after a technology takes root in a society is difficult. As a result, the federal government is encouraging researchers and engineers to identify and seriously discuss potential concerns as they proceed in developing the science and technology associated with nano-scale devices.

Here, you are being asked to apply an ethical guideline known as the "precautionary principle" to generate a set of policy recommendations for the National Science Foundation (NSF). The NSF provides research funds to scientists and engineers. This case example is more open-ended than those that focus on decisions leading to specific design failures, but the concern it addresses is just as real.

Assignment

1. Read the synopsis as a group and discuss the following questions before performing any additional research.

• Chemical engineers have been manipulating matter at the atomic and molecular level for years. For example, even the simplest chemical reaction involves changes at the atomic and molecular level. In what way is nanotechnology new and different?

• Advances in genetic engineering already allow firms to manipulate organisms in complex ways. Is there anything about nano-scale devices and their potential interactions with cells that raise different concerns?

• Organic cells can already reproduce themselves and mutate. Is there anything that makes nano-scale devices with an ability to create new proteins or other material more dangerous?

• Our society already has lots of testing procedures that firms must perform before they receive approval to release a new drug. Would these existing regulations be sufficient for smart drugs? Why or why not?

2. Perform the research necessary to get more information about nanotechnology, smart drugs, medical ethics, and the ethical guideline known as the "precautionary principle."

3. Write a two-page report that applies the precautionary principle to the development of this technology. Your report should:

• Evaluate the state of the art in nanotechnology and the potential for significant innovations to occur in the medical field.

• Evaluate the concerns associated with this technology by comparing it with the concerns of similar technologies.

• Define what is meant by the precautionary principle.• Generate specific guidelines based on the precautionary principle and your

evaluation of the technology.

4. Your report should document your sources.

5. Prepare an eight-minute presentation for the class. This should include a two-minute question and answer session. Your presentation needs to include:

• Title and Introduction slides.• Synopis of the issue, including a brief description of nanotechnology, its potential

medical applications, and the concerns associated with those applications.• A definition of the precautionary principle.• Recommendations based on your applications of the precautionary principle.

6. Be prepared to answer pointed questions from the audience that challenge the recommendations you make.

Hints

1. Some useful books on nanotechnology are: Mark Ratner and Daniel Ratner, Nanotechnology: A Gentle Introduction to the Next Big Idea (Prentice Hall, 2003); B. C. Crandall, ed., Nanotechnology: Molecular Speculations on Global Abundance (MIT Press, 1996); David E. Newton, Recent Advances in Molecular Nanotechnology (Greenwood Press, 2002); Mihail C. Roco and William Sims Bainbridge, Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001).

2. A book that explores ethical concerns associated with technological advances in the medical field is Gregory E. Pence. Re-creating Medicine: Ethical Issues at the Frontier of Medicine (Rowman and Littlefield, 2000). The following article discusses the risk of nanotechnology: "Point of Impact--Chemist Vicki Colvin on the Safety of Nanotechnology," in Technology Review 106, no. 3 (2003): 71-74. A good general survey with articles on many aspects of engineering and ethics is Joseph R. Herkert, ed., Social, Ethical, and Policy Implications of Engineering: Selected Readings Piscataway, NJ: IEEE Press, 2000).

3. Numerous websites discuss the precautionary principle. However, many define the concept in slightly different ways. Be sure to examine several discussions of the precautionary principle.

4. Your recommendations should be designed to guide program officers at NSF in their decisions involving the development of nano-devices in the medical field. (Are people getting excited about nothing or do serious concerns exist? If the latter, what guidelines should the NSF use in shaping the development of the field through its funding decisions?)

An Introduction to NanotechnologySource: National Science Foundation, SOCIETAL IMPLICATIONS OF

NANOSCIENCE AND NANOTECHNOLOGYProceedings of a Conference held at the National Science Foundation, March 2001, pp. 1-10. ( http://www.wtec.org/loyola/nano/societalimpact/nanosi.pdf )

1. INTRODUCTION

A revolution is occurring in science and technology, based on the recently developedability to measure, manipulate and organize matter on the nanoscale — 1 to 100billionths of a meter. At the nanoscale, physics, chemistry, biology, materials science,and engineering converge toward the same principles and tools. As a result, progress innanoscience will have very far-reaching impact.The nanoscale is not just another step toward miniaturization, but a qualitatively newscale. The new behavior is dominated by quantum mechanics, material confinement insmall structures, large interfacial volume fraction, and other unique properties,phenomena and processes. Many current theories of matter at the microscale havecritical lengths of nanometer dimensions. These theories will be inadequate to describethe new phenomena at the nanoscale.As knowledge in nanoscience increases worldwide, there will likely be fundamentalscientific advances. In turn, this will lead to dramatic changes in the ways materials,devices, and systems are understood and created. Innovative nanoscale properties andfunctions will be achieved through the control of matter at its building blocks: atom-by- atom, molecule-by-molecule, and nanostructure-by-nanostructure. Nanotechnology willinclude the integration of these nanoscale structures into larger material components,systems, and architectures. However, within these larger scale systems the control andconstruction will remain at the nanoscale.Today, nanotechnology is still in its infancy, because only rudimentary nanostructurescan be created with some control. However, among the envisioned breakthroughs areorders-of-magnitude increases in computer efficiency, human organ restoration usingengineered tissue, “designer” materials created from directed assembly of atoms andmolecules, as well as emergence of entirely new phenomena in chemistry and physics.Nanotechnology has captured the imaginations of scientists, engineers and economistsnot only because of the explosion of discoveries at the nanoscale, but also because of thepotential societal implications. A White House letter (from the Office of Science andTechnology Policy and Office of Management and Budget) sent in the fall of 2000 to allFederal agencies has placed nanotechnology at the top of the list of emerging fields ofresearch and development in the United States. The National Nanotechnology Initiativewas approved by Congress in November 2000, providing a total of $422 million spreadover six departments and agencies.Nanotechnology’s relevance is underlined by the importance of controlling matter at thenanoscale for healthcare, the environment, sustainability, and almost every industry.There is little doubt that the broader implications of this nanoscience and nanotechnologyrevolution for society at large will be profound.National Nanotechnology InitiativeThe National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI, http://nano.gov) is a multi-agency effortwithin the U.S. Government that supports a broad program of Federal nanoscale research

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology2

in materials, physics, chemistry, and biology. It explicitly seeks to create opportunitiesfor interdisciplinary work integrating these traditional disciplines. The NNI willaccelerate the pace of fundamental research in nanoscale science and engineering,creating the knowledge needed to enable technological innovation, training the workforceneeded to exploit that knowledge, and providing the manufacturing science base neededfor future commercial production. Potential breakthroughs are possible in areas such asmaterials and manufacturing, medicine and healthcare, environment and energy,biotechnology and agriculture, electronics and information technology, and nationalsecurity. The effect of nanotechnology on the health, wealth, and standard of living forpeople in this century could be at least as significant as the combined influences ofmicroelectronics, medical imaging, computer-aided engineering, and man-made polymersdeveloped in the past century.The NNI is balanced across five broad activities: fundamental research; grand challenges;centers and networks of excellence; research infrastructure; and societal/workforceimplications. Under this last activity, nanotechnology’s effect on society – legal, ethical,social, economic, and workforce preparation – will be studied to help identify potentialconcerns and ways to address them. As the NNI is commencing, there is a rareopportunity to integrate the societal studies and dialogues from the very beginning and toinclude societal studies as a core part of the NNI investment strategy.NSET Workshop on “Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology”Research on societal implications will boost the NNI’s success and help us to takeadvantage of the new technology sooner, better, and with greater confidence. Towardthis end, the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC), Committee onTechnology (CT), Subcommittee on Nanoscale Science, Engineering, and Technology(NSET) the Federal interagency group that coordinates the NNI sponsored aworkshop on “Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology.” HeldSeptember 2829, 2000 at the National Science Foundation, this workshop broughttogether nanotechnology researchers, social scientists, and policy makers representingacademia, government, and the private sector. It had four principal objectives:Survey current studies on the societal implications of nanotechnology (educational,technological, economic, medical, environmental, ethical, legal, cultural, etc.).Identify investigative and assessment methods for future studies of societalimplications.Propose a vision and alternative pathways toward that vision integrating short-term (3to 5 year), medium-term (5 to 20 year), and long-term (more than 20 year)perspectives.Recommend areas for research investment and education improvement.This report addresses issues far broader than science and engineering, such as hownanotechnology will change society and the measures to be taken to prepare for these

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

3

transformations. The conclusions and recommendations in this report will provide a basisfor the NNI participants and the public to address future societal implications issues.Chapters 2 through 5 of this report present the conclusions and recommendations thatarose from the workshop. The participants’ statements on societal implications are inChapter 6, and a list of participants and contributors is in Appendix A. Selectedendorsements of the NNI are provided as a reference (Appendix B).

2. NANOTECHNOLOGY GOALS

Nanoscale science and engineering will lead to better understanding of nature; advancesin fundamental research and education; and significant changes in industrialmanufacturing, the economy, healthcare, and environmental management andsustainability. Examples of the promise of nanotechnology, with projected totalworldwide market size of over $1 trillion annually in 10 to 15 years, include thefollowing:Manufacturing: The nanometer scale is expected to become a highly efficient lengthscale for manufacturing once nanoscience provides the understanding andnanoengineering develops the tools. Materials with high performance, uniqueproperties and functions will be produced that traditional chemistry could not create.Nanostructured materials and processes are estimated to increase their market impactto about $340 billion per year in the next 10 years (Hitachi Research Institute,personal communication, 2001).Electronics: Nanotechnology is projected to yield annual production of about $300billion for the semiconductor industry and about the same amount more for globalintegrated circuits sales within 10 to 15 years (see R. Doering, page 74-75 of thisreport).Improved Healthcare: Nanotechnology will help prolong life, improve its quality, andextend human physical capabilities.Pharmaceuticals: About half of all production will be dependent on nanotechnology— affecting over $180 billion per year in 10 to 15 years (E. Cooper,Elan/Nanosystems, personal communication, 2000).Chemical Plants: Nanostructured catalysts have applications in the petroleum andchemical processing industries, with an estimated annual impact of $100 billion in 10to 15 years (assuming a historical rate of increase of about 10% from $30 billion in1999; “NNI: The Initiative and Its Implementation Plan,” page 84).Transportation: Nanomaterials and nanoelectronics will yield lighter, faster, and safervehicles and more durable, reliable, and cost-effective roads, bridges, runways,pipelines, and rail systems. Nanotechnology-enabled aerospace products alone areprojected to have an annual market value of about $70 billion in ten years (HitachiResearch Institute, personal communication, 2001).

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology4

Sustainability: Nanotechnology will improve agricultural yields for an increasedpopulation, provide more economical water filtration and desalination, and enablerenewable energy sources such as highly efficient solar energy conversion; it willreduce the need for scarce material resources and diminish pollution for a cleanerenvironment. For example, in 10 to 15 years, projections indicate thatnanotechnology-based lighting advances have the potential to reduce worldwideconsumption of energy by more than 10%, reflecting a savings of $100 billion dollarsper year and a corresponding reduction of 200 million tons of carbon emissions(“NNI: The Initiative and Its Implementation Plan,” page 93).

Knowledge and Scientific Understanding of NatureThe study of nanoscale systems promises to lead to fundamentally new advances inscience and engineering and in our understanding of biological, environmental, andplanetary systems. It also will redirect our scientific approach toward more generic andinterdisciplinary research. Nanoscience is at the unexplored frontiers of science andengineering, and it offers one of the most exciting opportunities for innovation intechnology.Nanotechnology will provide the capacity to create affordable products with dramaticallyimproved performance. This will come through a basic understanding of ways to controland manipulate matter at the nanometer scale and through the incorporation ofnanostructures and nanoprocesses into technological innovations. It will be a center ofintense international competition when it lives up to its promise as a generator oftechnology.Nanotechnology promises to be a dominant force in our society in the coming decades.Commercial inroads in the hard disk, coating, photographic, and pharmaceuticalindustries have already shown how new scientific breakthroughs at this scale can changeproduction paradigms and revolutionize multibillion-dollar businesses. However,formidable challenges remain in fundamental understanding of systems on this scalebefore the potential of nanotechnology can be realized.Today, nanotechnology is still in its infancy, and only rudimentary nanostructures can becreated with some control. The science of atoms and simple molecules, on one end, andthe science of matter from microstructures to larger scales, on the other, are generallyestablished. The remaining size-related challenge is at the nanoscale — roughly between1 and 100 molecular diameters — where the fundamental properties of materials aredetermined and can be engineered. A revolution has been occurring in science andtechnology, based on the recently developed ability to measure, manipulate and organizematter on this scale. Recently discovered organized structures of matter (such as carbonnanotubes, molecular motors, DNA-based assemblies, quantum dots, and molecularswitches) and new phenomena (such as giant magnetoresistance, coulomb blockade, andthose caused by size confinement) are scientific breakthroughs that merely hint atpossible future developments.The nanoscale is not just another step toward miniaturization, but a qualitatively newscale. The new behavior is dominated by quantum mechanics, material confinement in

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology5

small structures, large interfaces, and other unique properties, phenomena and processes.Many current theories of matter at the microscale have critical lengths of nanometerdimensions; these theories will be inadequate to describe the new phenomena at thenanoscale.Nanoscience will be an essential component in better understanding of nature in the nextdecades. Important issues include greater interdisciplinary research collaborations,specific education and training, and transition of ideas and people to industry.

Industrial Manufacturing, Materials and ProductsThe potential benefits of nanotechnology are pervasive, as illustrated in the fieldsoutlined below.Nanotechnology is fundamentally changing the way materials and devices will beproduced in the future. The ability to synthesize nanoscale building blocks with preciselycontrolled size and composition and then to assemble them into larger structures withunique properties and functions will revolutionize materials and manufacturing.Researchers will be able to develop material structures not previously observed in nature,beyond what classical chemistry can offer. Some of the benefits that nanostructuring canbring include lighter, stronger, and programmable materials; reductions in life-cycle coststhrough lower failure rates; innovative devices based on new principles and architectures;and use of molecular/cluster manufacturing, which takes advantage of assembly at thenanoscale level for a given purpose.The Semiconductor Industry Association (SIA) has developed a roadmap for continuedimprovements in miniaturization, speed, and power reduction in information processingdevices — sensors for signal acquisition, logic devices for processing, storage devices formemory, displays for visualization, and transmission devices for communication. TheSIA roadmap projects the future of nanoelectronics and computer technology toapproximately 2010 and to 0.1 micron (100 nanometer) structures, just short of fullynanostructured devices. The roadmap ends short of true nanostructured devices becausethe principles, fabrication methods, and techniques for integrating devices into systems atthe nanoscale are generally unknown. New approaches such as chemical andbiomolecular computing, and quantum computing making use of nanoscale phenomenaand nanostructures, are expected to emerge.The molecular building blocks of life — proteins, nucleic acids, lipids, carbohydrates,and their non-biological mimics — are examples of materials that possess uniqueproperties determined by their size, folding, and patterns at the nanoscale. Biosynthesisand bioprocessing offer fundamentally new ways to manufacture chemicals andpharmaceutical products. Integration of biological building blocks into syntheticmaterials and devices will allow the combination of biological functions with otherdesirable materials properties. Imitation of biological systems provides a major area ofresearch in several disciplines. For example, the active area of bio-mimetic chemistry isbased on this approach.

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology6

Medicine and the Human BodyLiving systems are governed by molecular behavior at the nanometer scale, wherechemistry, physics, biology, and computer simulation all now converge. Recent insightsinto the uses of nanofabricated devices and systems suggest that today’s laboriousprocess of genome sequencing and detecting the genes’ expression can be madedramatically more efficient through use of nanofabricated surfaces and devices.Expanding our ability to characterize an individual’s genetic makeup will revolutionizediagnostics and therapeutics. Beyond facilitating optimal drug usage, nanotechnologycan provide new formulations and routes for drug delivery, enormously broadening thedrugs’ therapeutic potential.Increasing nanotechnological capabilities will also markedly benefit basic studies of cellbiology and pathology. As a result of the development of new analytical tools capable ofprobing the world of the nanometer, it is becoming increasingly possible to characterizethe chemical and mechanical properties of cells (including processes such as cell divisionand locomotion) and to measure properties of single molecules. These capabilitiescomplement (and largely supplant) the ensemble average techniques presently used in thelife sciences. Moreover, biocompatible, high-performance materials will result from theability to control their nanostructure. Artificial inorganic and organic nanoscale materialscan be introduced into cells to play roles in diagnostics (e.g., quantum dots invisualization), but also potentially as active components. Finally, nanotechnologyenabledincreases in computational power will permit the characterization ofmacromolecular networks in realistic environments. Such simulations will be essentialfor developing biocompatible implants and for studying the drug discovery process. Anopen issue is how the healthcare system would change with such large changes inmedical technology.

Sustainability: Agriculture, Water, Energy, Materials, and Clean EnvironmentNanotechnology will lead to dramatic changes in the use of natural resources, energy, andwater, as outlined in the following paragraphs. Waste and pollution will be minimized.Moreover, new technologies will allow recovery and reuse of materials, energy, andwater.EnvironmentNanoscience and engineering could significantly affect molecular understanding ofnanoscale processes that take place in the environment; the generation and remediation ofenvironmental problems through control of emissions; the development of new “green”technologies that minimize the production of undesirable by-products; and theremediation of existing waste sites and streams. Nanotechnology also will afford theremoval of the smallest contaminants from water supplies (less than 200 nanometers) andair (under 20 nanometers) and the continuous measurement and mitigation of pollution inlarge areas.In order to hasten the integrated understanding of the environmental role of nanoscalephenomena, scientists and engineers studying the fundamental properties of

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology7

nanostructures will need to work together with those attempting to understand complexprocesses in the environment. Model nanostructures can be studied, but in all cases theresearch must be justified by its connection to naturally occurring systems or toenvironmentally beneficial uses. Environments for investigations are not limited andmight include terrestrial locations such as acid mines, subsurface aquifers, or polarenvironments.EnergyNanotechnology has the potential to significantly impact energy efficiency, storage, andproduction. Several new technologies that utilize the power of nanostructuring, butdeveloped without benefit of the new nanoscale analytical capabilities, illustrate thispotential:Increasing the efficiency of converting solar energy into useful forms.High efficiency fuel cells, including hydrogen storage in nanotubes.A long-term research program in the chemical industry on the use of crystallinematerials as catalyst supports has yielded catalysts with well-defined pore sizes in therange of 1 nanometer to reduce energy consumption and waste; their use is now thebasis of an industry that exceeds $30 billion a year (“NNI: The Initiative and ItsImplementation Plan,” page 84).Developed by the oil industry, the ordered mesoporous material MCM-41 (knownalso as “self-assembled monolayers on mesoporous supports,” SAMMS), with poresizes in the range of 10100 nanometers, is now widely used for the removal ofultrafine contaminants (see work performed at Pacific Northwest National Laboratoryin Nanotechnology Research Directions, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2000, pp.216-218).Several chemical manufacturing companies are developing a nanoparticle-reinforcedpolymeric material that can replace structural metallic components in automobiles;widespread use of those nanocomposites could lead to a reduction of 1.5 billion litersof gasoline consumption over the life of one year’s production of vehicles, therebyreducing carbon dioxide emissions annually by more than 5 billion kilograms (“NNI:The Initiative and Its Implementation Plan,” page 88).Significant changes in lighting technologies are expected in the next ten years.Semiconductors used in the preparation of light emitting diodes (LEDs) for lightingcan increasingly be sculpted on nanoscale dimensions. In the United States, roughly20% of all electricity is consumed for lighting, including both incandescent andfluorescent lights. In 10 to 15 years, projections indicate that such nanotechnologybasedlighting advances have the potential to reduce worldwide consumption ofenergy by more than 10%, reflecting a savings of $100 billion dollars per year and acorresponding reduction of 200 million tons of carbon emissions (“NNI: TheInitiative and Its Implementation Plan,” pages 92 - 93).

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology8

The replacement of carbon black in tires by nanometer-scale particles of inorganicclays and polymers is a new technology that is leading to the production ofenvironmentally friendly, wear-resistant tires.WaterGlobal population is increasing while fresh water supplies are decreasing. The UnitedNations predicts that by the year 2025 that 48 countries will be short of fresh wateraccounting for 32% of the world’s population (“NNI: The Initiative and ItsImplementation Plan”, page 95). Water purification and desalinization are some of thefocus areas of preventative defense and environmental security since they can meet futurewater demands globally. Consumptive water use has been increasing twice as fast as thepopulation and the resulting shortages have been worsened by contamination.Nanotechnology-based devices for water desalinization have been designed to desalt seawater using at least 10 times less energy than state-of–the art reverse osmosis and at least100 times less energy than distillation. The critical experiments underpinning theseestimations are underway now. This energy-efficient process is possible by fabricating ofvery high surface area electrodes that are electrically conductive using aligned carbonnanotubes, and by other innovations in the system design.AgricultureNanotechnology will contribute directly to advancements in agriculture in a number ofways: (1) molecularly engineered biodegradable chemicals for nourishing plants andprotecting against insects; (2) genetic improvement for animals and plants; (3) delivery ofgenes and drugs to animals; and (4) nano-array-based technologies for DNA testing,which, for example, will allow a scientist to know which genes are expressed in a plantwhen it is exposed to salt or drought stress. The application of nanotechnology inagriculture has only begun to be appreciated.

Space ExplorationThe stringent fuel constraints for lifting payloads into earth orbit and beyond, and thedesire to send spacecraft away from the sun for extended missions (where solar powerwould be greatly diminished) compel continued reduction in size, weight, and powerconsumption of payloads. Nanostructured materials and devices promise solutions tothese challenges. Nanostructuring is also critical to the design and manufacture oflightweight, high-strength, thermally stable materials for aircraft, rockets, space stations,and planetary/solar exploratory platforms. The augmented utilization of miniaturized,highly automated systems will also lead to dramatic improvements in manufacturingtechnology. Moreover, the low-gravity, high-vacuum space environment may aid thedevelopment of nanostructures and nanoscale systems that cannot be created on Earth.National SecurityDefense applications include (1) continued information dominance through advancednanoelectronics, identified as an important capability for the military; (2) moresophisticated virtual reality systems based on nanostructured electronics that enable more

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology9

affordable, effective training; (3) increased use of enhanced automation and robotics tooffset reductions in military manpower, reduce risks to troops, and improve vehicleperformance; (4) achievement of the higher performance (lighter weight, higher strength)needed in military platforms while providing diminished failure rates and lower life-cyclecosts; (5) needed improvements in chemical/biological/nuclear sensing and in casualtycare; (6) design improvements in systems used for nuclear non-proliferation monitoringand management; and (7) combined nanomechanical and micromechanical devices forcontrol of nuclear defense systems.In many cases economic and military opportunities are considered to be complementary.Strong applications of nanotechnology in other areas would provide support for nationalsecurity in the long term, and vice versa.

Moving into the MarketSince economists have not yet really begun research on nanotechnology, their insights aresomewhat tentative and based on experience with earlier technologies. A commonparadigm is that new applications will be initially more costly than existing technologies,but will achieve better performance. However, completely new technologies may becheaper, such as chemical manufacturing to mass produce nanoelectronic circuits asopposed to current methods using lithography in microelectronics. Overall,nanotechnology will offer substantial advantages, being smaller, faster, stronger, safer,and more reliable. At the same time, it will require investments in new productionfacilities and in a host of ancillary industries supplying the raw materials, components,and manufacturing machines. Because it will take time to achieve economies of scaleand to develop the most efficient fabrication methods, costs are likely to be relativelyhigh in the beginning.For this reason, nanotechnology-based goods and services will probably be introducedearlier in those markets where performance characteristics are especially important andprice is a secondary consideration. Examples are medical applications and spaceexploration. The experience gained will reduce technical and production uncertaintiesand prepare these technologies for deployment into the market place. Similarly, in theprivate sector, technology transfer is likely to occur from performance-oriented areas(such as medicine) to price-oriented ones (such as agriculture). As a given technologymatures, its cost may decline, leading to greater penetration of the market even whereperformance is not decisive.The displacement of an old technology by a new one tends to be both slow andincomplete. Displacement of older methods will accelerate to the extent thatnanotechnology extends its technical range and perhaps lowers its relative price.However, nanotechnology also is likely to stimulate innovations in older technologiesthat make them better able to compete — an ironic but potentially beneficial secondordereffect.The diffusion and impact of nanotechnology will be partly a function of the developmentof complementary technologies and of a network of users. Whole new industries mayhave to be developed — along with the trained scientists and technicians to staff them.

Societal Implications of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology

There may be many obstacles along this road that ordinary market processes cannot

easily overcome. An important role for the government will be to invest in the long-term,high-risk, high-gain research needed to create these new industries and to ensure that theyare consistent with broader societal objectives.Federal support of the nanotechnology initiative is necessary to enable the United Statesto take advantage of this strategic technology and remain competitive in the globalmarketplace well into the future. Focused research programs on nanotechnology havebeen initiated in other industrialized countries. Currently, the United States has a lead onsynthesis, chemicals, and biological aspects; it lags in research on nanodevices,production of nano-instruments, ultra-precision engineering, ceramics, and otherstructural materials. Japan has an advantage in nanodevices and consolidatednanostructures; Europe is strong in dispersions, coatings, and new instrumentation.