Educational Planning and Curriculum Development

Raj K. Subedi (BPH, MPH)

EducationalPlanningandCurriculumDevelopment

IntroductiontocurriculumdevelopmentThe word curriculum derives from the Latin currere meaning ‘to run’. This implies that one of the

functions of a curriculum is to provide a template or design which enables learning to take place.

A curriculum is more than a syllabus. A syllabus describes the content of a programme and can be seen

as one part of a curriculum.

Differencebetweencurriculumandsyllabus

Typesofcurriculum The formal curriculum: what the institution plans and organizes to teach

The informal curriculum: what the students learn from a variety of sources and interactions while taking part in the ‘extra‐curricular’ activities at the institution

The hidden curriculum: what the students learn but the institution did not set out to teach. Much of this refers to the aspects like ‘caught not taught’.

SomedefinitionsAlbert Oliver (1977): curriculum is “the educational program of the school” and divided into four basic

elements: 1) program of studies, 2) program of experiences, 3) program of service, 4) hidden curriculum.

Bell (1971): the offering of socially valued knowledge, skills, and attitudes made available to students

through a variety of arrangements during the time they are at school, college, or university.

Harnack (1968): The curriculum embodies all the teaching‐learning experiences guided and directed by

the school.

Education

Curriculum

Syllabus

Content


Ralph Tyler (1957): The curriculum is all of the learning of students which is planned by and directed by

the school to attain its educational goals.

David G. Armstrong (1989): "is a master plan for selecting content and organizing learning experiences

for the purpose of changing and developing learners' behaviors and insights."

Bringing all these points together, the curriculum is viewed as a composite whole including the learner, the teacher, teaching and learning methodologies, anticipated and unanticipated experiences, outputs and outcomes possible within a learning institution.

Curriculumdefinitionsfitinto5categories.

1. Curriculum as a product ‐ program, document, electronic media, or multimedia 2. Curriculum as a program of study ‐ usually courses offered, curriculum sequences of study in

standards as benchmarks, gateways, 3. Curriculum as intended learnings ‐ goals, content, concepts, generalizations, outcomes 4. Curriculum as experiences of the learner ‐ activities, planned and unplanned. 5. Hidden curriculum ‐ what students learn that isn't planned (also called unofficial or counter)

CurriculumasPRODUCTAdvantages Disadvantages

can be described in concrete terms and definite ways

provides direction for planning and development by producing a document

limits curriculum to specific programs and courses described in those documents

assumes that all possible courses can be described in such documents

separates processes of learning from what is to be learned

CurriculumasPROGRAMAdvantages Disadvantages

easily described in concrete terms

recognize learning takes place in many different settings in school

view that all students' learning is contained in programs

programs imply that what is described, is what students will actually learn

CurriculumasINTENDEDlearningsAdvantages Disadvantages

curriculum becomes a concept rather than a product

more manageable focus by limited scope

Difficult to classify exact intended learnings

Difficult to define how to achieve and why it needs to be achieved


CurriculumasEXPERIENCESofthelearnerAdvantages Disadvantages

focuses on learning and the learner, rather than teaching

includes all experiences planned and unplanned

can allow for broader experiences

can be more meaningful learning if it relates to student interests, needs, or if students help select meaningful learning activities,

can be greater retention of learning

more abstract and complex

makes curriculum so comprehensive that it cannot be described in simple terms or short phrases

ElementsofcurriculumThe curriculum has four elements that are in constant interaction:

purpose (goals and objectives)

content or subject matter

methods or learning experiences

evaluation

Fig: Interaction between different elements of curriculum

Purpose (Goals and objectives)

Content (subject to be studied)

Evaluation (Performance Measurement)

Methods or learning experiences


ConceptofeducationalPlanning Whatever educational planning is, it is certainly not a miracle drug for ailing educational

systems.

Educational planning, in its broadest generic sense, is the application of rational, systematic

analysis to the process of educational development with the aim of making education more

effective and efficient in responding to the needs and goals of students and society.

Educational planning is ideologically neutral. Its methodologies are sufficiently flexible and

adaptable to fit situations that differ widely in ideology, level of development, and

governmental form.

Its basic logic, concepts, and principles are universally applicable, but the practical methods for

applying them may range from the crude and simple to the highly sophisticated, depending on

the circumstances.

It is therefore wrong to conceive of educational planning as offering a rigid, monolithic formula

that must be imposed uniformly on all situations.

PrinciplesofEducationalplanningEducational planning should be based on following core principles.

Defined range View

i. It should have a short‐range (one or two years), a middle‐range (four to five years) and

a long‐range perspective (ten to fifteen years).

ii. Obviously its vision will grow less precise the farther ahead it looks. But considering the

long ‘lead time’ required to increase educational capacity and to enlarge educational

output, long range perspective should also be considered. For example, for the

production of doctors or engineers, or even of elementary school teachers; it is

necessary to plan years ahead.

Educational planning should be comprehensive.

i. It should embrace the whole educational system in a single vision to ensure the

harmonious evolution of its various parts.

ii. Moreover, it should try to extend its vision to important types of non‐formal education

and training to ensure their effective integration with formal education and with the

priority needs and goals of society.

Educational planning should be integrated with the plans of broader economic and social

development.

i. If education is to contribute most effectively to individual and national development,

and to make the best use of scarce resources, it cannot go its own way, ignoring the

realities of the world around it.

Educational planning should be an integral part of educational management.

i. To be effective, the planning process must be closely tied to the processes of decision‐

making and operations

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DeterminantsofcurriculartrendsTechnology has had a tremendous impact on society. Educational curriculums must keep up with the

pace so that future generations will benefit and continue developing technological innovations. The

concept of knowledge has changed from having information in the brain, to "having access to

information about a particular topic and knowing how to use it". Hence, the change in trends of

curriculum is determined by a number of factors that can be broadly classified as the extrinsic and

intrinsic factors.

ExtrinsicFactors

Political From defining goals, interpreting curricular materials to approving examination systems, politics

affects curriculum development.

How politics influences curriculum design and development starts with funding.

Both private and public educational institutions rely on funding for hiring personnel, building

and maintaining facilities and equipment.

All aspects of curriculum depend on local, national and international political standards.

Economic Curriculum developed for in‐house training in corporations focuses on educating employees for

promotions that bring better returns in profits.

Nations financing education expect an economic return from educated students contributing to

the country's economy with global competition abilities in technical fields.

Technological The computer technology of the 21st century influences curriculum development at every level

of learning.

Technological multimedia use influences educational goals and learning experiences among

students.

Diversity(Socio‐culturalandreligious) Religion, culture and social groups affects curriculum.

Affected by forces like conflicts, concepts of justice and equity, inclusiveness, ethics etc.

LearningTheories(Philosophical)Both child and adult learning theories influence curriculum development.

IntrinsicFactors Acceptance of the curriculum by teachers, students and administrators of the academic

institutions

Sound organizational policy, flexibility, financial stability, administrative capacity

Managerial aspects of the institution (leadership, communication, coordination, motivation,

staffing, budgeting etc).


Organizational environment (physical infrastructures, safety, peace, harmony, innovative

environment for students, flexible laws and orders

Principlesofcurriculumdesign1. Principle of Utility: It should be useful in solving problems and facing situations in life.

2. Principle of flexibility: It must be capable of accommodating the changes in the child's diverse

interest, inclinations & accordance with social requirements.

3. Principle of child‐centeredness: The selection of content has to be in keeping with the child

interests and abilities.

4. Principle of life‐centeredness: To enable as individual to function efficiently & face the

challenges in life. Experiences should achieve the physical, mental, social & emotional

development.

5. Principle of community‐centeredness: The needs, problems of the community should be the

focus development of social values & spirit of inquiry.

6. Principle of correlation:‐They should be viewed as an integrated whole bringing about the

development.

7. Principle of activity‐centeredness: Learning through purposeful activity and actual life

experiences makes learning process interesting and enjoyable.

8. Principle for the use of leisure: The use of leisure in an appropriate manner develops creativity,

aesthetic sense and vocational skills.

9. Principle of development of culture and civilization: The pupil should have the knowledge of

their culture and civilization.

10. Principle of need based activity: It is to cater to the needs of society & provide the manpower

for social and economic development.

11. Principle of value: For the inculcation of values like social justice, equality of opportunity,

equality of sexes, social values and democratic values.

12. Conservation principles: Conservations of cultural heritage, monuments, natural resources,

wildlife should be inculcated.

13. Principle of creativity: It should stimulate and develop the creative abilities of the pupils.

14. Principle of harmony: Formal & Informal education, general, liberal and vocational education,

individual and social aims should be skillfully interwoven into a harmonious whole paving the

way for individual development & social upliftment.


Advantagesanddisadvantagesofcurriculum

Advantages Makes learning specific, hence easy to learn

Makes learning systemic and sequential

Makes learning measurable, evaluative and concrete

Saves time and resources to conduct educational activity

Helps achieve goals and objectives if planned and implemented correctly

National and international recognition

Disadvantages Society always changing, so difficult to make changes in curriculum accordingly from time to

time

Needs intensive work to develop a good curriculum. Hence, development of effective

curriculum requires high cost

Makes learning specific, hence high chance of many relevant contents to be missed out.

Can’t include all learning theories

Curriculum made at one setting may not be applicable in other settings

Curriculum change requires intense, tedious processes

Curriculum development highly influenced by political factors. Hence, challenge to make it

unbiased

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Processorientedcurriculum

This design focuses on personal attributes and skills of the individual learner.

These may include such aspects as:

working well with others,

effective leadership,

knowing how to take and follow directions,

communicating effectively,

making accurate observations,

learning independently,

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creating, initiating,

developing a sound value system,

having self‐confidence and being sensitive to others

Characteristics of Process oriented curriculum

The development of skills and traits that will serve the learner for a lifetime processes

There is a higher degree of carry‐over into everyday living experiences than in other designs

Better balance between affective and cognitive considerations.

The library can provide materials, resources and services promoting independent learning and

creativity.

This curriculum design suffers from a difficulty in assessing learning outcomes due to subjective

judgments

Parents may be skeptical as more focus is on the process rather than the content

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2. Identify competencies addressed

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3. Write goals and objectives in terms of competencies

The goals and objectives help to:

Provide an instructional roadmap

Provide clarity about the educational program to learners, teachers and external

stakeholders

Encourage higher order learning

Determine the assessment method

4. Determine teaching methods

Didactic conferences,

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Individual or group projects,

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5. Determine assessment methods

to evaluate the student’s performance

Better to use multiple methods

6. Determine program improvement methods

Student evaluations of the study

Faculty evaluations of the study

Students’ attainment of the specific goals and objectives of educational experience

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SPICESmodelofcurriculumdesignHarden et al published an article in 1984 which was a seminal one in medical education.

It described six dimensions around which a medical curriculum could be organised.

Each of the dimensions could be regarded as a continuum.

Thus a medical curriculum could be located somewhere along the dimensions of:

o Student–centred

o Problem–based

o Integrated

o Community–based

o Electives

o Systematic

Trends in Medical Education (Before and after SPICES model)

Flexner (1910) model (This was the model before SPICES)

Teacher centred

Knowledge giving

Discipline led

Hospital oriented

Standard programme

Opportunistic (apprenticeship)

Harden et al (1984) The SPICES model

Student‐centred

Problem based

Integrated

Community oriented

Electives (+ core)

Systematic

Bligh et al (2001) PRISMS (This model came after the SPICES model)

Practice based linked with professional development

Relevant to students and communities

Inter‐professional and interdisciplinary

Shorter courses taught in smaller units

Multisite locations

Symbiotic (organic whole)


DescriptionoftheSPICESmodelThe purposes of the SPICES model are:

to review an existing curriculum to see where improvements can be made

to develop a new curriculum from scratch

to tackle specific questions or issues relating to a curriculum

to help decide on what sort of teaching methods to use on a course

decide what format the assessment should take

Student Centered

Most of the emphasis is on the learner

Increases learner motivation

Prepares learners for lifelong self directed education

Problem based

Helps develop problem solving skills

Active participation of the learner

Helps deal with an overcrowded curriculum; highlights concepts rather than knowledge

Integrated

Reduces fragmentation of courses

Promotes staff communication and collaboration as departments are being integrated

Holistic approach to learning

Community oriented

Direct contact with the community the learners are being taught to serve

See a wide variety of conditions at a wide variety of stages

Learners learn about the social and economic aspect of illness

Electives

Allows curricular flexibility

Elective +Core

Enables learners to explore further interests in more details; matching to the learner’s needs

Systematic

Teaching is structured and organized

Teaching is sequential

learner can become competent and confident with the least waste of time and resources

Easy for accreditation and validation


Factorsinfluencingcurriculumdesign,levelofevaluationandcorrectiveaction

Several factors affect all curriculum development in meeting the needs of 21st century learners

in both organized academic settings and corporation learning centers.

Blueprinting curriculum development requires selecting learning goals, designing knowledge

delivery models and creating assessment methods for progress.

Political, economic, technological, socio‐cultural, religious, philosophical (learning theories) and

environmental factors affect curriculum design.

Factors influencing the curriculum design, evaluation and corrective action can be better

illustrated by analyzing the factors affecting each level of curriculum design, evaluation and

corrective action

1. Determining health need of society.

2. Working hypothesis

3. Define educational objective.

4. Develop teaching programme.

5. Observe and record about behavior of trainees.

Cognitive

Affective

Psychomotor

6. Evaluation and analysis

7. Corrective action based on manipulative variables:

Teaching

Examination technique

Budget

Environment ‐ student

Health

Situation

8. Objective revise

9. Hypothesis revise

1.Determininghealthneedofthesociety Health need of the society affects curriculum development

The need assessment is also influenced by many factors.

Some factors are related to the society and some are related to those who assess the needs

The political forces also influence the need assessment


Different health needs/gap

o Number of health service providers

o Morbidity/disability

o Mortality

o Number and type of Health institutions

o Quality of existing health services

o Adequacy of drugs and diagnostic equipments

o Quality of service providers

o Health professionals practice and conduct

o Cost of health services

o Geographical accessibility

o Peoples’ participation in Health Service Management

o Information management system etc.

Factorsinfluencingneedassessment Society related factors influencing need assessment

o Socio‐economic status of people (education, income etc)

o Religion

o Tradition

o Taboos

o Availability of other basic facilities

o Trust on health system, past experiences

o Political forces within society, formal & informal leaders

o Burden of diseases

o Population density and distribution

Factors related to those who assess the needs

o Educational status of those involved in need assessment

o Communication and coordination skills

o Language

o Financial capacity

o Degree of obligation, Motivation

o Volume of assigned responsibility

o Complexity

o Methodology

o Technology

o Time

o Vested interest/ hidden agenda

Political forces influencing need assessment

o Donor interest and influence

o Political stability of the nation

o Priority by nation


o Political ideology and commitment

o Country’s economic status

2.WorkingHypothesis A working hypothesis is a hypothesis that is provisionally accepted as a basis for further

research.

It may not be directly tested but provides useful guidance and agreeable directions.

May not have concrete mathematical and scientific basis but can provide ideas, information as

well as qualitative contents required for curriculum design.

a working hypothesis is often used as a conceptual framework in qualitative research

Initial course design is usually framed as working hypothesis which would be tested in practice

and then remodeled according to the students response.

Setting working hypothesis discourages putting the ceiling on learning process and facilitates

the redesigning of the curricular elements as per the feedback from the different stakeholders.

Characteristics of working hypothesis

o Makes learning flexible

o Helps inclusion of qualitative aspects of learning

o Saves resources for further researches

o Complements scientific and quantitative assertions

o Acts as a pivotal feature in the process of inquiry

o Provides provisional alertness for errors in correlation and causation

o Useful during budgetary limitations

o Easy to modify and change

Factors influencing working hypothesis

o Learning theories

o Technological advancement, globalization

o Political situation of the country

o Donors interest

o Resources

o Need of the society

o Motivation, leadership, communication, coordination and communication

o Knowledge, attitude and skills of people involved in curriculum design etc.

3.DefineEducationalobjectivesEducational objectives are the statement of what learners are intended to (after the specific session

or/and the program of study):

o Know (cognitive)

o Think, believe (affective)

o Do (psychomotor)


Two types

o Course or session instructional objective (after the specific session or course)

o Program learning objective (after the completion of the program of study)

Course or session instructional objectives:

o Statements of what specific teachers or instructors intend for students to know, think

and do after the completion of the course or session

Program learning objectives:

o Statements of what the entire faculty, college or the university believes the students will

be able to know, think and do after completion of the entire program of study.

o They are broader than the course or session objectives

Whyeducationalobjectives?? To help curriculum planning, analysis and renewal

Easy to get feedback

Encourages organized learning

Gives measurable indicators

Standardization of the course and program of study

Writingeducationalobjectives Use verbs like recall, illustrate, demonstrate, generate etc. based on different domains of

learning process

Use the format : Who…What behavior….under what condition… how well???

Examples

o After the completion of the course (condition), the students (who) will be able to

demonstrate (what behavior) the water purification by SODIS method correctly (how

well).

Factorsinfluencingtheformationofeducationalobjectives Interest of teacher, university, donor etc.

Technology

Budget

Security

Time

Relevance to current needs of the society and country

Level of the program of study (eg. Basic, intermediate, advanced)


4.Developteachingprograms There was a time when a university was almost solely responsible for the content of its courses

and the curriculum was largely defined by a syllabus that was little more than a list of the

content topics that were to be dealt with by means of the lecture programme.

Nowadays the explosion in knowledge, coupled with the demands of various stakeholders,

places tremendous pressures on decisions about the content of the curriculum.

There are very real tensions between the wishes of the teachers who deliver the curriculum to

preserve and even increase the subject content of their course and the many ‘external’

stakeholders who want space for the development of general skills that have a strong vocational

relevance.

There are pressures from professional/vocational bodies suggesting important ‘core’ areas of

knowledge (content) that should be included in typical courses of study in the subject.

Whatisteachingprogram???The teaching program which is a blend of

curriculum content,

Methodology

philosophical foundation and

Resources

Good teaching program should follow the key principles of

Usability

Feasibility

Factors affecting development of teaching program

Several curriculum players affect the development of teaching program

Government (Department of Education)

Textbook publishers

Professional bodies (Recruiting agencies)

School, college and university

Teachers

Students

Donors

Besides the curriculum players, the other forces affecting the development of the teaching program are:

Current needs of the society and country

Change in concepts of learning (learning theories)

Globalization

Financial capacity

Time


Researches

Competence of curriculum developers

Level of program of study

5.ObserveandRecordaboutthebehavioroftrainees

Observingandrecordingthebehavioroftrainees: Measure how well the students master on the contents of the teaching program

How the students feel, believe and value about the teaching program

How skilled the students have become on acquiring the teaching program

Usefulnessofobservingandrecordingthebehavioroftrainees.. Finding current gaps in teaching program

Evaluation and analysis of performance

Providing feedback to the curriculum developers

Further planning and redesigning the curriculum

Levelsofobservingandrecordingthebehavioroftrainees Cognitive (knowledge)

Affective (attitude)

Psychomotor (motor skills)

Factorsaffectingtheobservingandrecordingthebehavioroftrainees Time

Competency of the teacher

Teaching learning environment

Budget

Type and level of the course or program of study etc.

Bloom’sTaxonomyoflearningdomains Knowledge is not power unless it is acted upon.

The concept of learning has changed from merely knowing to knowing, developing attitude and

applying in life processes.

A committee of colleges, led by Benjamin Bloom (1956), identified three domains of educational

activities:

o Cognitive: Mental skills (Knowledge)

o Affective: growth in feelings or emotional areas (Attitude)

o Psychomotor: manual or physical skills (Skills)

Cognitive domain

It further includes six domains like knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis

and ,evaluation


o Knowledge

o Recalling specific and general items of information and also information about

methods, processes and patterns

o Key Words: defines, describes, identifies, knows, labels, lists, matches, names, outlines,

recalls, recognizes, reproduces, selects, states.

o Comprehension

o Recognition of items of information settings similar to but different from those in

which they were first encountered.

o Key Words: comprehends, converts, defends, distinguishes, estimates, explains,

extends, generalizes, gives an example, infers, interprets, paraphrases, predicts,

rewrites, summarizes, translates.

o Application

o Explaining previously unseen data or events by applying knowledge from other

situations

o Key Words: applies, changes, computes, constructs, demonstrates, discovers,

manipulates, modifies, operates, predicts, prepares, produces, relates, shows, solves,

uses.

o Analysis

o Breaking down blocks of information into elements for the purpose of clarification.

o Key Words: analyzes, breaks down, compares, contrasts, diagrams, deconstructs,

differentiates, discriminates, distinguishes, identifies, illustrates, infers, outlines, relates,

selects, separates.

o Synthesis

o Combining elements to form coherent units of information.

o Key Words: categorizes, combines, compiles, composes, creates, devises, designs,

explains, generates, modifies, organizes, plans, rearranges, reconstructs, relates,

reorganizes, revises, rewrites, summarizes, tells, writes.

o Evaluation

o Making judgment about the value of information, materials or methods for given

purposes

o Key Words: appraises, compares, concludes, contrasts, criticizes, critiques, defends,

describes, discriminates, evaluates, explains, interprets, justifies, relates, summarizes,

supports.

Affective domain

The affective domain includes the manner in which we deal with things emotionally, such as

o feelings, values, appreciation, enthusiasms, motivations, and attitudes.


Affective domains are further divided into five levels:

Receiving:

o Sensitivity to certain stimuli and a willingness to receive or attend to them.

o Key Words: asks, chooses, describes, follows, gives, holds, identifies, locates, names, points to,

selects, sits, erects, replies, uses.

Responding:

o Involvement in a subject or activity or event to the extent of seeking it out, working with it or

engaging in it.

o Key Words: answers, assists, aids, complies, conforms, discusses, greets, helps, labels, performs,

practices, presents, reads, recites, reports, selects, tells, writes.

Valuing:

o Commitment to or conviction in certain goals, ideas or beliefs

o Key Words: completes, demonstrates, differentiates, explains, follows, forms, initiates, invites,

joins, justifies, proposes, reads, reports, selects, shares, studies, works.

Organisation:

o Organisation of values into a system, awareness of relevance of and relations between

appropriate values and the establishment of dominant personal values.

o Key Words: adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, completes, defends, explains,

formulates, generalizes, identifies, integrates, modifies, orders, organizes, prepares, relates,

synthesizes.

Characterisation by a Value Complex:

o Integration of beliefs, ideas and attitudes into a total philosophy of world view.

o Key Words: acts, discriminates, displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices,

proposes, qualifies, questions, revises, serves, solves, verifies.

Psychomotordomaino The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor‐skill

areas.

o Development of these skills requires practice

o measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.

o It talks about the third level of performance with the help of physical movement when the

cognitive and affective levels have already met.

o It goes beyond the classroom setting and focuses on ability to apply the learnt things in practical

life.


o The learner has reached the level to perform in front of other novice learners.

o Hence, the student has reached the level in which he is mentally prepared to act physically.

o Hence, the learner is able to use sensory cues (signals) to guide motor activity which gradually

extends up to the level in which he can finally become used to it and further can develop new

movement patterns.

DetailofthedomainThe different categories of the psychomotor domain from simple to complex level are given below:

1. Perception: The ability to use sensory cues to guide motor activity. Also called the selection step

a. Key Words: chooses, describes, detects, differentiates, distinguishes, identifies, isolates,

relates, selects.

2. Set: Readiness to act. It includes mental, physical, and emotional sets.

a. Key Words: begins, displays, explains, moves, proceeds, reacts, shows, states,

volunteers.

3. Guided Response: The early stages in learning a complex skill that includes imitation and trial

and error. Adequacy of performance is achieved by practicing.

a. Key Words: copies, traces, follows, react, reproduce, responds

4. Mechanism: This is the intermediate stage in learning a complex skill. Learned responses have

become habitual and the movements can be performed with some confidence and proficiency.

a. Key Words: assembles, calibrates, constructs, dismantles, displays, fastens, fixes, grinds,

heats, manipulates, measures, mends, mixes, organizes, sketches.

5. Complex Overt Response:

a. The skillful performance of motor acts that involve complex movement patterns.

b. Proficiency is indicated by a quick, accurate, and highly coordinated performance,

requiring a minimum of energy.

c. This category includes performing without hesitation, and automatic performance.

d. The Key Words are the same as Mechanism, but will have adverbs or adjectives that

indicate that the performance is quicker, better, more accurate, etc.

6. Adaptation: Skills are well developed and the individual can modify movement patterns to fit

special requirements.

a. Key Words: adapts, alters, changes, rearranges, reorganizes, revises, varies.

7. Origination: Creating new movement patterns to fit a particular situation or specific problem.

Learning outcomes emphasize creativity based upon highly developed skills.

a. Key Words: arranges, builds, combines, composes, constructs, creates, designs, initiate,

makes, originates.


6.AnalysisandEvaluationEvaluation is a systematic way of learning from experience and using the lesson learnt to improve

current activities and promote better planning by careful selection of alternatives for future action

‐WHO

o Analysis is a part of evaluation.

o In the above definition of evaluation given by WHO, analysis is the systematic way of learning

from experiences.

o Thus analysis helps identify the current gaps in teaching programme whereas evaluation is

analysis+ what can be done to overcome the current gaps appropriately for future action

o Thus evaluation is the process of

o Determining the appropriateness of program planning (diagnostic),

o Assessing the degree of effectiveness and progress of programme implementation

(formative),

o Measuring the final achievement of the program (summative),

and finally suggesting appropriate measures for corrective action

6.1.Levelsofevaluationo Diagnostic evaluation

o Formative evaluation

o Summative evaluation

6.1.1.Diagnosticevaluation Done at beginning of program.

Also called input evaluation

Done to know if proper steps are followed in

o need assessment,

o working hypothesis,

o setting objectives,

o Selecting content

o selecting the appropriate methods and resources

6.1.2.Formativeevaluationo Done in the middle of evaluation

o Also called progress evaluation

o Done to know if proper steps are followed in

o Delivering the content

o Using the selected methods and resources

o Observing and recording the behavior of trainees

o Also recommends the ways and means to improve learning procedures


6.1.3.Summativeevaluationo Done at the end of the programme

o Also called achievement evaluation

o Done to analyze:

o Success of the programme as a whole. E.g. Development in knowledge, attitude and

skills of students after overall programme, Change in the morbidity and mortality rate,

Improvement of socioeconomic status of people

o Provides appropriate feedback for redesigning the curriculum

Criteriaforevaluation(asrecommendedbyWHO)o Adequacy

o Relevancy (as per the needs)

o Efficiency

o Appropriateness (techniques, procedures)

Methodsofevaluationo Interview

o Observation

o Review of records and reports

o Meeting and discussion

Processofevaluation‐(R.FMager)o Formulating the objectives of evaluation

o Determining appropriate techniques and tools

o Collecting data and information using determined techniques and tools

o Analyzing and interpreting the collected data and information

o Preparing evaluation report and recommend to concerned authority for necessary action

Factorsinfluencinganalysisandevaluationo Resource factors (Man, material, money, time, technology)

o Political factors (instability, bureaucracy)

o Performance and achievement of students

o Impact of overall program on society

o Ability of the analysts and evaluators


7.Correctiveactionbasedonmanipulativevariables

Manipulativevariableso Manipulative means skillful at influencing sb or forcing sb to do what you want, often in an

unfair way, by editing, redesigning etc.

o So manipulative variables are at risk of being used in an unfair way that may hinder the

effectiveness of teaching programme

o Hence corrective action needs to be done based on manipulative variables for effective teaching

learning activities.

Somemanipulativevariables Teaching

Examination technique

Budget

Environment – student(setting)

Health (degree of concern)

Situation (situation of college (HR), university (concern), society (needs, pressure), job

opportunities (filtering), political situation, trend across universities)

Factorsaffectingthecorrectiveactionbasedonmanipulativevariables: Interest, level of participation, pressure and feedback from the students

Cognitive, affective and psychomotor level of the students

Researches related to HR issues, school health etc.

Pressure from parents, society, university

Competition

8.ObjectiveRevise1. Objectives are the statement of what learners are intended to (after the specific session or/and

the program of study):

Know (cognitive)

Think, believe (affective)

Do (psychomotor)

2. Two types

Course or session instructional objective (after the specific session or course)

Program learning objective (after the completion of the program of study)


3. Objective Revision is hence the Revision of the statements of what the learners are expected to

do after completion of the session, course or the overall program

4. Objective revision is one of the steps in corrective action in curriculum design in which change

or modification is done as per the :

Analysis and evaluation processes.

Corrective action based on manipulative variables

Change in the concepts and theories of learning

5. Suppose, the corrective action is done in the examination technique as follows: E.g. let us

suppose that,

Previously it was subjective questions in which students had to explain about domains

of learning and now, it is multiple choice questions in which students have to identify

which behavior falls under what domain of learning.

Hence the previous objective and revised objective will have different expectations from

the students…

9.(Working)HypothesisRevise Initial course design is usually framed as working hypothesis which would be tested in practice

and then remodeled according to the students response.

Hence revision of working hypothesis can be done as they are flexible and were just the draft

hypothesis previously when they were initially designed.

Whyrevisionofhypothesis?? To avoid errors and fulfill gaps in the current hypothesis

To make curriculum more stable and functional

To facilitate the learning process,

to revise the contents as per the change in the needs of the students, society and country

To obey the diagnostic, formative and summative evaluation procedures

Factorsaffectingrevisionofworkinghypothesis Change in the needs

Change in learning theories

Researches

Resources

Findings from the evaluation processes


Curriculum change The development in the field of education is possible by the gradual improvement and

advancement i.e. change

Curriculum also needs to change over certain period of time to comply the trend in the field of

education so as to meet the requirement of students, colleges, university, recruiting agencies

and the society

Curriculum change is hence essential and equally challenging that requires careful procedures

starting from reviewing and revising the educational objectives to the evaluation of the

outcomes of education.

Stepsofcurriculumchange

1. Objectives of education

2. Diagnosis in developed curriculum

Achievement (examination performance, proficiency in competency to serve society )

Student as learner (interview, meetings and discussions)

Curriculum problem (inappropriate depth and breadth, less adaptable, less significant

and less applicable etc.)

3. Selection of curriculum content and experience (keeping following things in consideration)

Rational selection

Problem establishing criteria (i.e. problem settling criteria)

Significance

Depth and breadth

Adaptability

Appropriate need and interest of trainees

4. Organization of curriculum experiences and learning

5. Evaluation of the outcomes of curriculum


1.Objectivesofeducation: organized education contain varied possibilities for learning, whether or not the persons

involved in planning the curriculum content take them into account in making decisions.

Unfortunately, the possibilities for negative learning are also available like:

Inadequate good feelings to self and others

Mechanical responses without complete understanding

Over‐dependence

Jumping to conclusions without much thought or evidence etc.

Hence, clarity of objectives is one of the most important aspects in designing the curriculum.

So, during the curriculum change process, the objectives should be reviewed and revised

keeping the following things in consideration:

the acquisition of desirable learning should not be placed to chance

We shouldn’t over‐emphasize certain learning in ways that leads to less emphasis on

desirable learning

We should equally be alert on potential negative learning

Thus, objectives should be reviewed and revised to make

a balance between Cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains of learning

a balance between Course or session objectives and overall program objectives

2.Diagnosisindevelopedcurriculum Achievement (examination performance, proficiency in competency to serve society)

Student as learner (interview, meetings and discussions)

Curriculum problem (inappropriate depth and breadth, less adaptable, less significant

and less applicable etc.)


2.1.achievementThe diagnosis can be done in different ways. Achievement is one of them.The Academic performance of

the students as well as their practical skills can be evaluated in order to make new curriculum

experience with the aim of developing curriculum experience to improve performance

The diagnosis in the achievement is done to evaluate the following:

The examination performance of the students (Written and verbal examinations)

Proficiency in competencies to serve the society

Evaluation of performance in the professional organizations by measuring

competencies (direct measurement)

Feedback from the recruiting agencies, community people etc (indirect

measurement)

2.2. Studentaslearner The students can also be asked whether or not they have experienced the positive learning.

The diagnosis of “student as learner” is done because of the following reasons:

There may be negative learning experiences like less feeling of good to self and others,

mechanical responses without complete understanding, abuse and unnecessary

pressure, less support from the curriculum implementers etc.

To assess the motivation level of students and their involvement in curriculum

experience.

The different techniques to diagnose learning experience by students can be done by:

Review meeting

Interview

Discussions

Seminars etc.

2.3.Curriculumproblem Inappropriate depth and breadth

The contents are analyzed how deep the contents have gone into and how wide have

they reached.

Depth is diagnosed to analyze the content adequacy or sufficiency

Breadth is diagnosed to analyze content linkage to other disciplines


Less adaptable

The contents and teaching methodologies are diagnosed to evaluate whether or not the

curriculum experiences can be internally accepted by the students to make it an integral

part of their life and whether or not the students can adapt the curriculum experiences.

Also takes into account the adaptability in terms of sociocultural determinants, legal

provisions, choice and interest etc

Less significant

Whether or not the curriculum experiences are as per the need of the students, society

Whether or not the contents are valid and reliable

Less applicable

Whether or not the learning experiences are possible in real life situations i.e. volume

and complexity

Whether or not the learnt things can really be translated into behaviors i.e. feasibility

3.Selectionofcurriculumcontentandexperience While content is the “meat” of the curriculum plan, we can consider learning experiences

planned for the students as the “heart” of the plan (Ornstein and Hunkins, 1998).

The learning experiences are the means towards achieving the goals and objectives of the

curriculum.

Curriculum experience is also called the learning experience

Tyler used the term “learning experience” in his model of curriculum design

It is the instructional component of the curriculum in which the students, teachers and content

interact among each other

Hence curriculum experience includes the following:

Methods (the lecture method, small group discussion, role‐playing, fieldwork)

learning activities (answering questions, solving problems, journal writing, viewing

videos, doing experiments, playing games )

Use of resources (whiteboards, markers, charts, LCD, OHP etc.)

The curriculum experience is selected in such a way that it meets the newly refined and

designed objectives of education (Rational selection)


Rational selection is done for both contents as well as experiences

The rational selection of contents is done on the basis of problem establishing criteria like:

Significance

Depth and breadth

Adaptability

Appropriate need and interest of trainees

Rational selection of curriculum experiences is done by:

Proper selection of teaching methodology as per the content

Proper selection of activities as per the methodology

Proper selection of the resources for carrying out activities

Rational selection helps for mutual interaction between the teacher, student and content

The selection is influenced by: budget, time, competency to use resources, technological

advancement etc.

4.OrganizingcurriculumexperiencesandlearningAfter having decided on the content and curriculum experiences, the next step is to organise them in a

form that will facilitate learning.

PrinciplesofContentOrganisationThe following principles have been proposed when deciding on content organisation (Sowell, 2000;

Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998):

Scope

When deciding about the scope of a curriculum, the following guidelines may be useful:

The usefulness of the content selected.

whether the content caters to diverse student abilities

if the amount of content selected can be covered in the specified period of time

if there is a balance in the content selected between cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains.


Sequence

Sequence refers to the organisation of content and the extent to which it fosters cumulative and

continuous learning (referred to as vertical relationship among sections of the curriculum).

The following are some principles identified as guidelines in sequencing the curriculum: (Ornstein and

Hunkins, 1998, Taba, 1962, Bruner, 1960).

a) Simple to complex – content is organised going from simple subordinate components to complex components depicting interrelationships among components. Optimal learning occurs when students are presented with easy, often concrete content and to more difficult and abstract content.

b) Spiral ‐ In a ‘spiral curriculum’, concepts may be introduced on a simple level in the early grades, then revisited with more and more complexity and application later on (Bruner, 1960)

c) Prerequisites – it works on the assumption that bits of information or learning must be grasped before other bits of information can be understood.

d) Whole to part – content is better understood if an overview (whole) is first presented to show the connections between the parts.

e) Chronology – this is a useful organiser for sequencing content especially in subjects such as history, political science and world events.

f) Vertical organisation ‐ This simply means that content and skills are arranged so that they build on one another; that they align with the general sequence of cognitive development. They indicate what students have learned and what they will learn later.

g) Horizontal organisation ‐ It involves how skills and content that are taught during one level or one period of time relate to another. For example, in a social science course, you might consider particular issues from a historical, sociological, political and economic point of view.

Integration

Integration is the bringing together of the concepts, skills and values of different subject areas to

reinforce each other. Bits of information from different subject areas are brought together in such a way

to present the learner with a unified picture of knowledge.

Example of the integrated curriculum includes science‐technology‐society. In the science‐technology‐

society (STS) curriculum, science is combined with social sciences in attempting to solve practical,

everyday problems. The integrated approach takes the student outside the laboratory and away from

the textbook into the local community.

Continuity

Continuity ensures that ideas, themes and skills are repeated as the learner progresses through the

grades. For example, students in the primary grades are taught the principles of essay writing. The same

principles are repeated in the succeeding years. Continuity ensures the reappearance of certain major

ideas at different grade levels at increased depth and complexity over the length of the curriculum.


Criteriafororganizinglearningexperiences:Domains of learning:

Methods and materials should be organized in such a way that it meets the objectives in different levels

in sequence i.e. from cognitive, affective to psychomotor. For example, lecture method ‐ group

discussion ‐ demonstration

Feasibility:

The learning experiences should also be organized in such a way that they can be carried out in

sequence with time, available facilities and expertise of teachers. They are prioritized accordingly in

which some learning experiences may be omitted and some may be repeatedly used in sequence.

Complexity:

The simple methods and materials are selected first which are followed by more and more complex

methods and materials to enhance sequential learning.

5.Evaluationoftheoutcomesofcurriculum

When the new draft curriculum has been formed during the curriculum change process, the

evaluation of outcomes of the curriculum is necessary before making it accepted, accredited and

stable.

The outcomes of curriculum are evaluated by the summative evaluation.

Two levels:

to know if learners achieved the objectives

whether the programme produced the desired outcomes.

Some questions that can be used while evaluating the outcomes of curriculum:

1) Have the competencies developed in students as per the set objectives after the completion of

the program of study?

2) Has the curriculum been applicable in real life situations?

3) Has the lack of human resources in the society been overcome?

4) Are the people benefitted by the given curriculum? To what extent?

5) Has the given curriculum been successful in obeying the socio‐cultural norms and values? Etc.


Methods of evaluation:

Questionnaire survey

Key informant interviews

Focus group discussions

Observations

Case study

Review of records and reports

Process of evaluation:

Formulating the objectives of evaluation

Determining appropriate techniques and tools

Collecting data and information using determined techniques and tools

Analyzing and interpreting the collected data and information

Preparing evaluation report and recommend to concerned authority for necessary action

Documents

Educational Planning and Curriculum Development