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Design Approach to Asset Management focusing on the Surface Water Environment and Public Open Space

Christine Heremaia MLA Lincoln University, Christchurch City Council 44th International Federation of Landscape Architects (IFLA) World Congress 2007 27 – 31 August 2007 Kuala Lumpur Malaysia 1.0 Introduction

Understanding of design is very much a human construct and relates to how people perceive and shape the world around them. The term itself, is widely used in a range of disciplines and within everyday language, consequently it has a range of meanings depending on the context and who is using it. For example, from an urban perspective, design has been defined as the art of shaping cities1, from an ecological perspective, it has been described as the hinge that connects culture and nature through the interchange of materials, flows of energy, and choices of land use2, and from an understanding of thinking processes, it has been described as putting things together to deliver value3. I would argue that in addition to all of the above, design enables abstract land use legislation to be realised and crystallised into concrete form related to place.

In New Zealand, the development and management of public infrastructure is a core activity of local government. Legislation requires a comprehensive and structured approach to the management of infrastructural assets, known as ‘asset management’. These assets deliver a range of community benefits ranging from the management of storm water through to the provision of public open space, and the protection of important ecological sites and landscape features. As these infrastructural assets provide the framework and inner workings of a city, their design, condition, and location influences not only the overall functioning of a city, but also how individual community members perceive, experience and utilise the world around them. While legislation provides the institutional framework and approach to developing and managing public infrastructure, the practice can be more difficult. An understanding of design can highlight the factors, human skills, and organisational structures that influence the development and management of these assets, and show ways to realise their full potential. Christchurch will be used to illustrate the application of this understanding from a local government perspective. 2.0 Asset Management Public infrastructure consists of biophysical assets owned by territorial local authorities such as City Councils. These assets are renewed by the replacement of individual components, whilst at the same time, maintaining the functioning of the overall system. The design and management of these assets is guided by the Local Government Act (2002) which gives territorial local authorities specific responsibilities in the sustainable development of their communities, described as taking “ a broad role in promoting social, economic, environmental, and cultural well being”. This must be done in a way that also achieves the purpose of the Resource Management Act (1991) which

1 Bogunovich D 2003 Protocol with Potential? Planning Quarterly, New Zealand Planning Institute, Auckland, New Zealand Auckland, New Zealand, issue No 151, p.16 2 Van der Ryn & Stuart Cowan 1996 Ecological Design Island Press United States of America p.8 3 De Bono E. 2003 Why so stupid?: How the human race has never really learnt to think. Blackrock, Ireland: Blackhall p247

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promotes the sustainable management of natural and physical resources. Territorial local authorities are also required to administer this Act. Implementing the legislative requirements is made difficult through the evolving nature of these assets, constraints brought about from limited budgets and resources, and the increasing demands for new infrastructure as cities expand. It is also due to multiple design decisions incorporating multiple values made by successive people over time. Many people do not fully appreciate the full range of factors that need to be considered in terms of surface water and land use legislation and how these factors can then be translated and incorporated into design decisions that reflect the intentions of these Acts. 3.0 Design and its Application to Asset Management The use of conceptual models can assist in interpreting the diverse range of understandings of design and their application to policy and asset management. In this paper, I investigate design and its application to asset management from three perspectives: design as a framework for decision making, design as a sequence of actions, and design as a way of thinking. (i) Design as a framework for decision making An analysis of the different design approaches (eg urban design, garden design, ecological design) indicates that they are characterised by a series of key principles underpinning the design process and outcome. Consideration is also given to the implications associated with scale and time, and with each approach, there is a common set of values. For example, with urban design, highest value is given to people and place whereas with ecological design, the emphasis is on the underlying natural environment. These different components form a framework for decision making that can be equally applied to the management of public infrastructure based on the requirements of the Local Government Act (2002) and the Resource Management Act (1991). Principles, scales, timeframes, and values as identified in these two Acts are outlined in Table 1. Table 1 Design Framework incorporating Local Government Act (2002) & Resource Management Act (1991) LOCAL GOVERNMENT ACT (2002) RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ACT (1991) design outcome sustainable development (social wellbeing,

cultural wellbeing, environmental wellbeing, economic wellbeing) as reflected in the ‘Long Term Council Community Plan’

sustainable management of natural and physical resources

design process public participation, incorporation of social, cultural, environmental, and economic values

integrated management of natural and physical resources, mitigation of adverse effects , public consultation

scale district, community bioregion, catchment, site time 10 year LTCCP, 3 year review

life cycle of assets Indefinite

values community wellbeing and aspirations as expressed through the public participation process

natural character, ecosystem health, Maori values

Between them, the Acts provide a focus on both the underlying natural environment and community needs and aspirations. The latter is reflected in the values that are identified by the community as being important in achieving environmental, social, cultural and economic wellbeing.

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(ii) Design as a sequence of actions Design can also be considered a process that essentially relates all the operational factors into a comprehensive whole (Sasaki 1950)4. In terms of the development and management of public infrastructure, this includes the original idea or need, the process of its development, details or instructions on how to achieve or produce it, the final output or product, its ongoing maintenance and monitoring, and what occurs when it is no longer needed or needs replacing. An appreciation of these different steps in the design process provides a platform for understanding the various influences on decision making. Some of these influences are listed in Table 2. Table 2 Factors influencing the Design Process

DESIGN STAGE FACTORS INFLUENCING THE DESIGN PROCESS design idea / need issues, needs, legislation, policy, cultural and social values, environmental context, politics design development & approval

selection of questions, framing of questions, representation methods, values incorporated, budget, people involved (ie experts, community), consultation processes, approval processes

design instructions representation methods, documentation, instruction systems and processes design implementation type of asset, contractors, resource consent conditions design outcome aesthetics, critique, performance indicators, community values maintenance costs and available budget, instructions, contracts, expertise of staff, type of asset, levels of

service, community expectations Monitoring use of technology, expertise of people monitoring, attributes being monitored, methodologies,

systems and processes Review aesthetics, critique, performance indicators, community values and needs

Taken as a whole, design as a sequence of actions has much in common with the project management process. (iii) Design as a way of thinking. The actual thought processes necessary for ‘design thinking’ are ‘creativity’ and ‘logical’ thinking, which De Bono (2003) has renamed vertical thinking. De Bono makes a clear distinction between artistic creativity and idea creativity. Artistic creativity is when an artist creates work or has applied his or her aesthetic sense to found objects5. Idea creativity, which he has renamed ‘lateral thinking’, occurs when the value of the idea can be seen in hindsight with the development of a logical pathway to it. These ideas are associated with changing perceptions, concepts and ideas6 and can result in ‘unexpected effectiveness’ meaning that the idea was not expected and that it has produced added value. The differences between lateral thinking and vertical thinking are summarised in Table 3. In practice, lateral and logical thinking are both critical to overall success. Lateral thinking is associated with the first stage of the thinking process. It involves definition of the problem, project or situation, development of ideas and an understanding of the values given to the different aspects. Vertical thinking, the second stage, involves the development of ideas that have already been identified. The use of lateral thinking, in particular, is critical to achieving ‘integrated management of the effects of the use, development, or protection of land and associated natural and physical resources in their district’, a requirement of the Resource Management Act 4 Cited in Swaffield, S.R. (Ed). 2002 Theory in Landscape Architecture, a Reader Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. United States of America. 5 De Bono E. 2003 Why so stupid?: How the human race has never really learnt to think. Blackrock, Ireland: Blackhall p. 192 6 De Bono E. 2003 Why so stupid?: How the human race has never really learnt to think. Blackrock, Ireland: Blackhall p.195

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(1991). It also enables the values that are important to a community to be recognised and translated into site design and management. Table 3 Comparison between Vertical and Lateral Thinking7

Lateral thinking Vertical thinking First stage of the thinking process Often taken for granted or assumed not to be there at all.

Second stage of the thinking process

Generation of new ideas and approaches Develop existing ideas and approaches Discontinuity Jump between unrelated ideas and information

Continuity Proceed from one state of information to another state of information

Not necessary to be right each step of the process Necessary to be right at each step of the process Changes direction from identified options Chooses from identified options Works outside the yes/no system Uses yes/no system Uses information for setting off new ideas Uses information for meaning Makes deliberate jumps away from the theme being studied One thing must follow directly from another Welcomes intrusions Concentrates on what is relevant Explores the least likely directions Moves in the most likely directions Is an open ended procedure Is a closed procedure

4.0 Case Study The application of these conceptual design models to asset management will be illustrated using Christchurch as a case study. Design is considered in terms of a framework for decision making through a discussion on the different design components as they relate to Christchurch’s asset management planning associated with the surface water environment and public open space. In terms of the design process, consideration is given to the internal Council processes that lead to the development and management of public infrastructure; and with design thinking, its relevance is illustrated mainly through specific projects. It is important to appreciate, however, that for Christchurch the adjustment to the new legislation has been an evolving process as the City comes to grips with what it means in practice. (i) Background Christchurch is located on the east coast of the South Island, New Zealand. It is characterised by the ancient volcanic rocks of the Port Hills, which rise to a height of approximately 500 metres and the relatively flat outwash of the Canterbury Plains that have evolved from the movement of the braided Waimakariri River system. The city8 itself, was conceived in England during the late 1840s as a model Anglican (church) settlement. Today, it has a population of approximately 340,000 and covers an area of 45,240 hectares. For many decades, public open space and the surface water environment were managed as separate infrastructural systems. Drainage was undertaken in accordance with the Christchurch Drainage Act (1875) which had as its purpose the disposal of surface water, waste water and sewage for that land draining towards the sea. Although the Drainage Board was successful in improving the drainage of the city, its single purpose focus meant that many other values were lost with the filling of wetlands, construction of drains and the channelisation of natural waterways. With the enactment of the Resource Management Act (1991), the Christchurch Drainage Board was dis- 7 De Bono E. 1971 Lateral Thinking for Management London Penquin Books p. 4 - 13 8 Although Christchurch amalgamated with Banks Peninsula in 2006, this paper refers only to the former Christchurch City. The Council functions associated with the former Banks Peninsula Council are currently being integrated into the Christchurch organisation.

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established and its functions incorporated within the newly formed Christchurch City Council and Canterbury Regional Council. Today, more than 300 kms of open waterway and more than 500 kms of piping has replaced approximately 90% of the city’s original wetland area. The early planning of Christchurch incorporated many of the new ideas on urban and social reform that were occurring in England at that time. This included the ‘Garden City’ concept and the setting aside of land for recreational purposes. Reserves, such as Hagley Park that were established during this period, have been added to through reserve contributions, a statutory requirement associated with new developments. Today Christchurch contains an extensive network of parks (approximately 3,400 hectares) and public open space continues to be an essential component of the City’s garden city identity.

Aerial view of Christchurch Avon River, central city Travis Wetland (ii) Design as a Framework for Decision Making The design framework enables an overall appreciation of the community’s aspirations and thus the Council’s approach to managing public infrastructure. In terms of design outcomes, the need for sustainable development and management was recognised and embraced. This is illustrated in the Long term Council Community Plan through its community outcomes and strategic directions, the latter being defined as the need to strive for strong communities, healthy environment, liveable city, and a prosperous economy. For the city’s parks, waterways, wetlands and streetscapes, this is being achieved through the adoption of a multi - valued approach to their development and management. Parks and streets are no longer considered simply in terms of recreation and traffic movement, but also for a range of other values. Similarly, the city has moved from its single utility drainage approach to one that incorporates ecological, landscape, heritage, recreation, and cultural values. As a consequence parks are being aligned to natural drainage patterns, resulting in the integration of the blue and green foot print for the city. To achieve the design outcomes associated with the sustainable development and management of public infrastructure, Council employed staff from a range of disciplines (ie landscape architects, drainage engineers, botanists, ornithologists, planners) who work together in multidisciplinary project teams. The collaboration amongst the different experts, together with local community representatives, developers, and other stake holders, means that the different values are being addressed during the design process. This new values based approach is being addressed at a range of scales utilising the different planning tools within Council. Initially it was piloted on a number of small projects. In 1996, with the requirement to produce Asset Management Plans (Amendment 3, Local Government Act 1974), this values based approach was investigated from a citywide perspective and formalised into Council policies, budgets and documentation. Translating this new approach into an understanding of long term

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costs was not easy. For waterways and wetlands, it was achieved through the city being divided up into areas based on land use, sense of community and land water interface. A long term vision was developed for each area and the estimated cost of implementing this vision determined the amount of funding that would be needed over the next 40 years. Other scales that are also being used include integrated catchment management plans that focus on water quality and quantity, area plans associated with large greenfield developments, neighbourhood plans associated with existing urban areas, city wide plans associated with the urban growth strategy, as well as single sites associated with individual developments. Management of this infrastructure is considered over a range of different timeframes with statutory requirements for reviewing the Long Term Council Community Plan and consulting with the community, available budgets, and the life cycle of individual components being the primary drivers. For the surface water environment, the current priorities are water quality, water quantity and protection of ecological values. At this stage, restoration of degraded waterways is, for financial reasons, limited to time of renewal of existing infrastructure or the development of new infrastructure associated with urban development. (iii) Design as a Process The design process can be considered a linear process incorporating planning and investigations, capital works, maintenance, monitoring, and renewal. It can originate from within Council or external to it. In terms of public infrastructure associated with the surface water environment and public open space, this process can be initiated by a private development, a community aspiration or need, or at the time of renewal of a specific infrastructural component. The origin of the design process will determine its route, including who is involved, how it is resolved, and who will pay for it. For new infrastructure that originates from the private sector as part of a new development, contact with Council is made through the Environmental Services Unit. This Unit then liaises with the various asset management planners associated with the different types of public infrastructure and co-ordinates their requirements to ensure that they are met. Once the design has been approved and built, the assets are then formally handed on to the Asset Management Units to maintain and monitor. At time of renewal, the Asset Management Team assesses whether or not they need to be replaced as is, or an alternative solution may better meet community needs. The upgrade is undertaken by staff in the Capital Programme Unit of Council. In terms of surface water management, the cost of the public infrastructure is initially met by the developer. Ongoing operating and renewal costs are funded through rates. One of the weaknesses of the design process relates to the many steps in the actual process itself, the large number of people involved, and how this knowledge, design objectives, and accountability is transferred. Although the development of guides, standards, and computerised systems are improving this process, it is very much a human process, dependent on the persons involved, their knowledge, expertise and the time and resources that they have available for the task.

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(iii) Design as a Way of Thinking Design as a way of thinking, particularly in the use of creativity, enables the functional integration of new components into existing public infrastructure both spatially and from a network perspective. It also allows the incorporation of different values in a manner that achieves environmental, social, cultural, and economic wellbeing. This need for integration has been recognised in the recent Council restructuring that gives some parts of Council specific responsibility for ensuring that integrated development occurs. These Units are ‘Strategy and Planning’ that has the strategic overview, ‘Asset and Network Planning’ that oversees asset management planning, ‘Capital Programme’ that undertakes developments that are initiated either through asset renewal or a community need, and the ‘Environmental Services Unit’ that oversees private developments. Two projects illustrate how design thinking can lead to innovative solutions that recognise and integrate a range of values and requirements. Creativity and different view points were critical to resolving issues and alternative solutions emerging. The first project originated through the need for infrastructure renewal and the second project, came about as a result of a greenfield development. (a) Edward Street Project Edward Street, located in an older residential area of Christchurch, was frequently flooded during storm events. This was due to an inadequate stormwater pipe that ran underground within residential properties. Rather than replace and upgrade the existing pipe, a creative and collaborative approach involving an engineer, landscape architect, architect, artist and local residents produced a solution addressing the original issues and incorporating a range of added values. The solution involved relocating the pipe into the street as an open waterway. This stretch of the stormwater drainage system is no longer regarded as a utility, but is instead an important landscape feature incorporating a range of additional values, in particular, drainage, heritage, landscape, ecological and recreation values. The open waterway provides increased hydraulic capacity, artworks indicate the early wildlife that once occurred in this locality, additional planting will in time attract more birds to the area, the walkway has become popular with local residents, and the new road design slows down traffic. An assessment of the different options also identified this as the cheaper option.

Street prior to development After development During a storm event after development (b) Papanui Drain Waterway Restoration Papanui Drain, a timber lined waterway with good flow from springs, was located between older residential development and rural land. The development of the rural land for elderly persons housing resulted in the drain being reassessed in terms of the new values based approach. As it was inconsistent with new philosophy and no longer

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acceptable within new developments, the opportunity was taken to naturalise the waterway in terms of a range of values. The acquisition of extra land, the creation of a new waterway based on ecological principles, and the development of a walkway linking into the existing walkway network has added an important landscape feature within the local community. Again creativity, collaboration and the use of a wide range of experts bringing a range of different perspectives was crucial to its success.

prior to development during construction naturalised waterway created ripple and pool 5.0 Conclusion In New Zealand, the concept of sustainability is now enshrined in land use planning legislation, principally through the Resource Management Act (1991) and the Local Government Act (2002). This legislation gives local councils specific responsibilities for achieving this within their own communities. Public infrastructure, one of their key responsibilities, provides an opportunity to address sustainability from a city wide as well as local perspective, in terms of social, economic, cultural and environmental wellbeing. Although design is widely used in a range of fields, including that associated with developing and managing public infrastructure, its ability to link and translate land use legislation with physical outcomes, is not greatly understood or appreciated. An understanding of design as a framework for decision making, a process, and as a way of thinking enables the connections between policy and physical outcomes to be better appreciated, particularly from a local government perspective. Within a large organisation, the ‘design framework’ based on the Resource Management Act (1991) and the Local Government Act (2002) provides a common understanding for decision making. For New Zealand communities and their associated Councils, this framework is identified in their Long Term Council Community Plan that contains a vision, statement of values, strategies, activity and asset management plans. The ‘design process’ illustrates the steps from a conceptual idea or need through to construction, management and renewal. It is very much influenced by a council’s structures and processes as illustrated in the Christchurch example. ‘Design as a way of thinking’ is dependent on individuals, the perspectives that they bring to a project and their ability to not only think logically but also creatively. This type of thinking enables the integration of new components into existing public infrastructure as well as the translation of values and aspirations into physical outcomes as identified in the Long Term Council Community Plan. The conscious use of design in translating landuse legislation into innovative design solutions associated with public open space and the surface water environment will result in sustainable landscapes that are valued and treasured for generations to come.