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Research Article ISSN 2229 – 3795

ASIAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT RESEARCH 241

Volume 4 Issue 2, 2013

Criticizing postmodern perspective in management and organizations by

using the Islamic approach Mehran Aslaniyan1, Saeideh Pasandi2

1- PhD Student of Human Resource Management, Department of Management, University of

Sistan and Baluchestan, Daneshgah Avenue, Zahedan, 98798155, Iran

2- MSc student of Industrial management, Department of Management, Islamic Azad

University of Najaf Abad, Isfahan, Iran

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

There is small period of time that the postmodern interpretation has been entered in the

scientific fields such as art, literature, economics, social sciences in a ways that previous

theories have been affected by it and make them inadequate, so it is natural that

Postmodernism entered the arena management and the organization because management is a

combination of the humanities and social sciences disciplines in particular. Postmodern

theories have developed different perspectives inside. Postmodernism and Islam are

explaining the Western and Islamic identity structure. This study is about to review and

criticize the perspective of postmodernism in management and organizations by using the

Islamic value approach. At first by providing the definition of the perspective of

postmodernism in management and organizations and Islamic value perspectives, their

frameworks and principles will be expressed and then by comparing and criticizing the

perspectives of postmodernism through Islamic approach, the necessary conclusions will be

taken.

Key words: Criticize, Islamic approach, Management, Organizations, Postmodernism.

1. Introduction

The scientific aspect of management is not deniable but what should be considered, is that

this aspect is based on the certain theoretical foundations that the difference among them lead

to differences in action. One of the authors writes about this: "Thousands but hundreds of

thousands of excellent Executive managers who participate in the trading courses, however

the actual opinions are usually will not be provided directly to them but they will learn such

issues. Even those who have never been in business schools have learned to think in this way.

Because of the existence of such ideas everywhere; some of them will give legitimacy to

actions and behaviors of managers and on the other hand, delegitimize the others so generally

it will shape the subjective and normative order upon which the daily decisions have been

taken (Goshal S., 2005).

So, as in the management field, practical methods and techniques should be noticed, also it is

necessary to consider theoretical and scientific foundations, because the lack of attention to

the theoretical foundations in this field, causing the deviation in practice and it brings the

consequences which cannot be analyzed without the theoretical background. The fact that

management needs theoretical topics and also they should not be neglected in management

Criticizing postmodern perspective in management and organizations by using the Islamic approach

Mehran Aslaniyan, Saeideh Pasandi

ASIAN JOURNAL OF MANAGEMENT RESEARCH


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field, is not only the result of a logical conclusion, but also it is a practical induction and

external review of discussed issues raised in this field, will show that the considerable

volume of the issue is the theoretical and philosophical topics related to management theories.

That is so obvious that some researchers have interpreted it to the jungle of theories that it

implies not only on the multitude of theoretical topics, but also on their diversity (Koontz H.,

and Heinz, W., 2006).

Another notable point is that the theoretical issues raised in the management, are not only a

separate set of discussion ,but also quite influenced by the important philosophical topics in

the other philosophical area; as effective as it can be on those topics (Goshal S., 2005).

According to the aforementioned subjects, that illustrate the necessity of review of the

philosophical foundations and the dominant thought flow in management field and with

regards to the point that the perspective of postmodernism is one of the strong currents in the

social and philosophical thoughts since the seventies (Calas M., and Smircich, L., 1999), this

research is going to criticize this intellectual stream and it will attempt to review and criticize

all aspects of postmodernism in management and organizations by Islamic approach. For this

purpose, first the postmodernism perspective will be described and explained and then its

different variables and components in Organization and management will be criticized by the

Islamic approach.

2. Theoretical background

2.1. Postmodernism

We must acknowledge that Postmodernism and its features cannot be defined exactly.

According to one of the researchers, we should not even look for the exact meaning of the

'Postmodernism'. Because most experts following this thought, usually do not pay attention to

the exact meaning so the dominant aspect of postmodernism perspective is the proof of

meaninglessness or ignoring the meaning (Davari R., 1999). So we cannot exactly say what

the Postmodernism is and what are its indicators. But clearly it can be claimed that there is a

truth in the name of postmodernism and affects all aspects of life, politics, economics,

religions, morals, and even the structure of human relations with each other (Gharebaghi

A.S., 2001).

In addition to the difficulty or impossibility of defining postmodernism, views and

interpretations about postmodernism are very different. Some researchers believe that it is the

last escape from the tiresome heritage of theology, metaphysics, authoritarianism,

colonialism, racism, and the domination of the new Europe. But for some others, is a

representative of an attempt by the left-oriented intellectuals for the destruction of Western

civilization. The third group thinks that it is a label for a bunch of dull obscure writers who

are talking about nothing (Cahoone L., 1995).

One of the recent authors says: postmodernism from the perspective of Organizational theory,

is a reaction to the Traditional approach of the organization theory which is mostly based on

rationality, legitimacy, law orientation and hierarchy. Postmodernism rejects these principles

or at least, do not accept them. In summary, in the field of organization theory,

postmodernism is, arrogant, incomplete, and somewhat ambiguous. But these negative

aspects have been compensated by one major positive characteristic: postmodernism

encourages organization theory, public administration and other scientific fields in order to

rethink about the assumptions and fundamental concepts and be ready for change and makes





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a broader perspective and better insight in mind, as well as great general managers do

(Nichols K., 2007).

2.2. Postmodern management history

Drucker in 1992 with the question "Are we beyond the era of the car?" he spoke about

postmodern management for the first time. He stated that during the postmodern period the

thing which has been replaced with concepts of command and control of modern period pre-

modern obligation are concepts such as empowerment, flexible manufacturing systems and

total quality management (Drucker P., 2001).

Researchers have divided the itinerancy of human thoughts into three different era: pre-

industrial, industrial and post-industrial which these periods to be read with subjects of

relative stability or immobility, stability or almost constant motion and turbulence or moving

fast but some researchers regarding these similarities call these mentioned periods, traditional,

modern (modernism) and postmodern (postmodernism). In table 1, all kinds of organizations

are shown in the continuum of transition from traditional to postmodern. Rapid changes in

technology, diversification, turbulence and turbulent environment, the importance of the

information in societies and participation in the decision making, emphasis on innovation and

creativity, the necessity of flexible and decentralized structures and reducing the size of

organizations, are some of the new developments that have affected the management and

have challenged traditional and bureaucratic models.

Table 1: Different kinds of organizations in transition continuum from traditional to

postmodern (Daft R., 1998)

Organization

Characteristics Variables Traditional Modern Postmodern

Content

-Environment

-The building

Shape

-Technology

-Size

-Goals

-Cultures

-Stable

-Money &

Building

-Instrumental

and Repetitive

-Small

-Growth

-Family And

Ethnic

-Stable

-Machinery,

Money &

Building

-Repetitive

-Large

-Growth and

Efficiency

-Availability

of Staffs

-Convulsive

-Information

-Non repetitive

-Small or

medium

-learning and

effectiveness

-Delegation to

staffs

Organizational

Outcome

-Structure

-Territories and

Borders

-Leadership

-Communication

-Control

-Planning

-Decision making

conditions

-Managing Staffs

-Simple

-Vague

-Compassionate

-Face To face

-Centralize

-Owner

Manager

-Confidence

- Instrumental

-Inflexible and

centralize

-Specific

-Dictator

-Formal and

Letter

-Bureaucratic

-Managers

-Risk

-Patriarchal

-Flexible and

decentralize

-Scattered and

Unspecific

-Servant

-Informal and

oral

-Decentralize,

Self-control

-All Staffs

-Uncertainty

-Equity and

equality





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3. Postmodernism and Islam

There is not anything to call "reality" in the postmodernism which minds try to determine it.

Basically, in postmodernism the truth is not true and this epistemological subject is because

in postmodernism the independence of subject has been destroyed. In modernism

epistemology subjects or investigators must be shifted away from the research or object to get

to the truth and in this distance it can be possible to reach the recognition while in

postmodernist this nature is denied. Man cannot be away from essence, human, nature and

society until they know them and when we are part of them setting apart is impossible.

Despite some common points between Islamic thoughts and postmodern thoughts such as

emphasis on limitations of human understanding and emphasis on concepts such as emotion,

attitude and trends. Besides the agreements that exist about the criticizing of modernism,

should not be forgotten that the elements such as extreme relativism, radical pluralism and

also decentralization of power and etc. can't be compatible with Islam as a religion which

claims to have the truth on its own. Also in postmodernist thinking the concepts like truth,

rationality, justice, norms and values all will sink in the aura of relativity and will be affected

by regional dialogue and will not imply anything except beyond the dialogue. If we look

good, disadvantages of inconsistency and incompatibility of postmodernism with Islam are

much more than the advantages of its consistency and compatibility. If the postmodern

components turn to the fact, nothings will remain in the name of truth that we want to think

and live for it. When we do not accept any truth no matter what is it or what is like, then no

opportunities will remain to reach the existence and truth. One of the obvious things which

makes postmodern stance incompatible with Islamic thoughts is that the relative and

pluralistic position of postmodernism makes no chance to challenge and criticize any Idea or

thought because there is no criterion for true or false, in postmodernist thoughts there is no

such thing in the name of Honor and Dishonor that can be bid unto honor and forbid dishonor

while one of the characteristics of Muslims in Quran's is Bid unto honor and Forbid dishonor.

However, in this situation and in sociological perspective since postmodern thoughts provide

some opportunities to emerge the religion in the social domains should not separate us from

this important point that such approach is a passive one. In postmodern thoughts" religion

exists because it exists" and there is no other reason for its existence. Religion should remain

content about this "existence" and abandon its claim about universality and it has more

disadvantages. Postmodern thoughts with religious lessons in general and in particular with

the principles of Islamic thoughts cannot be collected because this idea abandons the religion

as a universal thought and recognizes it as a moral issue. Many fundamental differences have

seen between Islam and postmodernism. With accepting Islam, will not be remain any place

for postmodern and with postmodern accepting, there is no place for Islamic lessons.

Now it is better to provide a brief map of the method in which our discussion will go ahead.

As shown in Table 2, postmodern perspective through eleven different dimensions in the

management and organizations will compare by Islamic approach: Goals, work environment

(institutional arrangements), relations, management and leadership styles, criteria for

selection, promotion criteria, eligibility criteria, procedures, training and development,

decision making, focus and control and monitoring approach.

We believe that the eleven-dimensional comparisons regarding the Islamic approach are

suitable to describe the postmodern perspective problems in management and organization

however their separation lines are unclear in some of their fundamental applications.





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Table 2: Postmodern versus Islamic perspective in Management and Organizations

Characteristics of

postmodern view in

organizations

Variables Characteristics of Islamic view

Create integrity and

integration, learning and

effectiveness Goals

Guiding to the servants of God,

afterlife and human excellence

Democratic, convulsive and

turbulent environment, active

organizing

Work environment

(structural

arrangements)

Place for grow, flourish of human's

talent, spiritual evolution and mental

development

Generating, informal, oral Relations Formal and informal relationships,

serving and participatory

Based on leadership

postmodern theory, servant

leadership

Management and

leadership style Islamic

Relative Selection criteria Professional, academic and value

criteria

Relative Promotion criteria Human excellence

Relative Eligibility criteria Advantages

Culture education Training and

development

methods

Complete and comprehensive

Public under uncertainty Decision making

Consultation , selection, decision

making, implementation and trust in

God

Specific groups Focus Human beings

Self-Control, decentralized Monitoring and

control approach

Public administration, divine, self-

control and organizational

4. Postmodern perspectives versus Islamic perspectives in management and

organizations

4.1. Goals

Human physical and spiritual dimensions are not separated in Islamic management; doing

divine and human assignments and turn back toward God are its final goals and destination.

Based on Islamic approach, of course it is true that the final destination of man is near God

but Islamic management goal is not to make people coming back to God very soon(Even

though always we're in the presence of God). The aim of the Islamic management is to handle

humans so that to be based on God willing when they return to God. As a matter of fact the

basic goal in Islamic management is God and virtue terminates to God. The ultimate

objective in Islamic management is guiding people into the vassalage of God and God

vassalage is nothing but God's obedience. Obey God is related to the same values which are

rooted in eternal bliss. With a look into the Quran, the traditions and the purposes of prophets

which are complete samples of afterworld-orientation, we can recognize some of the Islamic

general objectives in line with the realization of the above goal (Mesbah M.T., and

Motaghifar, GH., 1997).

Postmodern organizations in an agitated and convulsive environment use their information

assets to achieve learning and effectiveness. These organizations aim to achieve effectiveness





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and learning in organizations and they use all of the resources to achieve this goal (Imany M

et al, 2006). The aim of postmodern paradigm is based on the integration of jobs. For

example, postmodern organizations do not accept the bureaucratic organizations based on

hierarchy and recommend organic organizations instead of them. Postmodern organizations

tend to less bureaucracy, more integration and flexibility in structure (Stewart R.C., and

Kornberger M., 2003). Also according to Clegg'' postmodern organizations pay attention to

the job integrity and general skills acquisition '' (Sashkin M., 1989).

4.2. Work environment (structural arrangements)

The personal working environment is related to the employee entire life and his/her

responsibility to God and the people. Any job is a component of Islamic and social

responsibility of his/her owner. There is no difference between working times and leisure

times and all of the Muslim moments should be served in the way of belief. A person's life

and work environment must be a place for developing talents, spiritual evolution and mental

growth. Employees should have an extreme incentive towards their jobs and their jobs should

be enjoyable and also satisfy their needs (Kamalkharazy S.A., 1989).

In the postmodern organizations, organizational environment is such a convulsive and

turbulent one and in this environment, organizations are going to use these variable incoming

data flows as well as the dynamic environment outside the Organization. In the

Organization's environment, administrators must use the equipment, human resources and

capital in an optimum way. In the postmodern period the focus is on decentralization so the

concept of active organizing will be raised that is a model based on the information derived

from the identification of the environmental conditions, goals, tasks, data, technology and

technical and strategic position of organization and it has less reliance on formal structures

and predicted relationships (Boje D., and Dennehy R., 1999). In the environments with broad,

flexible and decentralized organizational structure and composed of autonomous teams,

hierarchical structure will be disappeared and the dynamic environment with democratic

structures will be formed (Soleymani N., and Shabani A., 2012).

4.3. Relations

Communication in Islamic management system take places in an open system, but the

principles of attraction and repulsion for the Manager are of great importance. The first

encounter of Muslim Director begins optimistically but never relies on optimistic selection.

The other debate is about the way which they communicate with staff and people in this

structure that is on the basis of the Council and public partnership and the managers counting

on people as real heirs and counting on themselves as real servants (Shafiei A., 1998).

Postmodern organization seriously raises question about analytical thinking and this belief

that" there is one best way". Postmodern organization managers believe that organization can

be directed to an ideal type through different ways at the same time that analytical thinking is

useful tool to understand the system. Hybrid thinking can illustrate the cause of system

performance. Postmodern organizations unlike modern organizations tend to less bureaucracy,

more integration and flexibility in structure. According to Clegg:

"Modern organizations are inflexible whereas postmodern organizations are flexible. In

addition, postmodern organizations tend to job integration and general skills acquisition

(Sashkin M., 1989).





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Postmodern organizations emphasize on the shift of vertical structures to horizontal structures

and they put great importance on interactions between various stakeholders and the

environment in which they compete (Stewart R.C., and Kornberger M., 2003).

4.4. Management and leadership style

Islamic management, means directing Islamic jobs through Islamic way. In other words, in

Islamic management not only the jobs should be Islamic (should be in accordance with

Islamic criteria) but also its realization should be Islamic (should be done through Islamic

ways). In other words, the goals and intentions, should comply with Islam and on the other

hand, methods and performances should also be Islamic. So not only in Islamic management,

managers must be possessed of Islamic piety, but also his management must be based on

Islamic values (Baher H., 1991). Motives in the Islamic management included divine, human

and sensual motives. In divine motives, everything is God-oriented and people shift from the

material level to spiritual considerations, in other words, they shift from materialistic to

afterworld-orientation. In sensual motives, autonomy and egoism are the bases and people

stay only at the level of the sensual desires and materiality. In human motives, people are

trying to satisfy other human desires and needs. Considering humans can be the introduction

of the divine satisfaction, sensual desire satisfaction or just a humanitarian job (Mohammadi

H., 2006).

1. Rational leadership models can be completed with Non-rational leadership models:

Successful postmodern leadership study needs to rational and logical models but the

non-rational and intuitive concepts are also required. In postmodern organizations

(where there is flexibility and integrity and jobs are not divided too much) staffs who

have lot of power in the organizational bureaucratic hierarchy can affect the real

position of leadership. In postmodern leadership theory instead of paying attention to

the job and the position of manager, it has to pay attention beyond the organizational

chart.

2. Essentially, the leadership must be applied on the human values: In postmodern

organization, motivation of leaders to lead and the reasons of followers to follow, can

have many aspects. Both rooted not only from behavior, but also from the individual

opinions and experiences.

3. Searching for the cause or unique model is not suitable in leadership: In management

and leadership studies we should not separate causes and measure their influences

separately, but various factors should be studied simultaneously. In postmodern

leadership theory, personal characteristics, organizational position and behavior of

individuals, will be studied at the same time (Sashkin M., 1989). This kind of study

differs from the one in which leadership variables have been divided into individual

factors vs. environmental factors that examine each of them independently."Sashkin"

proposed that the relationships between individual and environmental factors should

be analyzed together. Environmental and individual factors affecting each other

mutually and the results affect both of them (Stewart R.C., and Kornberger M., 2003).

Postmodern leadership is a servant one that is included understanding and performance of the

leader in such a way that prefers the interests and desires of others on their own personal

desires (Laub J., 2004). In order to attract, keep and serve customers, the leaders put high

attention on their interests and try to serve the business networks (Rajaeipoor S et al, 2009).

The leader should consider the personal development and also demands of others. The

following table shows postmodern leader characteristics.





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Table 3: Postmodern leader characteristics (Boje D., and Dennehy R., 1999)

Postmodern leaders are servant leaders.

Leaders are in the service of network and they are like the staffs.

Leaders give freedom to employees and establish democracy in whole organization.

Leader show the history of the Organization, its success and even the future.

People without goal cannot live.

Men and women have the same share of leadership.

Leaders join different teams together and also to consumers.

Leaders are motivators and creators of working network of autonomous teams.

In servant leadership model, the doctrinal system of the leader makes him to put himself in an

equal place with subordinates. All members of the Organization should have the same right

and equal information and role of the leader is to facilitate the formation of group in the

organization (Soleymani N., and Shabani A., 2012).

4.5. Growth and promotion criteria, selection criteria, eligibility criteria

4.5.1. Growth and promotion criteria

The Measure of The greatest human is Growth and Promotion criteria. The greatest human is

Included Actions to achieve and the ultimate flowering of talents and capacities and the

ultimate aim. Humans have many dimensions that Materialists and Naturalists believe that

the perfection of man is in the material, physical as well as social and also they think human

happiness is in daily success in the world of pleasure, wealth, fame and social Credit. While

Islam considers human happiness depends on sensual perfection, the perfection of the

intellectual, emotional and spiritual they consider two aspects of human perfection,

theoretical and heart, This means that science and faith in the wisdom of God and the

knowledge of the ultimate truth of the divine unity (Halabi A.A., 1992). In Islam, the levels

of human perfection depends on the degree of knowledge, their understanding of God, faith,

piety and good deeds that the highest degree of human perfection has the same position as

deputy and successor as Caliph of God(someone who is compatible and related to God).

Since God is absolute perfection, Caliph, he must also show the perfection of charity fullest

manifestation of God's creatures who owns this place is even better than the angels, and

angels.

4.5.2. Selection criteria

Characteristics and selection criteria of employees and individuals in Nahj al-Balagha can be

divided into three categories:

1. Special measures: These measures are necessary to perform the job successfully.

These criteria usually are common between Islamic and Western management.

Measures such as education, experience, job history and etc.

2. Evaluative criteria: These criteria include a set of acceptable behaviors in human

societies is that may be acceptable in most societies and is also known by the name of

universal values. Like others rights, openness and etc.

3. Ideologue Criteria: Ideologue Criteria for the management root in Islam and

Management in Islam. And the concept of God and man in School of divine and

material, shapes the selection criteria of the individual in the positions and

Management. So in Taylor based school humans is seen as (clever gorilla) and in





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Islam as (Caliph). The aim of management is not only a product but it is human

excellence (Aghajani A., 2006). Selection criteria for the eligibility are criteria based

on, commitment, expertise, skills, abilities, experience and compassion criteria for

selection and promotion of the organization (Atafar A., and Azarbaijani K., 2001). It

is essential that in organizations instead of emphasis on degrees, they should pay

attention to effectiveness, efficiency and competence and expertise of the people in

organizations in which Qualified and competent people begin to work and with

encouragement of innovative and creative entrepreneurs in the organization, facilitate

the development of meritocratic in the organization. Today, in developed countries,

temporary employment has given way to permanent employment. This has led to

greater efficiency and effectiveness in the individual competition. If an employee does

not strive for greater efficiency in the organization , Not only, because of his work

experience, will not get new skills, but also the organizational goals cannot be

achieved . Temporary employment, change the organization to effort and struggle to

make ingenuity and competence and this will provide the background for the

development of meritocracy in the organization.

4.5.3. Eligibility criteria

In Islamic management, the eligibility criteria are the same advantages that Islam is known

them cause of excellence and superiority of human over other creatures.

Islamic view of human superiority can be categorized into the following areas:

1. Appearance beauty: beautiful and attractive appearance whether it is caused from God

properties or properties which may be the result of self-selection.

2. Personality perfections: Another human advantage is, on one side, the body and mind

healthy, strong body and spirit, freshness and vitality and etc. And the other is having

knowledge in diverse areas such as pure science, science and etc. also is considered as

personal superiority.

3. Right opinions: According to Islamic beliefs and worldview of God, whether in source

and resurrection, whether in prophecy and prayer or in terms of human understanding,

with all the minutiae of each, is another advantage.

4. God perspectives: Achieve the certainty in believes of God and looking at all human

problems and the world from the God's point of view are another human advantages.

5. Spiritual morale: Reach the certainty and achieve views of God, creates morals in people

that their aroma fills whole space of their life. This morale is another aspect of the human

advantages and privileges in Islamic perspective.

6. Positive personality characteristics: It is due to Benefits of the wisdom and rationality,

and it can be said that it is another advantage of human in Islamic view. Like: wisdom,

maturity and Being conscious.

7. Moral hegemony: Such advantages are because of trust, good faith in God, commitment

to hereafter and liberation from the consequences of passion and worldly minded manner

in all its aspects, including the acquisitive manner, ambition and lechery and etc.

8. Perfect speech: Being perfect whether in speaking or writing, either in appearance are

another aspects of human advantages in Islamic view.





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9. Perfect behavior: Personal relationships and behaviors can be divided into six general

areas: The individual behavior with God, human beings, environment and natural

resources, man-made, supernatural beings and ultimately himself (Tayeb M., 1997).

Postmodernism is an approach that is not based on any foundation or structure but essentially

is anti-structure. According to this characteristic, some researchers have known the

postmodern foundation as believe in uncertainty, decentralization, dispersion, relativistic

view and pluralistic. In Postmodernism there is not something to call "reality" that the mind is

trying to understand it. Basically in Postmodernism, the true, is not "true". This

epistemologically issue is because of that in the postmodernist epistemology, Independent

subject disappears so that is emphasis on the modernism. With plurality position and relative

measures that exist in postmodernism there is no opportunity to review and challenge the idea

of any other issues. If postmodern components are realized, then the "true" will not remain to

think about it and live for it. Because there is no criterion for right and wrong, in terms of

Postmodernist thinking will not remain any think in the name of Honour and Dishonour that

can be bid unto honour and forbid dishonour (Vahidian A., 2005).

4.6. Training and development methods

Different systems of education in different religions have their own characteristics. First

wisdom, sense and experience are the profiles of Islam educational system. Second Islamic

education is based on metaphysical beliefs and spiritual principles of religion and humanity.

Theism, closeness to God and satisfy his conscience, respect the others rights, mutual love

make spiritual foundations of the Islamic education system. Third, Islam is a religion that

naturally considers need adhere to ethical principles and mutual respect and respects the

rights of others is known as part of the worship. Fourthly, Islam is basically a combination of:

Belief and Ideas, action and behavior and speech and therefore covers Intellectual and

material aspects of human life and naturally it turns the education into the full and

comprehensive training (Ezaty A., 1974).

The main task of education is to transfer the culture of society in the best and easiest way to

the new generation. The desired culture is the dominant culture not minority cultures or

Subcultures.

Defense of culture based education has been carried out by Hirsch and Allan Bloom but of

course with conflicting views. Bloom (1987) believes that culture as it goes diverse is known

as the veil of reality. Hirsch (1987) has a different perspective he knows culture so important

even in various forms but he doesn't know it as the veil of reality. Therefore he believes that

cultural transmission should be known as basis of education.

In postmodern view, focusing on culture for education means that it is turning to ascendancy

over people, whether the culture was the "great culture" of Greek or dominant culture of the

society against minority cultures or folklores. Culture has been valued in education is elite

culture as a matter of fact that outstanding shape of the society culture accompany with art,

science and technology, not the Popular culture which people are using in their normal life.

Thus, Postmodernists argue that education is political process because it is involved in

preserving the culture of the past that is associated to the certain government, certain values

in certain fields. Education is the greatest protector of the past cultural system with all of its

aspects. Curriculum at this view cannot be regarded as a neutral activity but it is the political

process. Mastery of the culture of technology on education system is one shaping aspect of

the contemporary criticism of education among scholars including the postmodernists.





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Commercialization of education is an expression that refers to the capitalist shadow which

falling over education and converts it into a kind of business (Peters M et al, 1993).

Postmodernism studies education as it had crisis and from this respect, contemporary

education needs decentralization. In this case postmodernists in order to overcome these

crises suggested to find another definition for Presence of teacher, students and context in

education system (Bagheri Kh., 1996).

4.7. Decision making

In decision making pattern of Islamic-based management, considering five distinct

components included consulting, choosing, decision making, performance and trusting God,

are necessary for managers. Totally, with a short look at the verses and traditions, it is

obvious that in the case of consultation as an effective model in decision making, the three

effects are expressed. First, seeking the others vote. The other effect is clearing the consulted

mind from errors, means that if the introduction, thoughts or conclusions were wrong they

will correct and will be directed therefore, without consulting the man's thoughts, their

thoughts will not believe. The third effect of consulting is to encourage individuals to consult

and each person regarding his/her own responsibility should consider this issue and

encourage the others to consult. The great thing about decision making on management,

Islamic or non-Islamic, is that the manager faces a bunch of unknown and uncontrollable

variables in decision making process which affect it and on the other hand, according to

"Simon" if we consider the limitation of human logic, The sensitivity and complexity of the

decision making process will be more obvious. That is why, according to the Quran verses

and Imam Ali (PBUH), the manager should trust the God and ask him for help (Rezapoor Y.,

1997).

In postmodern thought, a new concept beyond rationality has been appeared. Decision

making models are based on the values, feelings and preferences of people and only in the

secondary stage, logical and experimental considerations will be considered (Etzioni A.,

1988). Furthermore, decision making is not something personal which can be done alone;

also it is not a plan which can be presented from the manager side. But group norms, working

structure, people expectations and level of manager acceptance are the ones which affect

decision making process in organization. So, postmodern thoughts in organization, allow

bureaucracy to have non-arbitrary and irrational basis in decision making process (Stewart

R.C., and Kornberger M., 2003).

Leaders and managers in decision making process are influencing by their ideas, values and

preferences, therefor the best thing in the study of postmodern decision making process is to

pursuit the values and thoughts which are following by managers (Russell C.J., and Kuhnert

K.W., 1992). These values indicate the beliefs and behaviors of managers and also show the

criteria on the basis of them, the managers choose (Burns J.M., 1978).

4.8. Focus

In Islamic management the focus is on human. Organization is such a facility, possibility and

opportunity in order to reach human growth and perfection so it can be said that for the God

satisfaction, people satisfaction should be considered (Baharestan J., 2004).

Pay attention to specific groups, in particular people who have been under consideration is

one of the characteristics of postmodern theory in management. One of these groups, are

women who are taken into consideration in postmodern perspectives. Feminist perspectives





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in different fields have been raised since three decades ago, but their impacts on management

literature have been raised since nineties (Calas M., and Smircich L., 1999). It seems the

cause of new attention to feminist movements and the penetration of feminist perspectives in

new management theories is that in previous theories the specific groups, including women,

were not be considered and one of the criticizes which raised against the previous theories

was that the dominant theories in organizations were so mannish. In other words, in modern

theories all employees are the same and there is no distinction among them so the equality

atmosphere dominates organization. With regarding that this equality atmosphere from the

feminists' point of view are as same as the mannish values, they believed: the organizations,

both in the selection of criteria and in their implementation act in masculine way (Richard

W.S., 2003). So, with the rise of postmodern theories (some of its important features

included: denying generalization and considering partial view), an appropriate atmosphere for

the advent of feminist theories in management has been provided.

4.9. Monitoring and control approach

First type: monitoring by God: One of the constant traditions of God is comprehensive,

accurate, constant and continuous surveillance on people's intentions, actions and behaviors

and evaluating them. God exactly monitors all human intentions, speech and actions and

based on this comprehensive and accurate monitoring in doomsday, all human jobs will

evaluate and then will be rewarded. God in the Quran, in numerous verses, has been

introduced as a supervisor and controller of human's job.

Second type: self-control: Another type of monitoring and control which derived from

religious sources is the inner monitoring or so-called self-control. In this type of control

which focuses on the inner aspect of the control, the Organization's staffs monitor their own

performance. When people within their own personality have some forces to monitor their

own works and care about their honesty and accuracy, self-control power can be realized. It

can be stated that in comparison with the exterior's monitoring, self-control is the best and

most efficient mechanisms to control the people. Strong motivation to create self-control

ability is nothing but faith and religious beliefs. In General, the dominant human values,

especially religious beliefs, have a decisive role in his behavior and actions.

Third type: public Monitoring: In Islamic monitoring system, the control over the

Organization and the performance of its employees cannot be only summarized in the

framework of the tasks and authorities of managers and directors of organizations, but all

members of the Organization on the basis of a legal duty, must monitor the performance of

other members of the Organization, even its managers and directors.

Fourth type: Organizational monitoring: In an overall segmentation, organizational

monitoring and control can be divided into two types:

Obvious and open monitoring (Process of monitoring and control on the performance of

Organization staff or its programs should be open and obvious, so employees whose

performance or programs are under control, should be informed about the monitoring

process.)

Secret and hidden monitoring (The reason that makes the hidden monitoring necessary in the

Organization and makes it more important is that if performance monitoring has always been

open and obvious, the required accuracy, will not be achieved, because when an open and





253

official control is doing, the staffs who are going to be controlled, are able to pretend and try

to deceive the Inspector and supervisor) (Khedmati A., 2000).

Self-control is an alternative in resource control. If people control themselves, the

management jobs would be easier. The main goal of self- control is to create an inner attitude

which encourages people to do their duties without the external controller factor. So

employees regarding to their conscience, oblige themselves to carry out the duties. It is

expected, due to the Inner attraction of staff and external attraction, disciplinary problems

would be minimized. In other words, it can be stated that control process in postmodern is

such a decentralized and self-control. In the following table, control in the postmodern period

is shown (Alvani M., 1992).

Table 4: Control in postmodern era

Control is selection.

Selection is the fundamental right of people.

Heterogeneity is a value, controlling process is decentralized and there is no difference

between leaders and employees.

There are variety of voices, logics and perspectives.

People have mutual responsibility to achieve the added value and network common goals.

Providing new definition of efficiency and effectiveness which enable people to have

environmental and social review.

5. Conclusion

Finally, it is expected that the present discussion will raise awareness about the

fundamentally different purposes and perspectives pursued by Islamic view and

postmodernism. Basically, while the postmodern perspective focuses on creating the cohesion,

integration and increasing the effectiveness in management and organizations, the Islamic

approach in management and organizations is trying to guide people to obey God and believe

in everlasting life. Having highlighted how we stand to gain from using these two

perspectives together, we hope to stimulate research on the manner in which postmodern

perspective and Islamic perspective may supplement each other in management and

organization development.

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