Consumer Behavior, Extended-self, And Sacred Consumption

h xx (2007) xxx–xxx

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Journal of Business Researc

Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sacred consumption:An alternative perspective from our animal companions☆

Ronald Paul Hill a,⁎, Jeannie Gaines b, R. Mark Wilson b

a Villanova School of Business, Villanova University, 800 Lancaster Avenue, Villanova, PA 19085, United Statesb College of Business, University of South Florida St. Petersburg, 140 Seventh Avenue South, St. Petersburg, FL 33701, United States

Received 1 January 2006; received in revised form 1 August 2006; accepted 1 November 2006

Abstract

This article explores the intimate relationships between pet owners and their animal companions from the extended-self and sacredconsumption perspectives using a unique method that Morris Holbrook inspires. The article opens with a brief introduction that includes asummary of the relevant literature. A description of the study's protocol follows. The article then covers five thematic categories that result fromthe investigation. The analysis of text from the consumer essays and a few precious photographs bring life to the case reports. The close providesimplications for consumer-behavior scholarship and marketing practice in a variety of intra- and inter-species domains.© 2007 Published by Elsevier Inc.

Keywords: Consumer-behavior; Animal companions; Extended-self; Sacred consumption

Dogs are not our whole life, but they make our lives whole.

Roger Caras

The belief that living a dog's life is some form of inhumanepunishment or a lower form of existence has changeddramatically over recent decades. As Mendelson (1998, p. S3)aptly states, “No longer is Fido or Fifi just an animal that sits bythe kitchen table waiting for scraps of food. Now, the householdpet has worked its way up the family tree, in some cases evenwinning a coveted seat at the dinner table.” The consumer-behavior literature is replete with theoretical and empiricalresearch that shows the positive impact consumption may haveon our quality of life (e.g., Ahuvia, 2005), and the acquisition,utilization, and disposition of animal companions is anoutstanding example. In fact, these classic descriptors of theconsumer-behavior process may fail to capture the tendernessand intimacy of such relationships (Holbrook et al., 2001).

☆ The authors thank Morris Holbrook for his inspirational work on belovednonhuman animals. The authors dedicate this article to our three cherishedfriends who lived a dog's life with great joy.⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R.P. Hill),

[email protected] (J. Gaines), [email protected] (R.M. Wilson).

0148-2963/$ - see front matter © 2007 Published by Elsevier Inc.doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009

Please cite this article as: Hill RP et al. Consumer behavior, extended-self, and sJ Bus Res (2007), doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009

The enormity of this consumption phenomenon is expressedby several telling statistics. For instance, almost one-third ofU.S. households (32%) own at least one dog (Geissler, 2003),and they eagerly spend $36 billion annually to ensure thephysical and emotional well-being of their pets (Dorsey, 2003).Approximately three-fourths of these consumers are willing totake on additional debt to provide adequately for these animalcompanions (Gardyn, 2001). Over one-third of dog consumerscelebrate their pets' birthdays, and an equivalent number taketheir animal companions on vacation (Dorsey, 2003). Moreextraordinarily, a majority of pet consumers verbally expresstheir love to their nonhuman friends daily, and nearly one-fourth receive most of their physical affection and attentionfrom their pets (Fetto, 2002).

1. Extended-self

The consumer behavior concept of the extended-self pro-vides a ready theoretical context for comprehending the con-sumption relationship between pet owners and their animalcompanions. Belk (1988, p. 139) provides a simple way ofelucidating this construct: “A key to understanding whatpossessions mean is recognizing that, knowingly or unknow-ingly, intentionally or unintentionally, we regard our possessions

acred consumption: An alternative perspective from our animal companions.

mailto:[email protected]



http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.11.009


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as parts of ourselves.”Awide range of investigations follows thisinitial article, demonstrating that consumers assimilate a diversecollection of products into their self-definitions as a way tosignal admirable aspects of their personhood to themselves aswell as others (LaTour et al., 2003; Tian and Belk 2005). Animalcompanions, especially dogs and cats, represent shared con-sumption experiences that rise to this level.

Hirschman (1994) and Endenburg et al. (1994) find thatconsumers buy pets to satisfy social needs. The domestication ofanimals has more to do with our desires for companionship withother species than for protection or other utilitarian purposes.Pets such as dogs may play the role of friend or intimate partner,providing unconditional and nonjudgmental fondness for theirowners. Given selective breeding over the past 12,000 years,dogs have features such as short noses, curly tails, large browneyes, and miniature sizes that imbue them with childlike char-acteristics that bring out maternal and paternal instincts amongtheir adult owners.

2. Sacred consumption

The research of Holbrook et al. (2001) eschews the extended-self paradigm as a path to understanding our mutually-beneficialexchange relationships with animal companions. Their primaryconcern is that some scholars might use this concept as a meansto various ends such as the enhancement of self-identity, failingto recognize that the intimate bonds between parties are ends inand of themselves. Nonetheless, Belk (1988, p. 155) reinforcesthis long-term viewpoint that the attitude of pet owners is, “Loveme, love my dog.” Therefore, the extended-self includes thepossibility that inter-species love involves a fusion of identities,allowing for a deep-seated commitment in time and effort thatgreatly impacts the emotional fulfillment of both pet owners andtheir animal companions (Ahuvia, 2005).

Taken together, the work of these scholars suggests that therelationship between human and nonhuman animals is anexperience that transcends the ordinary consumer-behavior do-main of possessions/possessors to that of sacred and spiritualconsumption (Holbrook et al., 2001). As a result, a trueportrayal of the pet-owner/animal-companion nexus requires anamong-species perspective that allows the “voice” of each partyto resonate throughout the investigative process. The market-ing-practitioner trade press advocates such a sophisticatedapproach to consumer research involving product developmentfor domestic animals like dogs (McLean, 2004). The academiccommunity echoes this refrain, suggesting an emphasis on“caregivers' projections, expectations, and desires” (Holbrooket al., 2001, p. 4).

3. Research direction and method

This investigation uses and reports a unique way of capturingthe shared consumptive lives of beloved pets with their owners,relying on a combination of the extended-self/sacred consump-tion paradigms. This study, like Holbrook et al. (2001), usespersonal self-reflection to uncover the underlying meanings ofconsumer-behavior experiences. Holbrook (1997) recommends


modifications to research practice in order to properly under-stand consumption activities and outcomes from the perspectiveof our beloved pets. He uses many hours of nonparticipantobservation to craft a likely description of a cat's musings abouta classic film with Audrey Hepburn where her feline companionplays a pivotal role (Holbrook, 1998).

The present study's examination of canine consumptionbegins similarly to Holbrook et al. (2001) whereby the threeprincipal investigators provide in-depth essays that chronicle theentire lifecycles of their beloved dogs, each of whom was anintegral part of the owner's lived experiences from the pet's birth,through puppyhood, until death. This approach involves the useof several preserved items such as photographs, collars andleashes, chew toys, and ashes as remains to stimulate thoughts,feelings, and emotions. The study develops each testimony in-dependently and projects the voice and spirit of the particularanimal so that the anthropomorphic style of the storyteller isreflective of each dog's individual personality, behavior, andexpressions.

This form of discovery is consistent with the reflections ofVan Mannen (1995) in describing ethnographic reports asstorytelling institutions that blur the demarcation betweenscience and literature. As a consequence of the liberation fromtypical stylistic restrictions, a wide variety of modes of pre-sentation are available such as impressionist tales, dramaticethnography, and creative nonfiction. The primary goal is torepresent the lived experiences of an unfamiliar population inways that allow others to see, hear, and feel what a differentexistence may be like (Van Mannen, 1988). This approachconcentrates attention on a series of important and criticalevents in the lives of cultural members that define their rela-tionships with others, often using some form of internalmonologue to express the subjective reality they experience(Agar, 1995).

The analysis of these canine life histories treats them as textsand subjects the texts to scrutiny that is becoming increasinglycommon in consumer research (Hill, 2001, 2002). The first stepinvolves creating an understanding of the totality of theconsumptive lives of each dog from its own perspective. Thesecond step requires summarizing these findings for each storywith an emphasis on contextually-based information within theparticular essay. The third stage involves developing interrelatedthemes that depict particular aspects of the consumer behavior ofcanines across beloved pets and notable situations. The fourthstage requires examining relationships among the themes todevelop a comprehensive understanding of the entire consumerlifecycle of these animal companions. The next section presentsresults as thematic categories.

4. Canine consumptive world

The essays—written by middle-aged adults from differentareas of the U.S., all with histories of long-term animal–humanrelationships—reveal a series of interrelated thematic categoriesthat capture the various consumer-behavior activities of animalcompanions. The categories include initial engagement and se-lection decision; early adjustment and relationship development;



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permanent bond and loving intimacy; special events and lifetransitions; and parting as such sweet sorrow. The order ofpresentation is purposeful, and their telling moves from one to thenext as the essays naturally unfold. Each theme employs excerptsfrom their life histories to exemplify intended meanings (Fig. 1offers photographic support). After discussing themes, examples,and implications for creating a deeper understanding of belovedpets, the closing section explores serving pets through goods andservices with suggestions for conducting lifecycle consumer-behavior research.

4.1. Initial engagement and selection decision

The earliest existences of these dogs occur in their families-of-origin, as they begin the exploration of their own capabilitieswithin the external world. Their relationships with their siblingsare both cooperative and competitive. They often engage in funand playful activities, nipping and wrestling with one anotherbefore settling down for extended periods of sleep. However,these (potential) animal companions are in a real life-transformingcontest with their brothers and sisters that influences their ultimatefate. Humans parade them one-by-one before collections of otherhumans who are searching for the right nonhumans to join them.The canine winners of these high-stakes competitions believe thatthese initial engagements reveal positive differences between

Fig. 1. Photographic exemplars of themes.


themselves and their brethren and that such revelations are part ofthe basis for their selection as beloved pets.

Consider the following excerpts from the histories of Buddyand Beau. The musings from the former describe the context inwhich such introductions take place, while those from the latterprovide a glimpse into the significance of good first impressions:

More importantly, we get new visitors on a regular basis.The routine usually follows the same pattern. They come inwith the house people and stare at us while making cooingnoises. Then someone smiles widely and the children shriekas we are placed on the floor near them. The adults call outto us as if they want us to do something special, but we haveno idea what they mean. The kids often rush over and grabus from behind so we bite them with our developing teeth toget them to stop. (Buddy)

Whoops, here comes fresh blood through the door—a very tallboy with dark hair and a girl with a nice smile. They're comingover my way. They're making baby sounds in my direction. Ithink that's a good sign. The crate door opens and I leap intothe girl's arms and start licking her face. She laughs and rubsmyback. The boy reaches into the back of the crate and liftsmysister out. She just lies in his arms and shivers. At this rate,she'll be at Puppy Love the rest of her life! (Beau)

The selection decision follows a similar pattern of events andis an outgrowth of winning the competition for the right toacquire status as a beloved animal companion. However, be-coming a chosen one is not without its drawbacks. Chosen onesare removed from the warmth and security of their originaldomiciles without warning and plunged into an outside world inwhich they have limited knowledge or experience. This changein their proverbial cages leads to a fear of the unknown regardingwho will provide their care, where they will live, what treatmentthey will receive, and what food and enjoyment they willreceive. The initiation into their new lives is abrupt and filledwith confusion about proper comportment. Of course, thedecision to select a particular dog does not guarantee that theowners fully understand the implications of their new roles.

The excerpts below from the essays by Lincoln and Buddydemonstrate the precarious nature of the dog/person intersectionduring the consumer-behavior decision process. The first segmentdescribes the animal companion's trepidation as consumptionproceeds from engagement to selection. The second paragraphreveals the lack of a meaningful connection even when selectionoccurs.

It had been quite a day for me. Just this morning I was in acage at the animal shelter with my brother and sister. Threepeople peeked into our cage; one person had long hair and theother two were much smaller and moved around a lot. Theylifted us out onto the floor and we played for a few minutes;the quicker small one wanted all of my family to go homewith them. The smaller one was shy and kept his distance, butseemed to likeme the best, probably because I'mmoving a bit




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slowly today. The long haired one, the boss called Mommy,picked me up. We left my brother and sister at the shelter anddrove away. Scary; I'd never been away from my familybefore. I liked these people immediately, but what kind of asituation was I getting into? (Lincoln)

After arriving at this strange new place, I am carried insideby the mother. We walk into the living area, with medeposited in the center of the room for everyone's amuse-ment. Paul and PJ get down on all fours like my ownbrothers and make playful gestures in my direction. Wechase each other in a most enjoyable manner until theimpulse to urinate develops. As I begin to relieve myself ona spot of the rug with just the right scent, the father grabs thescruff of my neck and rushes for the door! (Buddy)

4.2. Early adjustment and relationship development

The first few minutes, hours, and days of their lives togetherrepresent a period of enormous adjustment for these canine com-panions, as well as for their new human families. Each party isunsure how to act around one another as normal routines givewayto abnormal circumstances. Lavish attention characterizes theinitiation to their new homes by pet owners who seek ways torelate to a different species and to meet its needs. Some of theactivities resonate well with both sides of this exchange


relationship, while others seem to cause considerable distress forone or the other.Most interestingly, the sources of early rapture arefrom play, exploration, and companionship. Difficulties tend tooccur with natural functions and rhythms that the change in venuedisturbs (such as urination, defecation, eating, and sleeping).

Beau and Lincoln provide apt chronicles of their earlyadjustment to living in a human community. These animalcompanions enjoy the frenzy of events that take place duringtheir introductions to their latest homes, but they experienceseveral difficulties in attempting to understand and navigatenew relationships with near strangers.

I wake up as the car stops, and we get out in the driveway ofa house with lots of grass. I squirm, and she puts me downto run around and explore. There are all kinds of new smellsI can't make out. Then we go into the house—more newsmells, objects, and spaces. And then I discover the back-yard is fenced, but it is so big it will take me forever to sniffall of it! The boy and girl seem to want to hold me and talkto me non-stop. I wonder if it will always be this way!?! Ilike it, but I'm really tired and sleep overcomes me. (Beau)

After my long day with people, I was sleepy but not veryhungry. It was dark, everyone said goodnight, and I lookedaround for my brother and sister so I could snuggle andsleep. But when I looked around, all I saw was an irritatingticking clock wrapped in a towel. I couldn't sleep like this;so I expressed this fact to these people…. I awoke early, witha headache and an upset stomach, when Mommy began tofix breakfast. We went for a walk … and Mommy acted kindof strange when she saw my feces. I didn't know if humansare always like that or if it was just her. (Lincoln)

These early adjustments give way to developing relationshipsbetween canines and humans, building from a new set of routines.As the different groups begin to comprehend the basic needs ofeach other, a distinct form of communication emerges that allowsfor some consistency and continuity in their interactions. Much ofthis progress centers on areas of original difficulty that are naturalfunctions. The most vexing issue that receives the greatest at-tention involves elimination, and pet owners' celebrations ofsuccess in this regard suggest a triumph over contamination totheir living quarters that results in great relief. Family membersbegin to occupy specific roles with these animal companions thatsignal their relative statuswithin the family aswell as the nature oftheir connection to these beloved canines over time.

The following texts from Buddy and Beau show relationshipdevelopment, with a particular emphasis on coordinating elimi-nation needs. The texts highlight clear connections between theprimary caregivers and their new puppies, and Beau seems toenjoy real intimacy at a very early stage in his lifecycle.

I wander around, instinctively seeking a safe haven. My firstorder of business is defecation, followed a few momentslater by urination. Mom gives mild encouragement throughthe whole series of events and lets out a loud cheer when the




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process is complete. We return to the house and enter aroom with the most delicious smells! She goes immediatelyto the cupboard and extracts two food sources that are mixedtogether in a small bowl. Mom places it down on the floornext to another container filled with water. I shuffle over tosee them more closely and start to eat heartily. (Buddy)

The next several weeks are spent with Mom (the girl) trying topersuade me to tell her when I need to go outside to “potty”—herword, notmine! She is homewithme almost every day. Sheand I sit on her bed with tons of books and papers surroundingus. She is in school trying to become a professor of something.She reads constantly and thenwrites stuff aboutwhat she reads.Sometimes she reads what she's written out loud to me. I thinkI'm there to make her take study breaks so that we can go outand play. The tall boy with the dark hair comes over a lot andplays ball with me in the back yard. (Beau)

4.3. Permanent bonds and loving intimacy

Over the weeks, months, and years, these canine companionsintegrate fully as members of their human families. New


routines develop into regular and seamless parts of their jointschedules, meeting essential needs far beyond their earliestintentions. Some of these activities require participation of thewhole family, serving as ways to solidify bonds among andbetween humans and dogs. Thus, familial relationships grow everstronger as a consequence of striving to meet the daily require-ments of the beloved pets. The best example of such bondingoccurs during the evening walk, a regular event that brings manyor all family members together for the benefit of their canines,while simultaneously encouraging contact with each other as wellas with members of their larger human communities.

The excerpts from Buddy and Lincoln demonstrate theintegrative role played by daily walk-based togetherness. Buddydescribes the routine nature of this daily event in terms thatsuggest its relative importance to creating permanent bondsbetween himself and the rest of his family. Lincoln provides asimilar vignette, also revealing his leadership role in facilitatingconnections between his human family and other people in theirneighborhood.

The evening walk is a proud tradition and occurs rain or shine!There are times when Mom and I are alone, but Dad oftencomes, and the children occasionally join us. We start out thefront door and usually turn to the left, walking past Digit'shouse. If she and her mother are outside, they visit with us for afew moments or take their walk as well. We round the cornerandwalk up the street withme pullingMomorDad as hard as Ican toward various spots along theway. After relievingmyself,I try to stay out front as the lead animal in the pack. (Buddy)

I always enjoyed walking. One good thing about this outdoorbathroom fixation of Mom and Dad was that I went for a lot ofwalks. I liked to keep track of what went on in the neighbor-hood. Every bush and every tree have evolving stories to tell tothose of uswith keen senses of smell and investigatory natures.I liked to greet animals during my walk. I always made it apoint to tell other male dogs what I thought of them. I was notshy like Mom, Dad, Matt, and Dave. I don't know how manyconversations between them and the people I met onmywalksstarted with the question, “Is this your dog?” All of us werequite friendly after I got these relationships started. (Lincoln)

These long-term commitments to one another grow andmature into loving and intimate relationships between petowners and their animal companions. The general nature of theseconnections is like that of a brother/son or sister/daughter, buttheir characteristics tend to vary across individuals. Just asfamily members occupy a variety of roles among each other,their canine companions function in a number of capacitiesdepending upon the nature of their associations with adoptiveparents and siblings. Additionally, when their lives intersect withextended family (such as grandparents), they easily assumepositions appropriate to their ages and longevity (such asgrandson or granddaughter). Taken together, these findingsshow a long-lasting and loving intimacy that rivals any familialbond for its integrity and strength.




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The next two paragraphs reveal the depth and breadth ofseveral relationships among humans and their dogs. Lincolndiscusses each household member separately and explains thedeep-rooted nature of these connections, while Beau provides asimilar story that includes both sets of grandparents.

As I matured, I instinctively took on more roles in thehousehold. I became the official greeter of all visitors,protector of family members (especially from other maledogs), and companion-and-confidant to Mom, Dad, Matt,and Dave. Mom's and my relationship grew deeper as theyears passed. In many ways, she was my primary provider,and she grew personally as she accepted me and my dogway of life. In turn, she earned my deep affection anddevotion. I greeted Dad at the door everyday because weenjoyed doing stuff together. We liked the same games, andhe knew how to pat me just right. He used to talk to mewhile he worked in the garage or in the yard; so we grewvery close. I still feel as though I communicate with Matt,even from my grave. Only a few human beings are bornwith the innate ability to communicate with animals withoutspeaking, and I am his special dog. Dave was originally theshy one; I viewed shyness as a dog-lover waiting to happen.I am proud to say that Dave also became my very closefriend and an avid dog-lover. (Lincoln)

Some good things also happened after wemoved into the newhouse. Grandmother and Granddad from Kentucky movedinto a condominium just a few blocks from our home. Momand I spent a lot of time at their place, where I was king of thehouse. Grandmother spoiled me shamelessly, and I loved herfor it. JJ's parents also visited every year from up north, and Iwas their special grand dog. Once while they were visiting,Mom made linguine with white clam sauce. My Grandpawasn't crazy about it; so he put his plate on the floor in thekitchen. Before they realized it, I had inhaled the entire plateand was lying on the floor with all four legs sprawled indifferent directions, totally unable to get up. Mom was im-mediately concerned that I needed to go to the vet, buteveryone else was convulsed in laughter. The good news isthat the pasta eventually began to digest, and I becamemobileonce again. And it was so, so good while I was eating it! Afterthat incident, one of my nicknames became “Noodles.”(Beau)

4.4. Special events and life transitions

Given the ongoing, intimate, and long-lasting nature ofhuman/canine bonds, these animal companions occupy uniqueplaces during special events and life transitions. From birthdaysto holiday events to other celebrations, beloved pets fully engagein traditional activities and come to personify the essence of whatmakes these times truly extraordinary. They are an essential partof every aspect of festivities, including travel, gift-giving andgift-receiving, and food preparation and feasting. Memoriesfrom these times illustrate the ways in which canine companions


capture the positive energy and joy that gives meaning to suchgatherings. They are much more than passive observers whooccupy the sidelines in a state of inter-species confusion; instead,they participate with unrestrained vigor that is childlike in itsintensity and duration.

The following material sheds light on the integral place ofanimal companions in our secular celebrations of Christmas.Beau tells his exciting story that includes travel to a newstate, and Lincoln explains his moniker as the Christmas-SpiritDog.

Days turned into weeks, weeks into months, and finally itwas Christmas vacation. Yea, time to take a car trip toKentucky again to visit Grandmother and Granddad! Therewas even more cooking than before, and Grandmother and Iwere now very tight. There was a big tree with lots ofpresents (even for me), friends, family, laughter, hugs, andSNOW! This was a new one for me. One morning, we wokeup and found that everything outside was white. WhenGerry took me out, I slipped and slid on the porch steps, andthe white stuff was extremely cold on my paws. I couldn'tbelieve they actually wanted me to do my thing under thoseconditions! (Beau)




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My favorite time of the year was Christmas. The lights, themusic, the people, … the food … were all terrific. I enjoyedevery Christmas. The joy of wrapping-paper frenzy stirredme up even as an old dog. They named me Lincoln, butI always thought of myself as Christmas-Spirit Dog.(Lincoln)

These beloved pets participate intimately in a number ofserious and difficult life transitions. Human children grow olderand more mature, leaving home to receive advanced training, topursue careers, or to start their families. Sometimes death ordivorce rips families apart, shattering the intimate bonds thatheld them so closely together. Career changes by adult membersof the household lead to similar disruptions, causing the loss offamiliar settings, friends, and routines. While animal compa-nions come to represent the love and excitement associated withspecial events and celebrations in our lives, they also manifestthe fear, anxiety, and sadness experienced during difficulttransitions. Their innate empathy and emotional capacity allowthem to experience negative changes deeply and (sometimes)permanently.

The excerpts below exhibit the stress and trauma that lifetransitions can evoke in pet owners as well as in their caninecompanions. Buddy absorbs the anxiety and trepidation aroundhim that come from a cross-country relocation, whereas Lincolnstruggles with the loss of his human brothers when they go offto universities in other cities.

One very eventful day,Mombegins packing up our belongingsin large boxes. Tension fills the air as Dad is preoccupied withsomething I cannot understand.When he is home, I often sit byhis feet and rest while he works away on the computer.However, now he just mopes around the house with a worriedexpression on his face. The boys also seem agitated, as if themoods of their parents were catching. A big truck pulls up tothe front of our house, and several large men come to our frontdoor. I bark at them for being strangers, but they come insideanyway and pat me on the head…. When the last bits areloaded, we walk around the house saying goodbye for a finaltime. We drop Mom off at the airport, and the rest of us staywith friends for a few more days. The disorientation continuesuntil I'm placed in my crate and carted off in a plane as well!(Buddy)

The thing I liked the least was watching my family leave.Not just leaving for a little while, like to work or to school,or like some evenings when the guys and I would get to playtogether without parents around. My sadness started when Isaw anyone packing a suitcase. My view was: stay or takeme with you. I think my saddest time was when Matt left forCollege. My soul mate and I were a lot bigger and older thatday than when we met, and I guess it was time for him tomove on, but a little energy left me that day. When Dave lefttwo years later, I really slowed down. The hardest thing inmy life for me to accept was not seeing them every day.These were my brothers. We grew up together. (Lincoln)


4.5. Parting as such sweet sorrow

As our families grow older and mature, so do our animalcompanions. However, their movement through the variousstages of physical development and decline accelerates relativeto human beings. They respond gracefully to old age, slowingdown and sleeping more while continuing to maintain theroutines of their day-to-day lives in abbreviated form. Yet ourbeloved pets still aspire to meet the needs and expectations oftheir owners, even if this means occasionally rising above thebodily limitations of advancing years and reacting to eventsmuch like their younger selves. The recent country balladreleased by Toby Keith captures this eagerness: “I'm not asgood as I once was, but I'm as good once as I ever was” (Keith,2005). Regardless, the march of time continues to reap itsdamage, and our canine companions persist in their declinedespite the best of intentions.

The subsequent paragraphs depict the ravages of aging fromthe perspectives of Lincoln and Beau. The former is resigned tobecoming an old dog and even finds some solace in hisadvancing years to make this bitter pill easier to swallow. Thelatter shows few outward signs of illness and seeks comfort inthe care received during his final days.

I guess I accepted old age, although I was certainly nothappy about it. My joints got stiff and sore, my walksshorter and slower. I needed help getting into the car; my




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naps were longer and deeper; and my eyesight and hearinggrew worse. People are kind to old dogs; but young dogs area nuisance to older dogs. People patted me and talked to me,even though I could hardly hear them. I appreciated theattention and enjoyed the pills covered with peanut butter.These were all fine, but the steps going into and out of thehouse got harder and harder for me to climb. I learned to usethe ramp Dad and Dave built for me, but the decline in mymobility disturbed me. (Lincoln)

When we walked into our house under the bright lights, Momtook one look at me with panic written all over her face. Sheasked Liz if she saw that the whites of my eyes were yellow.Liz agreed, andMom immediately scooped me up and left forthe veterinarian's office. He examined me, confirmed thejaundice, and said I would have to spend the night so that Icould have IV fluids with medicine in them. Mom and Lizwere crying when they left and said they would be back in themorning. Dr. Brooks promised that he would take good careof me. He put a needle in my leg and bandaged it, and hishelpers tried to make me comfortable. (Beau)

Of course this deterioration must eventually end in death,and beloved pets and their owners cope with the conclusion tothese sacred exchange relationships in their own ways. Ourcanine companions seem to understand when the end is near,and they respond instinctively by closing down to theirsurroundings. Their reactions to this imminent demise suggestan acceptance of the natural finale to lives well lived. The rangeof activities narrows to a handful of intimate moments with thehumans who have meant so much to them, rather than anyattempt to return to the routines that formerly marked their dailyexistences. For their part, family members grasp these lastglimpses of consciousness as if they hope for reprieve from ahigher power. Our canine companions look upon this anxietyand sadness with the utmost appreciation and with concern forour welfare following their inevitable passing.

The last segments from our essays discuss the waningmoments in the lives of Buddy and Beau. The first segmentshows how Buddy comes to understand his approaching deathand acts on his appreciation for loved ones before taking a finalbreath. The second segment reveals Beau's concern for a specialpartner in life following death and also narrates the tenderceremony of burial.

It finally dawns on me that my final moments with myfamily on this earth are near. MyMom or Dad keep trying tofeed me various foods and medicines that are designed toease my suffering, but my realization causes me to refusetheir kindness and to accept my fate…. My last momentsarrive none too soon. Dad walks away from me to getsomething he left inside as I look up at Mom and try to smileto show her my gratitude for the years of friendship and lovethat she has lavished on me. She seems to lack awareness ofmy ultimate demise, as a shudder overtakes my body and asmy exhausted muscles finally relax. I hear her calling my


name and then screaming for Dad to come outside, as herimage fades, and I leap frommy body toward the bright lightthat extends from the overcast sky. (Buddy)

I wanted to go off and explore my new world, but what aboutMom? So I hovered near the ceiling as they stitched up myincision and wrapped me, or what used to be me, in Mom'spink robe. It wasn't long until Mom and JJ came to the vet'soffice to get me. As Mom talked with Dr. B., she was crying,and even JJ looked distressed. Dr. B. took them in the backand Mom picked me up, swaddled in her now-stained robe,and carried me out to the car. She held me and talked to me allthe way home…. Mom unpacked one of Liz and Gerry's hand-made baby blankets, wrapped me in it, and put nine of thepink roses in the blanket with me. She gently placed me in aplastic box, kissed me goodbye for the last time, and sealed itshut. Mom was determined to have a “service”; so she, Liz,Ann, Grandmother, Granddad, and JJ held hands while talkingabout their favorite memories of me. Mom said a prayer, andJJ took the box outside and covered the grave with dirt. (Beau)

5. Concluding thoughts

5.1. Truly knowing our beloved pets

This study employs a unique method to explore the con-sumption experiences shared by pet owners and their animalcompanions. The results include thematic categories with af-firming excerpts. While some scholars may argue that our samplefails to meet acceptable criteria for generalizing findings, theparallel nature of the essays suggests that these owners experiencehomogeneity in the ways beloved dogs are perceived, evaluated,and loved. The analysis and resulting themes provide vivid de-scriptions consistent with the alternative standard often applicablein qualitative research studies (see Van Mannen, 1988, 1995).Nonetheless, examining a more diverse group of dog lovers—from different socioeconomic, cultural, geodemographic, andfamily-composition subgroups—would enrich the five thematiccategories. Further, other species—for example, cats—potential-ly interact with pet owners in unique ways, requiring their ownexaminations.

An additional issue for more traditional consumer-behaviorresearchers concerns giving voice to beloved pets. While noone expects these dogs to answer questions or write their ownlife histories, using an empathic and anthropomorphic stylemay not resonate as truthful. On the other hand, limited optionsexist under such circumstances. One disappointing alternativemight accept the inner lives of animals as unknown andunknowable. But the relevant literature and the intenselypersonal nature of these consumption experiences suggest anintimate connection manifested in various forms of inter-species communication. The pioneering work of Holbrook et al.(2001) with family members who are also dogs or cats providesrich detail about the many ways animal companions and theirowners co-consume each other as well as the larger worldaround them.




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Assuming that at least some portion of our stories is merelyprojection of human thoughts and feelings onto these canineshardly diminishes the applicability of a consumer-behaviorperspective. As caretakers and providers, loving owners fulfillobligations to act on their pet's behalf to ensure a quality of lifethat is consistent with other family members. Thus, human rolesand responsibilities with pets resemble those of parents whomust discern very complex wants and needs that evolve as themutual parent–child understanding grows over the years. Theextent to which dog devotees misrepresent the sadness orsorrow, happiness or joy, manifested by their animal companionsis most probably a matter of over- or under-stating the relevantfeelings by a margin that reflects their own pain or pleasure.Such errors may actually enrich our comprehension, given theemotional resonance of shared consumption experience.

5.2. Satisfying their wants and needs

Many pet owners possess a solid grasp of the consumptionrequirements and expectations of their animal companions.Thus, firms with a mission to serve beloved pets may gainmarket share and goodwill by using thematic categories such asthis research reveals in the development of new goods andservices. For example, initial engagement and selectiondecisions reveal the well-intentioned yet naïve processesowners employ in their earliest interactions with pets and inselection protocols for their canine family members. Given thelong-term consequences of such decisions, breeders and otherpet suppliers would be wise to help their customers enact moresophisticated purchasing strategies to ensure loving choices.

The second theme of early adjustment and relationshipdevelopment recounts initial attempts on both sides of thissacred bond to integrate animal companions into their house-holds. The excitement of this early period may exacerbateemotional states associated with novel experiences, suggestingthe need for providers to help pet owners become aware oftypical adjustment issues and coping mechanisms for them-selves and for their animal companions. Permanent friendshipsand loving intimacy show that early trepidation gives way tointegration of beloved pets into their human families. Thesebonds build from the establishment of regular schedules andfrom forms of interaction that meet needs beyond owners'original expectations. Pet suppliers may facilitate bonding,trust, and intimacy by supporting the growth of new routinesand modes of inter-species communication.

The fourth theme of special events and life transitionsdemonstrates how animal companions come to represent boththe best of times and the most difficult moments in our lives.While some providers market a variety of goods and serviceslinking to positive occasions such as birthdays and holidays,few help pets and their owners navigate difficult transitions suchas job changes, cross-country moves, and divorces. The finaltheme expresses a particularly poignant example—namely,parting as such sweet sorrow. This theme chronicles the agingand final moments of a beloved pet's life. While health careproviders such as human/animal psychologists and veterinar-ians recognize the important role dogs and cats play in our day-


to-day worlds, their advice often fails to help owners grieve,heal, and ultimately recover from such devastating losses.Teaching pet owners how to recognize end-of-life situations andhow to develop their own natural mourning-and-copingprocesses would take a real step forward.

5.3. Final remarks

The ultimate test for the value of any academic researchproject is the extent to which the study impacts theory and/orpractice. Combining the extended-self paradigm with the sacredconsumption literature and providing exemplars based on theintegrated consumer lives of pet owners and their belovedcanines may have real influence on consumer-behaviorscholarship and its applications to the marketplace. Additionally,the method employed here has implications for other domains aswell. Scholars focusing on elderly consumers might utilize suchessays to gain insights into sacred consumption events andobjects that help determine the quality of life in old age. Parentshave a primitive understanding with regard to children'sconsumption needs in a fashion similar to the projections ofpet owners, suggesting the value of our research protocol inanother extended-self arena. Perhaps a combination of theextended-self and sacred consumption paradigms, along withpostmodern methodologies, might provide additional insightsfor the care and protection of all living beings, but especially forthree of the most vulnerable groups in our society—children, theelderly, and beloved animal companions.

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Consumer Behavior, Extended-self, And Sacred Consumption