Concept of Regional Integration

7/30/2019 Concept of Regional Integration

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THEORIES AND CONCEPTS OF REGIONAL

INTEGRATION

MDS (NDA)

BY

SIMON PETER


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INTRODUCTION

1. Regional Integrationcan be defined as a segment of the world boundtogether by a common set of objectives based on geographical, social,

cultural, economic and political ties and possessing a formal structure

provided for in formal intergovernmental agreements.1 Regional integration

efforts have a long history in Africa dating back to pre-independence era.

The inclination to unite was an initial response of Africas founding fathers

to the balkanization process of the colonial era and the desire to overcome

colonially imposed artificial boundaries.2 In recent times however, the

need for sustainable economic development in the face of the harsh

realities of globalization and trade liberalization has been the motive force

driving regional integration in Africa. The increasing integration of African

economies into the global economy and the unfavourable conditions of

international trade has continuously ensured the deliberate transfer of

wealth from African countries to developed countries. As long as this

practice persists Africa will continue to be impoverished. In reaction to this

and in view of the many benefits of integration, there arose a spontaneous

tendency for economic cooperation and integration in Africa as a means of

enhancing self reliance and reducing their individual and joint

vulnerabilities. Consequently the initial motive for integration in Africa was

mainly economic in nature.

THEORIES AND PHASES OF INTEGRATION

2. Earlier integration theories developed out of political science theories

of the functionalist and neo-functionalist frameworks and liberal economic


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theoretical framework. They basically focus on the characteristics and

processes of regional economic organization itself and the concept of

supra-national organization. They explained supra-national organization as

a process in which national actors are persuaded to shift their loyalties,

expectations and political activities toward a new centre. In general, the

main theories of integration are:a. Realism

b. Functionalism

c. Neo-Functionalism

d. Intergovernmentalism

e. Transactionalism

f. Institutionalism

g. Regime Theory

h. Customs Union Theory

i. Optimal Currency Area Theory

Realism

3. Realism is an approach to the study and practice of international

politics in relation to integration. It emphasizes the role of the nation-state

and makes a broad assumption that all nation-states are motivated by

national interests. The grand theories of the realist school that emerged out

of American political thought view the state as the single most important

actor in the international system with predetermined national interests,

which often quantifies costs and benefits involved in different policy

alternatives to achieve desired goals. The realists view the international

system as lacking in any centralized authority to make and enforce laws


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governing inter-state relationships. It adopts the concept of states being

sovereign and that in international politics states compete with one another

without established rules and norms. Under this condition, states rely on

the means they can generate and the arrangements they can make for

themselves.

In addition, the realists argue that the basic anarchical structure of the

international system determines inter-state relations where states seek self-

preservation and application of force in the pursuit of their national

interests, which largely accounts for conflict of interests. They contend that

international cooperative schemes grow as competing states interests

converge.

Critics of this theory however believe that it did not give enough explanation

for the reasons why states enter into cooperation within regional economic

organisations.3

In general terms, the realist blue print seem to have significantly predicted

the behavior of ECOWAS member states in their basic assumptions in that

states tend to pursue policies with maximum national benefits at minimum

cost.

Functionalism

4. The functionalist blue print based its assumptions on the believe that

in a world of economic interdependence, apolitical problems such as social,

technical and humanitarian could be prioritized and solved. It insists that in

a world of economic interdependence, common economic interests create

the need for international institutions and rules.The functional approach is

evolutionary in process and holds that states that have common interests,


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values and experiences can transfer their sovereign will by a function for

the realization of set goals, objects, and objectives in the hope that in time

the integrating states would shift from working together in certain technical

areas of interest to creating a political union as a higher level of

cooperation.4 The central point of the functionalist approach is that by

cooperating in specific, usually nonpolitical issues (such as trade), states

can learn to trust one another to the point, in the stream of time, where

causes of political conflict are eliminated. Functionalism is hinged on the

reduction of extreme forms of nationalism to pave way for greater mutual

trust and confidence. It proposes to build a form of authority based on

functions and needs, which linked authority with needs, scientific

knowledge, expertise and technology, i.e. it provided a supraterritorial

concept of authority.Its assumptions emphasized a practical approach to

problem solving insisting that this could be achieved by prioritizing areas of

common interests while concluding that cooperation in economic and social

fields may eventually spill over into the political fields.

Functionalism pessimists strongly illuminate the set backs involved in a

regional integration programme due to the reluctance of member states in a

regional organization to transfer sovereignty to a higher level particularly in

areas of strong national interests.In reality, the theory of functionalism

provides an insight into the operations of international organizations, by

successfully tracing the origins of international cooperation to functional

interdependence.

The theory of functionalism has not fully explained integration

withinECOWAS because so far, cooperation in the social, technical and

economic fields have not automatically yielded increased dividends in other


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areas within the community. Further, one major challenge within ECOWAS

remains the reluctance of member states to transfer decision-making

powers to the regional body. Also, ECOWAS legislations and protocols are

often left at the mercy of member states to decide whether to enforce them

or not. Therefore, the success of functionalism within the frame work of

ECOWAS is severely limited because the basic ingredients for the success

of its basic assumptions are not evident in the case of ECOWAS.

Neo-Functionalism

5. Neo-Functionalists seek to refine the functionalist assumptions and

hinged on three main processes the actors, the motives and the process

and context.5 In order to avoid the pit falls of functionalism, the theory

upgraded the importance of nation-states by insisting that states are the

primary actors in an integration process, within which are interest groups

and political parties. This approach agrees with the functionalists on the

need for states that have common interests, values and aspirations to work

together but they disagree on the timetable of the evolutionary process.The neofunctionalists believe that the timetable of the evolutionary process

will not move quickly enough to sort out the several differences that require

resolution. The neofunctionalist advocate the establishment of an

institutional mechanism to promote more collaboration tendencies and

behaviours rather than stake transition from non political arms of

cooperation to political union. Neofunctionalists see integration as a direct

response to the functional needs of state. It also foresaw that domestic,

transnational and supranational actors would engage in regional integration

to improve their efficiency in governance given their relative close proximity

and the various possibilities and advantages.They viewed integration as an


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outcome of joint action by all parties as problems in one area could only be

solve through recourse to action in other sectors. This is to be achieved by

upgrading of common interests under the guidance of a regional supra-

national body.

Regional integration efforts in Africa is tending towards the neo-functional

approach. African nations do not just need to agree to live and work

together in certain areas of cooperation, but there is the need to work out

an institutionalized framework for harmonizing perceptions, intuitions,

interests, values and strategies for achieving set goals.

Intergovernmentalism

6. The theory of intergovernmentalism conceptualized integration as a

series of bargains between the heads of government of the leading states

in a region. Its basic assumption is based on the belief that integration

takes place within domestic politics and entirely a logical consequence of

intergovernmental negotiations while down grading the importance ofsupra-national institutions in the process of integration.

It assumed that converging interests within an integration process are

essentially the interests of large states and that harmony is maintained

within the union by the big states buying off the small ones. However, the

theory contends that weak states would need international institutions as

they are confronted with more expansive and complex issues.The

intergovernmentalism placed a lot of emphasis on heads of states as major

players in the integration process without due regard to the importance of

several behind the scene events that take place before inter-state bargains.


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This theory is applicable in SADC and most African regional organizations.

Its assumptions that the constraints and opportunities imposed by

economic interdependence shape national preferences and that outcomes

of inter-state bargains are results of relative bargaining power of

governments etc. is a reality as South Africa exerts enormous influence in

SADC while Cote DIvoire and Senegal wielded a lot of influence in

UEMOA especially before the Ivorian crisis.

Transactionalism

7. Transactionalism is based on the assumption that integration is a

function of the level of communication between states. It offers a much

broader definition of integration than functionalism in economic sense to

include,social perceptions, values, sentiments and articulation of these

values and sense of community in formal and structured forms. It holds the

view that cooperation could indeed be enhanced and empirically quantified

in term of the frequency of transactions between states.

Transactionalism is believed to be an effective mechanism for social

mobilization of communities and initiate historical processes of national

development.6It contends that solid network of transactions between states

would lead to more interaction and enhanced feelings of mutual benefits

and trust from increased transactions would motivate further interactions.

The theory insists that the potential for integration is guaranteed in regions

with mutual high international transaction, which would be actualized if

states are responsive to one another.

The effective adaptation of this theory to the circumstances of ECOWAS

and UEMOA may pose serious problem as greater percentage of


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transactions within the community are basically informal and unrecorded,

but how these high informal transactions within the region have promoted

greater reciprocal relevance or the feeling of trust between member states

is difficult to quantify. Despite the relatively large informal contact and

informal transaction within the ECOWAS region, the feeling of distrust

among member states is still relatively high especially between the

francophone and the Anglophone states. The level of trade within the

UEMOA region like other regions is very low because of the homogeneity

rather than complementarity of goods produced.

Institutionalism

8. The theoretical framework for institutionalism is hinged on the basic

assumption that institutions are important because of their impact on

political outcomes they provide the contexts where actors conduct useful

bargains and serve as information pool with relative

transparency.7Generally, institutions intervene between preferences of

actors and policy outcomes.

However, institutionalist theoretical agenda is diverse with three major

variants and so are their accounts of the importance of institutions, actors

preferences and indeed how and when they are formed. They differ in

terms of the extent institutional structure influences the actor Historical

and rational choice variants while some others further distinguish between

historical and sociological institutionalism. All the variants generally agree

that institutions are important and are not passive tools but significantly

shape political out comes.


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Rational choice institutionalism assumes that actors will only engage in

rational pursuit of their self-interest, and views preference formation as

undertaken quite outside the institutional venue. In this context, institutions

shape or moderate the strategies that political actors adopt in the pursuit of

their interests. They insist that states create institutions in order to benefit

from the important services offered by them particularly in the reduction of

transaction costs.

Regime Theory

9. Regime theoretical concept is defined as a set of implicit or explicit

principles, norms, rules and decision-making procedures around which

actors expectations converge in a given area of international

relations.8Regime theoretical framework insisted that states interests and

capabilities as well as the increasing global interdependence can promote

cooperation. The theory assumes international institutions moderate states

and promote understanding between them, thereby providing an avenue for

monitoring states behaviour and reducing uncertainties and transaction

costs. International institutions succeed if they are able to establish

principles and facilitate the convergence of expectations and interests. The

framework emphasizes the importance of cognitive factors in international

politics.

Regime theory is viewed as an amalgam of the realist and liberal

traditions.9Those closer to the realist concepts assume that the conflicting

nature of the international system diminish free flow of cooperation and that

a hegemon is needed to restore sanity within the system emphasizing the


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importance of sanctions. They insist that sanctions and monitoring are

important to sustain cooperation among self-interested states.

However, Regime theorists with more liberal orientation de-emphasize the

application of sanctions and monitoring in international cooperation,

assuming that increasing interdependence and common interests,

enhancement of available information and norms are sufficient to foster

cooperation. In most regional integration groups in Africa, particularly

ECOWAS, there is still little hope as to the readiness of member states to

transfer some measure of sovereignty to the regional body. In addition, it

remains quite doubtful if there is any member state of ECOWAS with

sufficient resources to play the role of a Benevolent Hegemon without

necessarily jeopardizing their immediate national interests and needs, thus,

the concept in all its dimensions do not go far in explaining the state of

regional integration in West Africa. The experience of Nigeria in Liberia

within the framework of ECOMOG an example.

Customs Union Theory

10. The Customs Union examines markets and goods within a region and

the effect of discrimination within the integrating area. Customs Union is

defined as the process of elimination of intra-trade barriers and the

equalization of tariffs on imports from non-member countries.The

background work on customs theory was done by Jacob Viner and he

conceptualized trade creation and trade diversion within an integrating

area10. He argued trade creation occurs when the output of inefficient

producers are replaced after the elimination of tariffs by cheaper imports of

more efficient producers within the region to the benefit of both producers

and consumers.


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On the other hand, trade diversion effect occurs when imposition of

common external tariff puts suppliers from countries outside the integrating

area in a competitive disadvantage by encouraging imports from less

efficient suppliers with the union. Thus, this condition leads to trade

diversion which reduces the economic welfare and benefits accruable to

members of the union.

In general terms, conventional economic theories are hinged on the gains

derivable from changes in the existing trade patterns within a region based

on the condition thatemployment is full under a given input of resources

and that domestic prices of products must be a practical reflection of

opportunity cost under a free market allocation of resources.

These two basic conditions will ensure the attainment of integration

through the gradual elimination of quantitative restrictions between member

states of an integrating area. Some scholars and authors like Belassa and

Lipede categorize the process of removing discrimination into five stages

as listed below.11

a. Free Trade Area

b. Customs Union

c. Common Market

d. Economic Union

e. Total Economic Integration

While others like Kaptoum, Fischer and Straubhaar evolved a 6

stagemodel.12These stages are also known as phases of integration and

will be discussed in details in the next section. This paper will rely on the 5

stage concept.


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Optimal Currency Area Theory

11. Optimal currency area is defined as an area in which exchange rates

are immutably fixed or in which a common currency exists13. The theory

basically examines the conditions under which the formation of a currency

is economically viable and hinged on money, markets for goods and

markets for factors of production. It seeks to achieve both internal and

external balance in the least costly way without compromising monetary

and fiscal policies.

However, the proponents of the optimal currency area are divided as to the

best avenue to achieve both internal and external balance [i.e. Flexible or

fixed exchange rates]. The first group favours the adoption of flexible

exchange rates to maintain both internal and external balance while the

second group insists that payment equilibrium would be achieved if real

exchange rates are fixed thus reducing its volatility. However, both strands

converge at the point that the success of a currency area depends on the

availability of high mobility of factors of production within the region14

.

Optimal currency theory framework has been successfully implemented

in the UEMOA region with a common currency and fixed exchange rates.

The much desired economic benefits of ensuring both internal and external

balance as well as the attainment of low/non-inflationary growth has been

achieved minimally within the UEMOA region, however the member states

economies remains very weak, highly fragile and structurally truncated with

little or no influence on the international economic system. Indeed the rate

of growth and development in Anglophone West Africa is relatively higher

than in the UEMOA region. The transition tofull liberalization within the

Union and harmonization of member states economic and fiscal policies


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should help accelerate integration as well as development in the UEMOA

region.

PHASES OF INTEGRATION

The phases of integration refer to the various stages through which nations

quest for economic integration must evolve. Economic integration, as

defined here, can take several forms that represent varying degrees of

integrationSome authors actually refer to these phases also as the theories

of economic integration15. There are divergent views over the number of

phases involved. While some believe there are 5 phases16, others believe

there are 617 and still others restrict themselves to 3 phases18.The 6 stage

model begins with the Preferential Trade Area before the Free Trade Area

of the 5 stage model while the 3 stage model begins with the customs

union and ends with the economic union. However the 5 stage model is

generally accepted and most phases are believed to overlap and cannot

always be neatly separated19. The 5 phases of integration are:

a. Free Trade Area

b. Customs Union

c. Common Market

d. Economic Union

e. Complete Economic Integration

Free Trade Area

A free-trade areais a trade bloc whose member countries have

signed a free-trade agreement (FTA), which eliminates tariffs, import

quotas, and preferences on most (if not all) goods and services traded
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between them.20Countries choose this kind of economic integration if their

economical structures are complementary and it is believed that this phase

would gradually evolve into a Customs Union. Unlike in a customs

union,members of a free-trade area do not have a common external tariff,

which means they have different quotas and customs, as well as other

policies with respect to non-members. In a free-trade area, tariffs between

the participating countries are abolished, but each country retains its own

tariffs against non members.21To avoid tariff evasion the countries use the

system of certification of origin most commonly called rules of origin, where

there is a requirement for the minimum extent of local content to the goods.

Only goods that meet these minimum requirements are entitled to the

special treatment envisioned by the free trade area provisions. The aim of a

free-trade area is to reduce barriers to exchange so that trade can grow as

a result of specialisation, division of labour, and most importantly via

comparative advantage. The net result will be an increase in income and

ultimately wealth and well-being for everyone in the free-trade area. Also

Free Trade Areas allow the agreeing nations to focus on their competitive

advantage and to freely trade for the goods they lack the experience at

making, thus increasing the efficiency and profitability of each country.But

the theory refers only to aggregate wealth and says nothing about the

distribution of wealth; in fact there may be significant losers, in particular

among the recently protected industries with a comparative disadvantage.

In principle, the overall gains from trade could be used to compensate for

the effects of reduced trade barriers by appropriate inter-party transfers.
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Customs Union

A customs union is the second stage in the 5 phase integration model.

According to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs a customs union

shall be understood to mean the substitution of a single customs territory

for two or more customs territories, so that (i) duties and other restrictive

regulations of commerce are eliminated with respect to substantially all the

trade between the constituent territories of the union and, (ii) substantially

the same duties and other regulations of commerce are applied by each of

the members of the union to the trade of territories not included in the

union." 22Essentially, it consists of an agreement between two or more

countries (usually within the same geographical region) to remove trade

barriers, and reduce or eliminatecustoms duty or other restrictions on

mutualtrade as well as the establishment of uniform tarrif on trade with non

members. A customs union generally imposes a commonexternal-tariff

(CET) on imports from non-member countries and (unlike a common

market) generally does not allow free movement of capital and labouramong member countries. A customs Union can therefore be said to

consist of a free trade area with a common external tariff. Establishing a

customs union involves, besides the suppression of discrimination in the

field of commodity movements within the union, the equalization of tariffs in

trade with nonmember countries23.The participant countries therefore set

up common external trade policy, but in some cases they use different

import quotas. Common competition policy is also helpful to avoid

competition deficiency.The purposes for establishing a customs union

normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing closer

political and cultural ties between the member countries. A clear
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understanding of the customs union was made by Jacob Viner in his work

on customs union.24Through abolishing tariffs within the union and

maintaining them against third countries, a customs union entails the

suppression of discrimination between home-produced goods and goods

produced in partner countries, and, at the same time, it gives rise to

discrimination between commodities produced in partner and in third

countries. Customs Union therefore involves trade creation and trade

diversion.There are 2 well established customs unions in Africa, the first

being the Southern African Customs Union (SACU) while the second

transcends the customs union to a monetary union, the Union Economique

et Monetaire Ouest Africaine (UEMOA) which has a well defined customs

union integrated within its structure.The European Union also has a well

defined customs union.

Common Market

A common market is a type oftrade bloc composed of a free trade area (for

goods) with common policies on product regulation, and freedom of

movement of the factors of production (capital and labour) and ofenterprise

and services. The goal is that the movement of capital, labour, goods, and

services between the members is as easy as within them as possible.The

physical (borders), technical (standards) and fiscal (taxes) barriers among

the member states are removed to the maximum extent possible. These

barriers obstruct the freedom of movement of the four factors of production.

A higher form of economic integration is therefore attained in a common

market, where not only trade restrictions but also restrictions on factor

movements are abolished.
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A common market has many benefits. With full freedom of movement for all

the factors of production between the member countries, the factors of

production become more efficiently allocated, further increasing

productivity.For both business within the market and consumers, a

common market is a very competitive environment, making the existence of

monopolies more difficult. This means that inefficient companies will suffer

a loss of market share and may have to close down. However, efficient

firms can benefit from economies of scale, increased competitiveness and

lower costs, as well as expect profitability to be a result. Consumers are

benefited by the common market in the sense that the competitive

environment brings them cheaper products, more efficient providers of

products and also increased choice of products. Businesses in competition

will alsoinnovate to create new products thereby creating more benefits for

consumers.

Transition to a single market can have short term negative impact on some

sectors of a national economy due to increased international competition.

Enterprises that previously enjoyed national market protection and national

subsidy (and could therefore continue in business despite falling short of

international performance benchmarks) may struggle to survive against

their more efficient peers, even for its traditional markets. Ultimately, if the

enterprise fails to improve its organization and methods, it will fail. The

consequence may be unemployment or migration.

The European Economic Community was the first example of a both

common market, but it was an economic union since it had additionally a

customs union. Similarly the UEMOA is a common market and has all its

characteristics in principle. Indeed one of the reasons for the establishment
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of UEMOA was the need to reinforce the monetary union with a customs

union in order to attain a common market based on free movement of

persons, goods, services and capital.but the efficiency of the common

market is highly degraded by the low intra UEMOA trade and the low

industrial and economic base of member countries.

ECONOMIC UNION

An economic union is a type of economic integration which is composed of

a common market with a customs union. The participant countries have

both common policies on product regulation, freedom of movement of

goods, services and the factors of productionand a common external trade

policy.The countries often share a common currency. An economic union,

as distinct from a common market, combines the suppression of restrictions

on commodity and factor movements with some degree of harmonization of

national economic policies, in order to remove discrimination that was due

to disparities in these policies. The reasons for establishing a economic

union normally include increasing economic efficiency and establishing

closer political and cultural ties between the member countries. The EU is

an economic union as well as the UEMOA because they both have

common markets, customs union as well as common currencies. However

the efficiency of the economic union in the case of UEMOA is highly

degraded because of the low volume of trade as well as inability of member

countries to meet up with the macroeconomic convergence criteria

established by the Union.
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COMPLETE ECONOMIC INTEGRATION

Complete economic integrationpresupposes the unification of monetary,

fiscal, social, and countercyclical policies and requires the setting-up of a

supra-national authority whose decisions are binding for the member

states. The member countries therefore operate as one nation in terms of

integration of their various economies. An "economic union" combines

customs union with a common market whileacomplete economic

integration introduces a shared fiscal and budgetary policy. In order to be

successful this stage of integration is typically accompanied by unification

of economic policies (tax, social welfare benefits, etc.), reductions in the

rest of the trade barriers, introduction of supranational bodies, and gradual

moves towards a "political union".25

The EU is at this stage of integration. While theoretically, the UEMOA

which is considered to have gone the farthest on the road to integrationis

supposed to have reached this stage of integration, practically it is far from

this point because of the inability to effectively harmonize budgetary

policies, unification of social welfare benefits and an inability to go beyond

economic integration to social integration as well as the tendency for some

countries to tow the path of national interest against the collective interest

of the region. The inability of UEMOA to make its decisions binding on all

members as well as the over dependence on France which seeks to

promote its own interest is also militating against UEMOAs ability to moveforward on the integration ladder.
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END NOTES

1. L.A Bennett, International Organisations: Principles and Issues, 3rd

edition, NewJersey: Prentice-Hall, 1984. p.289.

2. A. Y. Yansan, Evaluation of the State of Integration in Africa: How to Strengthenthe African Economic Community, in O.M Iheduru (ed.), Contending Issues in AfricanDevelopment: Advances Challenges and the Future, Connecticut: Greenwood Press,2001. p.241.

3. R. O. Keohane, After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World PoliticalEconomy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p.7.

4. D. Mitrany, A world Peace System, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1996.p.31.

5. E.B Haas, The Uniting of Europe, Stanford: Stanford University Press. 1958. p.126.

6. S.M Anadi, Regional Integration in Africa: The Case of ECOWAS, Phd ThesisUniversity of Zurich, April 2005.p. 134.

7. ibid. p. 145.

8. www.wikipaedia.orgaccessed on 3 April 2012.

9. S.M Anadi, op. cit. p. 146.

10. J. Viner, The Customs Union Issues in S.M Anadi, op. cit. p. 148.

11. BelaBelassa in his work on Economic Integration cited hereafter and Prof Lipede

in her lecture notes to students of MDS at the Nigerian Defence Academy Kaduna bothtalked about 5 stages of economic integration.

12. P.C Kaptouon, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past andPresent of an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of BerlinDiscussion Paper 19, 2007.Kaptouon reproduced a 6 stage model designed by Fischerand Straubhaar on page 16 of the above quoted reference.

13. WMattli,The Logic of Regional Integration: Europe and Beyond, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1999.p. 105.

14. S.M. Anadi, op. cit.

15. B. Belassa, The Theory of Economic Integration:Illinois, Richard D. IrwinPublishers, 1961.p. 2.

16. B. Belassa,op. cit.p. 1.
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17. P.C Kaptouon, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past and

Present of an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of Berlin

Discussion Paper 19, 2007.

18. M. Hpner and A.Schfer, A New Phase of European Integration: Organized

Capitalisms in Post-Ricardian Europe, Discussion Paper No. 4,Max Planck Institute forthe Study of Societies, March 2007 p. 7.

19. ibid.

20.www.wikipaediaonline.orgassessed 19 April 2012..

21. B. Belassa, op. cit. p. 1.

22. GATT, Basic Instruments and Selected Documents, Vol. I ( Geneva, 1952), Part

III, Article XXIV, Sec. 8(a).

23. B. Belassa, op. cit. p. 2.

24. J. Viner, The Customs Union Issue in Belassa, op. cit. p.21.

25. www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integration .Assessed on 22 April 2012.
http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipaediaonline.org/


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Belassa B., The Theory of Economic Integration:Illinois, Richard D. Irwin Publishers,1961.

Bennett L.A, International Organisations: Principles and Issues, 3rd edition, New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, 1984.

HaasE.B, The Uniting of Europe, Stanford: Stanford University Press,1958.

Keohane R. O., After Hegemony: Cooperation and Discord in the World PoliticalEconomy. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984.

MattliW, The Logic of Regional Integration: Europe and Beyond, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press, 1999.

Mitrany D., A world Peace System, Chicago: Quadrangle Books, 1996.

Yansan A. Y., Evaluation of the State of Integration in Africa: How to Strengthen theAfrican Economic Community, in O.M Iheduru (ed.), Contending Issues in AfricanDevelopment: Advances Challenges and the Future, Connecticut: Greenwood Press,2001.

Discussion Papers

Kaptouon P.C, The West African Economic and Monetary Union: Past and Present of

an Exceptional North-South-South Integration, University of Berlin Discussion Paper 19,

2007.

M. Hpner and A. Schfer, A New Phase of European Integration: Organized

Capitalisms in Post-Ricardian Europe, Discussion Paper No. 4,Max Planck Institute for

the Study of Societies, March 2007.

Internet Sources

www.wikipaedia.org

www.wikipaediaonline.orgwww.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integration

Unpublished Work

S.M Anadi, Regional Integration in Africa: The Case of ECOWAS, Phd Thesis Universityof Zurich, April 2005.
http://www.wikipaedia.org/http://www.wikipaedia.org/http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_integrationhttp://www.wikipaediaonline.org/http://www.wikipaedia.org/


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