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Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015 ISSN 2350-7020 (Print) ISSN 2362-9436 (Online) doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v4i1.855
Compliance with Standard Precautions among
Hospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines
Jezreel Marc E. Pasay1, Marie Rosellynn C. Enguito2, Chona J. Robles1, Anthony L. Awa3
1College of Nursing and Midwifery, Misamis University, Ozamiz City, Philippines
2Natural Sciences Department, College of Arts & Sciences, Misamis University, Ozamiz City, Philippines
3College of Arts & Sciences, Misamis University, Ozamiz City, Philippines Corresponding author: Jezreel Marc E. Pasay, email: [email protected]
Abstract
Ozamiz City is the center for health and people from nearby places choose to access its health services because of the available amenities for life-threatening conditions. With the increasing incidence of infectious diseases, compliance of nurses with standard precautions (SP) is necessary to control healthcare-associated infections. This study determined the compliance with SP of 100 nurses in two tertiary hospitals in Ozamiz City using a structured questionnaire that passed the Cronbach’s alpha reliability test. The study utilized the Kruskal-Wallis H test, Mann-Whitney U test, and Pearson’s correlation statistical models. Findings revealed a very high compliance among nurses in 82.6% of the SP. Older and male nurses assigned to pedia ward with more years of work experience and attended SP training exhibited better compliance to SP. Nurses who experienced needlestick injury, not exposed to patient’s body fluids, and vaccinated with the hepatitis B virus also showed better compliance. The difference in compliance among nurses when grouped by profile was not statistically significant (p<0.05). The correlation between knowledge and compliance was not also significant. The findings could help the administrators identify areas for improvement in nosocomial infection control in hospitals in this part of Mindanao. Keywords: health, infections, knowledge, needlestick, nosocomial
108
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015ISSN 2350-7020 (Print)ISSN 2362-9436 (Online)doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7828/jmds.v4i1.855
Compliance with Standard Precautions among J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito, Hospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Introduction
Hospital-acquired infections (HAIs) remain a public concern worldwide, threatening the health of the patients and medical workers (Luo et al., 2010). Infections acquired during medical treatment have been increasing over the past decade causing high mortality (Suganya & Thomas, 2014). Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus, severe acute respiratory syndrome, avian flu, and Ebola are rapidly increasing worldwide and become a burden on public health (Suwantarat & Apisarnthanarak, 2015; Milinovich et al., 2014).
The term HAIs has been commonly used for nosocomial infections to reflect better the diversity of the modern healthcare systems that the patients encounter in recent time (Paitoonpong et al., 2013). Patients under medical or surgical treatment are not the only ones at risk for HAIs, but physicians and nurses are also susceptible. Healthcare workers are at direct risk of exposure to blood and other body fluids during their work (Amoran & Onwube, 2013). Specifically, nurses are prone to acquiring blood-borne viruses such as Hepatitis B virus (HBV), hepatitis C virus (HCV), and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) during direct contact with the patients (Chan et al., 2002; Shiao et al., 2002). Needlestick injury is the most common cause of transmission of these blood-borne infections to nurses (Amoran & Onwube, 2013; Ilhan et al., 2006).
The higher prevalence of HAIs has burdened the developing countries more than the high-income countries (Habibi et al., 2008; Lahsaeizadeh et al., 2008). The occurrence of device-associated infection in the low- and middle-income countries is up to 13 times higher than in developed countries (World Health Organization [WHO], 2014). A study in Philippine ICU (Intensive Care Unit) on device-associated healthcare-associated infections (DA-HAI) showed an overall rate of 4.9 infections per 1,000 ICU-days with ventilator-associated pneumonia constituting the greatest risk (Navoa-Ng et al., 2011). Hence, more emphasis has been given to SP to prevent the spread of infectious diseases (Luo et al., 2010). The SP are considered basic protective measures that apply to all patients (Mukherjee et al., 2013) and reduce the risk of acquiring an occupational infection among healthcare workers (Siegel et al., 2007).
109
J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito,C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Compliance with Standard Precautions amongHospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
Compliance with SP among healthcare workers can prevent the spread of potentially life-threatening infectious diseases (Chan et al., 2002). However, noncompliance with SP among nurses worldwide has been reported (Kim et al., 2001; Chan et al., 2002; Askarian & Ghavanini, 2002). Nurses exhibit low-level conformity on handwashing (Stein et al., 2003), use of gloves (Kermode et al., 2005a), and use of masks (Chan et al., 2002). Studies showed that lack of knowledge, training and time are factors to noncompliance (Sax et al., 2005; Oliveira et al., 2010; Luo et al., 2010).
In the Philippines, few studies were carried out in the compliance with SP among healthcare workers in hospitals (Padilla et al., 2006; Tayaben, 2015). These studies are only focused on compliance with prevention guidelines related to needlestick injury among healthcare workers. Research on SP is important and timely taking into account the high incidence of infectious diseases in various regions of the country. In Northern Mindanao for example, a 30.92% increase of notifiable diseases was reported in 2013 (Department of Health – Northern Mindanao, 2013). Among these notifiable diseases, increases were seen in typhoid fever, foot and mouth disease, influenza, and measles. Cholera, acute encephalitis syndrome, and neonatal tetanus had similar trends. From the year 1991 to 2013, a total of 102 individuals were HIV-positive in this part of Mindanao. Within the area, the province of Bukidnon has seven acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) cases, Camiguin has two, and Misamis Oriental and Cagayan de Oro have 60. Lanao del Norte including Iligan City has 19 AIDS cases. Misamis Occidental including Ozamiz City has 14 cases (Malalis, 2013).
Ozamiz City is regarded as the center for health (Atienza, 2014) because of the available hospital amenities for life-threatening conditions. People from nearby places choose to access its hospital services, so it is imperative to determine if health workers are able to conform with SP. This study is an attempt to determine the compliance with SP of hospital nurses in the city. This study also tried to find out if the compliance significantly differs when nurses are grouped by profile and correlates with their knowledge on SP. The findings could help the hospital administrators identify areas for improvement in nosocomial infection control in hospitals in this part of Mindanao.
110
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
Compliance with Standard Precautions among J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito, Hospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Materials and Methods Research design and instrument The study used the descriptive-inferential research design. The survey was conducted in Ozamiz City utilizing a questionnaire modified from the instrument developed by Luo et al. (2010). Integration of the compliance activity on handling injured skin, discarding sharps boxes, handling used linens, and transporting laboratory specimens was one of the modifications. Included also in the questionnaire is an item on the knowledge of nurses on the single use of syringes.
The questionnaire consists of three parts. Part I gathered the profile of the respondents regarding age, gender, the area of assignment, years of work experience, and SP training. This section of the questionnaire also obtained data regarding needlestick injury of nurses, their exposure to patient’s body fluids, and hepatitis B vaccination. Part II with 23 items investigated the respondent’s compliance. This portion of the questionnaire used the five-point scale: 0 = never, 1 = seldom, 2 = sometimes, 3 = usually, and 4 = always. The Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.78 suggests that the items are reliable. The weighted mean was calculated for each item and interpreted using the following scales: 3.20-4.00 (Very high compliance); 2.40-3.19 (High compliance); 1.60-2.39 (Moderate compliance); 0.80-1.59 (Low compliance); 0.00-0.79 (Very low compliance).
Part III of the questionnaire consists of 25 items that assessed the respondent’s knowledge about SP. The respondents chose ‘yes’ or ‘no’ for their answer. A value of 1 was given for the ‘yes’ answer and 0 for the ‘no’ answer. The value of 0.79 from Cronbach’s alpha test suggests the reliability of the items. The mean rank determines the compliance of nurses when they are grouped by their profile. The higher the mean rank, the more compliant are the nurses. Selection of respondents and sampling procedures
Simple random sampling was used in selecting the 100 nurse-respondents in two tertiary care hospitals in Ozamiz City. The sample size was determined using the Sloven’s formula (Olatunde & Joshua, 2012)
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J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito,C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Compliance with Standard Precautions amongHospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
with 95% level of confidence. The respondents were informed of the scope of the study, the anonymity, and confidentiality of their responses, their voluntary participation, and the right to refuse participation. The questionnaire was distributed after the respondents gave the accomplished informed consent. The sampling was carried out in a two-month period, from March to April 2014.
Statistical tests
The study utilized the SPSS version 16.0. For descriptive analysis, percentage distribution and average weighted mean were used to measure the compliance of nurses. For inferential analysis, the Kruskal-Wallis H test, Mann-Whitney U test, and Pearson’s correlation test were used. For the analysis of more than two groups, the Kruskal-Wallis H test was used to determine if there is a significant difference in the compliance of nurses when they are grouped by age, years of work experience, and area of assignment. For two-group analysis, the Mann-Whitney U test was used to determine if there is a significant difference in the compliance of nurses when they are grouped by their gender, needlestick injury, exposure to patient’s body fluid, hepatitis B vaccination, and SP training. The Pearson’s correlation test determines if there is a significant correlation between the compliance and SP knowledge of nurses. Results and Discussion Table 1 presents the degree of compliance of hospital nurses with SP. Findings showed a very high compliance among nurses in 82.6% (19 out of 23 activities) of the SP. There was a very high compliance with handwashing protocol. Similar studies in Afghanistan and Jamaica also showed a remarkable proportion of respondents always practicing handwashing (Fayaz et al., 2014; McGaw et al., 2012). However, low compliance to handwashing was seen in Turkey (Kuzu et al., 2005). Requiring the nursing students for return demonstration of the handwashing procedures before their exposure to hospitals has enhanced their competence (Blum et al., 2010).
112
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
Com
plia
nce
with
Sta
ndar
d Pr
ecau
tions
am
ong
J.
M. E
. Pas
ay, M
. R. C
. Eng
uito
, H
ospi
tal N
urse
s in
Oza
miz
City
, Phi
lippi
nes
C
. J. R
oble
s & A
. L. A
wa
Ta
ble
1. C
ompl
ianc
e of
hos
pita
l nur
ses w
ith st
anda
rd p
reca
utio
ns.
C
ompl
ianc
e A
ctiv
ities
R
espo
nse
W
eigh
ted
Ave
rage
In
terp
reta
tion
Alw
ays
(4)
Usu
ally
(3
) So
met
imes
(2
) Se
ldom
(1
) N
ever
(0
) A
. H
andw
ashi
ng
1.
W
ashi
ng o
f han
ds if
con
tact
ing
diffe
rent
pat
ient
s. 95
4
1 0
0 3.
94
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e 2.
W
ashi
ng o
f han
ds a
fter t
akin
g of
f the
glo
ves.
96
3
1 0
0 3.
95
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e 3.
W
ashi
ng o
r di
sinfe
ctin
g of
han
ds i
mm
edia
tely
afte
r co
ntac
ting
any
bloo
d, b
ody
fluid
, sec
retio
n, e
xcre
tion
or d
irty
subs
tanc
es.
95
4 0
1 0
3.93
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
Ove
rall
3.
94
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e
B. U
se o
f Per
sona
l Pro
tect
ive
Equi
pmen
t
4.
W
earin
g of
glo
ves d
urin
g bl
ood
draw
ing
80
10
5 5
0 3.
65
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e 5.
W
earin
g of
glo
ves d
urin
g di
spos
al o
f sto
ol a
nd u
rine
95
3 1
1 0
3.92
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
6.
Wea
ring
glov
es w
hen
cont
actin
g th
e br
oken
ski
n of
th
e pat
ient
s 91
9
0 0
0 3.
91
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e
7.
Wea
ring
glov
es w
hen
cont
actin
g th
e m
ucos
a of
the
patie
nts
97
3 0
0 0
3.97
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
8.
Wea
ring
of g
love
s dur
ing
saliv
a sp
ecim
en c
olle
ctio
n 95
1
1 3
0 3.
88
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e 9.
W
earin
g of
gl
oves
du
ring
intra
mus
cula
r or
hy
pode
rmic
inje
ctio
n 51
24
13
8
4 3.
10
H
igh
com
plia
nce
10.
Wea
ring
of g
love
s dur
ing
dres
sing
chan
ge
91
8 0
0 1
3.88
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
11.
Wea
ring
of g
love
s dur
ing
clea
ning
blo
od tr
ace
94
6 0
0 0
3.94
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
12.
Wea
ring
of g
love
s dur
ing
veno
us p
unct
ure
67
18
10
4 1
3.46
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
13.
Wea
ring
of g
love
s dur
ing
cont
actin
g bl
ood
sam
ple
89
5 3
1 2
3.78
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
14.
Wea
ring
of t
he f
ace
mas
k to
pro
tect
the
ora
l an
d na
sal m
ucos
a in
the
proc
edur
es th
at m
ight
indu
ce th
e sp
rayi
ng o
f blo
od, b
ody
fluid
, sec
retio
n or
exc
retio
n.
91
5 0
3 1
3.82
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
113
J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito,C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Compliance with Standard Precautions amongHospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines
Jour
nal o
f Mul
tidisc
iplin
ary
Stud
ies V
ol. 4
No.
1,
pp. 1
08-1
38, A
ugus
t 201
5
Ta
ble
1 co
ntin
ued:
Com
plia
nce
of h
ospi
tal n
urse
s with
stan
dard
pre
caut
ions
.
C
ompl
ianc
e A
ctiv
ities
R
espo
nse
W
eigh
ted
Ave
rage
In
terp
reta
tion
Alw
ays
(4)
Usu
ally
(3
) So
met
imes
(2
) Se
ldom
(1
) N
ever
(0
) 15
. W
earin
g of
pro
tect
ive
eye
patc
h an
d go
ggle
s to
pr
otec
t the
eye
s in
pro
cedu
res
that
mig
ht in
duce
the
spra
ying
of b
lood
, bod
y flu
id, s
ecre
tion
or e
xcre
tion
54
7 11
13
15
2.
72
H
igh
com
plia
nce
16.
Wea
ring
of p
rote
ctiv
e su
it/go
wn
in t
he p
roce
dure
s th
at m
ight
indu
ce th
e sp
rayi
ng o
f blo
od, b
ody
fluid
, se
cret
ion
or e
xcre
tion.
57
13
11
14
5 3.
03
Hig
h co
mpl
ianc
e
17.
Wea
ring
of a
pro
tect
ive
cap
or s
hoe
shad
e to
pro
tect
ha
ir or
sho
es i
n th
e pr
oced
ures
mig
ht i
nduc
e th
e sp
rayi
ng,
flow
ing
or l
eaki
ng o
f bl
ood,
bod
y flu
id,
secr
etio
n or
exc
retio
n.
55
12
10
11
12
2.87
H
igh
com
plia
nce
18.
Pers
onal
pro
tect
ive
equi
pmen
t is u
sed
whe
n ha
ndlin
g us
ed li
nens
. 69
20
7
3 1
3.53
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
Ove
rall
3.
56
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e
C. O
ther
com
plia
nce
activ
ities
19.
The
seco
nd-h
and
syrin
ge
is no
t re
used
or
re
proc
esse
d.
80
4 4
2 10
3.
42
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e
20.
The
seco
nd-h
and
shar
ps a
nd b
lade
s ar
e di
spos
ed o
f in
the
spec
ial s
harp
s disp
osal
box
91
4
1 1
3 3.
79
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e
21.
If th
e sk
in is
inju
red
by c
onta
min
ated
sha
rps,
it sh
all
be s
quee
zed
to a
llow
blo
od t
o flo
w a
nd t
hen
be
thor
ough
ly c
lean
ed, d
isinf
ecte
d an
d ta
ped
up.
75
13
3 3
6 3.
48
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e
22.
Shar
ps b
ox is
disc
arde
d w
hen
less
than
¾ fu
ll.
63
27
7 3
0 3.
50
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e 23
. La
bora
tory
spe
cim
ens
are
plac
ed in
pla
stic
bags
and
in
an
up
right
po
sitio
n du
ring
trans
porta
tion
to
prev
ent l
eaka
ge.
64
22
6 5
3 3.
39
Ver
y hi
gh c
ompl
ianc
e
Ove
rall
3.52
V
ery
high
com
plia
nce
114
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
Compliance with Standard Precautions among J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito, Hospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Regarding the use of personal protective equipment (PPE), nurses in this study had a very high compliance with wearing of gloves except during intramuscular or hypodermal injection. Adversely, low compliance of glove usage was observed in Hongkong and Malaysia when performing invasive procedures (Chau et al., 2011; Naing et al., 2001). The majority of nurses had a very high compliance with wearing of face mask in this study. Studies from Toronto (Loeb et al., 2004) and Hong Kong (Seto et al., 2003) also documented the use of face masks to protect nurses against highly contagious diseases.
Based on the findings, the majority of nurses did not have a very high compliance on the wearing of the eye patch, goggles, gown, cap, and shoe shade. Nurses in this study preferred to use gloves more frequently than the goggles or eye patch similar to the findings in Hongkong (Chan et al., 2002). Nurses in Nigeria showed low compliance with wearing of eye protection during deliveries and surgeries (Sadoh et al., 2006) but operating room nurses in Australia exhibited high compliance with the use of this PPE (Osborne, 2003). Nevertheless, the compliance of nurses with the use of eye protection in this present study is higher compared to South India (Holla et al., 2014) and Poland (Ganczak & Szych, 2007).
Nurses in this study had a very high compliance in other activities that involved sharp instruments, but hospital administration could still adopt the new safety engineered devices that are effective in reducing sharp injuries (Jagger et al., 2008; Adams & Elliott, 2006). One of the health concerns of the nurses in the Philippines is needlestick injury (de Castro et al., 2009). In the study of Tayaben (2015) in two government tertiary care hospitals in the Philippines, nurses were compliant with guidelines of preventing sharps injury before and during a procedure but less compliant after the procedure.
The compliance of nurses in this study on the single use of syringes was very high. However, 10% of the respondents claimed to reuse always the disposable syringe during withdrawal of medications from vials, and administration of intravenous through tubing (IVTT). Despite the risk of cross-infection, reusing syringes to different patients is still prevalent in resource-limited countries like the Philippines.
115
J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito,C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Compliance with Standard Precautions amongHospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC] (2011) reported that one of the contributing factors of the hepatitis outbreaks is the reuse of the disposable syringe. Reusing needles is common in Ethiopia and India (Ademe & Mekonnen, 2014; Guh et al., 2012; Kermode et al., 2005b) and worsening the problem is the presence of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the paraphernalia.
In this study, the compliance on managing injured skin by squeezing to allow blood to flow, thorough cleaning, disinfecting and taping up was very high. In India, the majority of the nurses washed the site of injury with soap and water (Sharma et al., 2010).
This study showed that the various profiles of nurses yielded different results on their compliance with SP (Figures 1a-1c). The oldest nurses had the highest compliance (Figure 1a) similar to the findings of Chan et al. (2002) but different with the results of Gebresilassie et al. (2014), Yassi et al. (2007), and Gershon et al. (1999) showing resistance of older nurses to behavior change with the SP implementation. The findings of this present study pose concern since 86% of the nurses with the lowest compliance are 20-30 years old. Perrin et al. (2007) reported that most of the nurses in the Philippines are young. Hence, formulating programs that can improve the compliance of younger nurses is important.
Regarding gender, men had better compliance to SP than the women nurses in this study. The result is similar to the findings of Efstathiou et al. (2011). The predominance of female nurses (71%) with relatively lower compliance to SP in Ozamiz City poses a concern despite the fact that Yassi et al. (2007) and Creedon (2008) claimed that women nurses are more compliant to SP. The predominance of women in nursing service is also seen in the United Kingdom, Switzerland and Canada (Yassi et al., 2007; Stein et al., 2003). According to the WHO (2012), women compose more than 75% of the healthcare workforce in many countries making them very significant healthcare providers. Improving the compliance of female nurses in Ozamiz City can help prevent HAIs.
116
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
Compliance with Standard Precautions among J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito, Hospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Figure 1a. Compliance of hospital nurses with SP when grouped by age and gender.
Figure 1b shows the compliance of hospital nurses with SP when
grouped by area of assignment, the length of work experience, and training on SP. Nurses assigned to the pedia ward had the highest compliance while the ICU nurses had the lowest compliance. Despite the highest compliance with SP in pedia ward, only a small percentage (5%) of the nurses was assigned to the area. There is also a concern to 9% of nurses in ICUs with the lowest compliance because they are supposed to exhibit the full conformity to SP considering the severity of cases in the area. In South Korea and Malaysia, nurses complied better in the ICU (Lee et al., 2012; Naing et al., 2001).
N (Age): 86 (20-30 years); 6 (31-40 years); 4 (41-50 years); 4 (>50 years)
N (Gender): 29 (male); 71 (female)
020406080
100
20-30 31-40 41-50 >50
Com
plia
nce
(mea
n ra
nk)
Years
Age
020406080
100
Men Women
Com
plia
nce
(mea
n ra
nk)
Gender
117
J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito,C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Compliance with Standard Precautions amongHospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
Figure 1b. Compliance of hospital nurses with SP when grouped by area of assignment, the length of work experience, and SP training.
N (Area of assignment): 16 (Surgical ward); 35 (Medical ward); 5 (Pedia ward); 10 (Operating/Delivery room); 9 (ICU); 2 (Communicable ward); 16 (ER); 7 (OB/GYNE ward)
N (Length of experience): 86 (0-5 years); 4 (6-10 years); 5 (11-15 years); 4 (16-20 years); 1 (>20 years)
N (SP training): 14 (With training); 86 (Without training)
020406080
100
0-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 >20
Com
plia
nce
(mea
n ra
nk)
Years
Length of Work Experience
020406080
100
With training Without training
Com
plia
nce
(mea
n ra
nk) SP Training
020406080
100
Com
plia
nce
(mea
n ra
nk)
Hopital Department
Area of Assignment
118
Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 108-138, August 2015
Compliance with Standard Precautions among J. M. E. Pasay, M. R. C. Enguito, Hospital Nurses in Ozamiz City, Philippines C. J. Robles & A. L. Awa
Hospital environment significantly affects the infection control of health workers (Yassi et al., 2007), the type of administration, and the size of the department (Naing et al., 2001). The presence of less blood in medical ward compared to the operating room, for instance, resulted in the disregard of the SP by nurses in China (Luo et al., 2010) similar to the finding of this present study. However, the study of Cawich et al. (2013) showed a different result in the OR of Jamaica.
This study also revealed that nurses with more years of work experience had higher compliance compared to the least experienced which is similar to the finding of Fayaz et al. (2014) in Afghanistan. The longer professional exposure of nurses may attribute to their better compliance. The concern is that majority of the respondents of this study have been working for only five years or less which is a typical scenario in the Philippines. Filipino nurses tend to gain at least a minimum of two years hospital experience to comply the requirement abroad. Thus, the majority of nurses going abroad are the more experienced leaving behind those with lesser experience. The decline of the more experienced nurses has brought a negative impact on the nursing workforce in the country. The decline has also jeopardized the integrity and quality of the Philippine health services (Lorenzo et al., 2007). This trend is also seen in United Arab Emirates, Northern Nigeria, and Zambia (Amoran & Onwube, 2013; Sreedharan et al., 2011; Mukwato et al., 2008). Actions to improve compliance with SP should primarily target these least experienced nurses.
As shown in this study, nurses who attended SP training had higher compliance than those who had not attended. However, only 14% of the nurses had training related to SP, making the remaining percentage susceptible to infectious diseases. Almost all nurses still desire to undergo SP training to equip themselves against HAIs. The nurses perceived their training to be insufficient. On-going training for hospital staff is necessary to sustain competency and warrant that SP are complied. Nurses claimed that their training usually focuses on topics in proper handwashing, waste management, and appropriate sharp disposal. The findings imply that nurses lack the structured SP training that should focus on areas of which compliance is suboptimal.
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The compliance of hospital nurses when grouped by needlestick injury, exposure to patient’s body fluids, and HBV vaccination is shown in Figure 1c. Regarding needlestick injury, nurses who were injured within the past six months complied better compared to those not injured. Since the majority of the nurses (88%) in our study were not injured from the accidental piercing of needles, there is a need to improve the compliance of these nurses with SP to reduce their risk. Nurses who were injured tend not to report the situation formally. They considered their injury and the nonreporting as a learning experience to be cautious next time and to comply with SP for their safety. The reasons for their nonreporting include the lack of time to report due to excessive paperwork, the injury does not constitute a risk, and they are not using the needles to any patient. However, the main reason for the nonreporting is their idea that there is no particular active infection control department in the hospital responsible in case of incidence. Several studies showed the nonreporting of injuries by nurses (Smith & Leggat, 2005; Stein et al., 2003; Debnath, 2000; Au et al., 2008; Makary et al., 2007). Nurses have a high risk of needlestick injury exposure in their daily job (American Nurses Association [ANA], 2002) making the nonreporting a problem. The failure to report deters the practice for post-exposure care. In India, Sharma et al. (2010) showed that health workers used the post-exposure procedures poorly. In Ozamiz City, this post-exposure care is also a concern.
Regarding exposure to blood and other body fluids, results showed that compliance with SP was higher among nurses not exposed to patient’s body fluids. Those exposed should have been cautious after their exposure to reduce the risk of acquiring and spreading blood-borne infections in the hospital.
In this study, nurses with hepatitis B vaccination conformed highly to SP than those without the immunization. Those not immunized should have been compliant because they are susceptible to blood-borne infections. The vaccination is not mandatory for nurses in the Philippines, but the CDC (2014) is strongly recommending it to healthcare personnel since they are prone to body fluids exposure. The mandatory vaccination in the country against HBV virus is for the infants with costs shouldered by the government. In this situation, nurses who intend to protect
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themselves against HBV should carry on the high cost of vaccination. The expenses may be one of the reasons why a significant number of nurses in this study were not vaccinated. Similarly, hospital workers in South India did not complete their HBV vaccination schedule (Punia et al., 2014).
Figure 1c. Compliance of hospital nurses with SP when grouped by needlestick injury, exposure to patient’s blood and other body fluids, and HBV vaccination.
N (Needlestick injury): 88 (Injured); 12 (Not injured)
N (Body fluid exposure): 40 (exposed); 60 (exposed)
N (HBV vaccination): 93 (with vaccination); 7 (without vaccination)
020406080
100
Injured Not injured
Com
plia
nce
(mea
n ra
nk)
Needlestick Injury
020406080
100
Exposed Not exposed
Com
plia
nce
(mea
n ra
nk)
Exposure to Blood and other Body Fluids
020406080
100
With vaccination Without vaccination
Com
plia
nce
(mea
n ra
nk)
HBV Vaccination
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In the Philippines, requiring the nursing students in recent years for HBV immunization provides protection against the virus before their official exposure to hospitals. However, the cost of vaccination is not covered by the government. In effect, nurses who paid for immunization may be more knowledgeable about its benefits in infection control and most probably will follow the practice of SP for protection. In this study, there was no significant difference in the compliance of nurses with standard precautions taking into account the variables examined in their profile (Table 2). Assessing other variables that most likely influence the compliance with SP among nurses in the area may provide extensive information. The firm commitment of nurses to a workplace and their job satisfaction may affect their compliance. Other factors also include the commitment of hospital administration to safety program for healthcare workers, as well as the level of stress, and the barriers to the safe practice of nurses (Gershon et al., 1999). The compliance with SP among nurses has been unsatisfactory universally (Gammon et al., 2008). With the use of a questionnaire for this present study, the data obtained were limited by its dependence on self-reporting rather than by observing the nurse’s practice of SP. However, some people tend to work harder and perform better in response to their awareness of being observed as a result of Hawthorne Effect (Cherry, 2014). Table 2. Resulting p-values of the tests for significant difference in the
compliance of hospital nurses with SP when grouped by profile.
Variables
p-value
Age
0.690 Gender
Area of assignment 0.194
0.394 Length of work experience 0.490
SP training 0.495 Needlestick injury 0.621
Exposure to blood and other body fluids 0.164 HBV vaccination 0.073
*Significant at p<0.05
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Table 3 shows the knowledge of nurses on SP and the correlation of their knowledge with their compliance. The findings revealed the lack of significant association between the knowledge of nurses and their compliance. Based on the results, the majority of the respondents (78%) did not recognize that the primary goal of standard precautions is not only to protect the medical staff but the patients as well from the transmission of infection. The finding is in contrast to a study in Brazil (Melo et al., 2006), where the majority of interviewees declared that SP protects both the healthcare workers and patients. There is a need to practice SP when providing care to all patients regardless of the diagnosis, infection status or whether the patients appear ill or asymptomatic (Mukherjee et al., 2013). A high percentage of nurses performed the SP to all patients regardless of their underlying conditions (Motamed et al., 2006). However, 26% of the respondents in this study believed that standard precautions are only applicable for patients with a confirmed diagnosis of infection or in the latent period. This study revealed that most of the respondents had knowledge that SP can prevent diseases associated with airborne and contact transmissions. However, it is worth noting that a considerable number of nurses still did not recognize the fundamental concepts of SP. A study by Luo et al. (2010) stressed that substantial knowledge of SP principles is a factor impacting nurses’ compliance. Chan et al. (2002) noted the inadequate knowledge of nurses of the fundamental principles of universal precautions. An investigation by Li and Zhao (2005) found that 25% of healthcare workers did not understand the concepts of standard precautions. Gloves do not eliminate 100% contamination of pathogens because fluids are still capable of passing through the microscopic holes in the gloves (Mahony, 1998). However, several studies affirmed the efficacy of gloves in reducing pathogen transmission and preventing contamination of healthcare workers (WHO, 2009). It is good to note that the findings of this study showed that all respondents had knowledge of wearing gloves for the procedures that may contact with the secretion and excretion of patients. However, there was an apparent discrepancy between the knowledge and the reported compliance of nurses with the use of gloves in this procedure.
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Table 3. Knowledge of hospital nurses on standard precautions and its correlation with their SP compliance.
Statements
Percentage of nurses with
correct knowledge
A. Handwashing
1. Handwashing is performed immediately after contacting blood, other body fluids, excretion or dirty substance.
95
2. Health care workers must do handwashing after having contact with different patients.
95
3. Since the gloves can prevent from contaminated hands, there is no need to wash hands after taking off gloves.
Overall percentage
99
96 B. Use of Personal Protective Equipment
4. Health care workers shall not share gloves, mask, and other PPE with others.
96
5. Health care workers shall change gloves between procedures on the same patient after handling materials that may contain a high concentration of bacteria.
95
6. Health care workers shall wear gloves during blood drawing, venous puncture, etc.
99
7. Health care workers do not need to wear gloves in procedures that may contact the mucosa of the patients.
98
8. Health care workers shall wear gloves in the procedures that may contact with the secretion and excretion of patients.
100
9. Health care workers shall change the gloves if handling different patients.
97
10. Health care workers shall wear the face mask in the procedures that might induce the spraying of blood, other body fluids, secretion or excretion.
94
11. Health care workers shall wear the protective eye patch or goggles in the procedures that might induce the spraying of blood, other body fluids, secretion or excretion.
97
12. Health care workers shall wear the protective cap or shoe in the procedures that might induce the spraying, flowing or leaking of blood and other body fluids, secretion or excretion.
92
13. Health care workers shall wear the protective suit/gown in the procedures that might induce spraying of blood, other body fluids, secretion or excretion.
Overall percentage
97
97
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Table 3 continued: Knowledge of hospital nurses on standard precautions and its correlation with their SP compliance.
Statements Percentage of nurses with
correct knowledge
C. Other Compliance Activities
14. Standard precaution is only applicable for the patients with the confirmed diagnosis of infection or in the latent period of infection.
74
15. The primary goal to implement standard precautions is to protect the medical staff.
22
16. Contaminated protective articles should not come in contact with the surface of the clothes or the staff outside the ward.
97
17. Health care workers shall place the sharps disposal box near the applicable area for sharp instruments.
95
18. The caring of patients with HBV only needs the standard precaution.
92
19. The caring of patients with active PTB or varicella requires the SP associated with the prevention of the airborne diseases.
89
20. The caring of patients with intestinal infection or skin disease needs the SP related to the prevention of the diseases by contact transmission.
92
21. Needles, cannula, and syringes are sterile and single-use items; any use will result in paraphernalia contamination.
99
22. Needles, cannula, and syringes are contaminated once used to enter or connect to any component of a patient's intravenous set.
94
23. Nurses can administer the medications from a syringe to multiple patients after replacing a new needle on the syringe.
94
24. Nurses can use bottles of intravenous solution as a common source of medication or fluid for multiple patients.
94
25. An item designated for a single use like syringes can be reused or reprocessed.
94
Overall percentage
86
r-value p-value
Knowledge vs. Compliance
-0.167
0.096
*Correlation is significant at p<0.05 (2-tailed)
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A high proportion of nurses recognized the necessity to wear the mask, goggles, and protective suit when there is a risk of spraying with body fluids from the patients. All healthcare workers shall wear the appropriate PPE to prevent possible contamination (Occupational Safety and Health Administration, 2003). In this study, there was also an apparent discrepancy between the knowledge and the reported compliance of nurses with the wearing of goggles, suit, cap, and shoe shade. A notable number of respondents thought that caring patients with HBV only needs SP. Hoy and Richmond (2009) emphasized that both SP and immunization against hepatitis B are the salient modes to prevent acquiring and spreading HBV. The result of this study indicates that the knowledge on SP is negatively correlated with the compliance of nurses, but the correlation showed no significance. The findings of Labrague et al. (2012), Askarian et al. (2007), and Chan et al. (2002) supported this finding. In contradiction, studies by Luo et al. (2010), Motamed et al. (2006), and Kermode et al. (2005a) suggested that nurses with better knowledge comply more with SP. Conclusion and Recommendations
The very high compliance of a greater percentage of nurses in Ozamiz City to the majority of the SP is a positive indication for a possible reduction in healthcare-associated infections. However, the remaining small percentage of nurses that seldom or have not practiced the protocol indicates their susceptibility to cross-infection. The lack of significant difference in the compliance of nurses with regards to the variables examined in this study suggests that other factors of noncompliance have to be considered. The lack of significant association between their knowledge and compliance suggests the same.
Despite the high conformity of nurses to SP, there is a need to improve the infection control system in hospitals in Ozamiz City. Continuous training may improve the usage of personal protective equipment. Ensuring an ongoing monitoring system for HAIs by hospital management can improve the practice of SP. Assessing other
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