242 1SAGE

ROBIN, G. DE Q. 1958. Glaciological investigations in Queen Maud Land, Ant-arctica. Based on seismic shooting and related studies. Norwegian-British-Swedish Ant. Exped., 1949-1952, Sei. Res., V.

SCHYTT, V. 1954. Report on glaciological investigations during the Norwegian.British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition, 1949-1952. IUGC, Intern. Assoc. Sci-Hydrol., Publ. 39.

SCHYTT, V. 1960. Snow and ice temperatures in Dronning Maud Land. Nor-wegian-Swedish-British Ant. Exped., 1949-52, Sei. Res. IV, G lac io logy I I ,A-C, D.

STEPHENSON, P. J. 1967. Some considerations of snow metamorphism in theAntarctic Ice Sheet in the light of ice crystal studies. In: Physics of Snow andIce, Pt. 2, H. Oura, ed. Instit. Low Temp. Sei., Hokkaido Univ., p. 725-40.

STEPHENSON, P. J., and LISTER, H. 1959. Preliminary results of the glaciologicalwork on the Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1955-58. J. Glaciol., Vol. 3, No. 25,p. 426-31.

Comparative snow studies on the Antarctic and Greenlandice sheets

BY

CARL S. BENSONGeophysical Institute and Institute of Water Resources,

University of Alaska*

ABTRACST

The stratification, exposed on the long tunnel walls during constructionof New Byrd Station, Antarctica, was studied in the 1961-62 australsummer. The well-exposed sequences of strata showed good lateralcontinuity and were analyzed to determine annual increments of accumu-lation which were in the range of 17 i 3 g cm~2 yr -1. The rate ofaccumulation appears to have changed from about 20 g cm"2 yr - 1 between1947 and 1954 to about 14 g cm"2 yr"1 from 1955 to 1961. It is possiblethat this variation is caused by a migrating surface topography whichproduces a variable rate of accumulation at a given station, even thoughthe rate of snowfall remains constant. This may be an important com-plication in the interpretation of core obtained from deep drilling.

The faciès parameters at Byrd Station are compared with six stationson the Greenland Ice Sheet which have comparable mean annual tempera-tures and rates of accumulation. The similarities and differences in theupper 6 m of snow strata, at the Antarctic and Greenland stations, areinterpreted by analyzing the differences in wind action and range oftemperature. Byrd Station is windier and has a smaller temperaturerange; these differences favour the development of harder, higher densitysnow at Byrd Station.

* The studies described in this paper were partly carried out while the author was aVisiting Research Associate at the Institute of Polar Studies, the Ohio State Univer-sity, Columbus, Ohio. The writing was completed at the Scott Polar ResearchInstitute, Cambridge, England.

GLACIAL METEOROLOGY 243

L 4

LB

L7

3

BLDG 34

SAMPLE AREADETAILED BELOW

1800'

BLDG34

0r—

2

10

N.

IC

n CM

N

2 0

0 CM

K

30

BLDG2 0

2

IA

N

CM

40I

M

TUNNEL L9

27 CM

100 F T

FIG. 1. Plan of "New" Byrd Station, Antarctica, together with a detailed plan of thesnow stratigraphy area in tunnel L-9. Detailed stratigraphie notes and densitymeasurements were made at the points labelled 1A and 2, and a Rammsonde profilewas measured at point 1C (Fig. 2). The dashed contour lines running through points1A, IB, 1C, and 2 represent the 1961 snow surface topography as determined from atopographic map made by U.S. Navy surveyors. For convenience, an arbitrary zeroreference level was defined at point 2.

Stratigraphy and accumulation at Byrd Station, Antarctica

During the construction of "New" Byrd Station a network of tunnelswas made which provided an unusually good opportunity for observingthe lateral continuity of snow strata. Between 13 and 29 December 1961a place was selected on one of the newly excavated tunnels for detailedstratigraphie study (Fig. 1). Because of construction activities it wasnecessary to combine data from several nearby places (Fig. 1) to get anundisturbed stratigraphie section which extended from the December 1961snow surface to a depth of 625 cm (Fig. 2).

Snow strata and sastrugi

The stratigraphie continuity on the exposed tunnel walls was good.Lensing of individual layers did not interfere with correlation of annualsequences of strata along the walls. The lensing strata were usually thincompared with the cumulative thickness of strata included in an annualunit. In general, it is observed that lensing of snow strata, seen in pit

244 ISAGE

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-

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FIG. 2. Stratigraphie profiles from test sites 1A and 2. It was not possible to obtaina Rammsonde profile at test site 1A. Therefore the one made at test site IC isplotted between the profiles at points 1A and 2 which were correlated by levellingbetween them, and by matching the prominent low density layer which occurs near the320 cm depth. The density profile is cross hatched where it exceeds 0-40 g cirr3.

walls, is greatly subdued compared with the extremely irregular sastrugion the snow surface. This situation results from the erosion of sastrugiforms prior to their burial, and the mechanisms of this erosion have beendiscussed by Gow (1965) and Weiler (1969). At Byrd Station there is anexcellent source of long-term data which demonstrates the annual cycle offormation and erosion of sastrugi. This is contained in the accumulationrecords made nearly every month since 1957 on the 100 stakes of the ByrdStat on Stake Farm. Each time the snow level is measured on all thestakes, the computed average value is taken to be the accumulation. Ifthe standard deviation is computed for each set of measurements it providesa useful measure of the surface irregularity—or sastrugi development.

GLACIAL METEOROLOGY 245

This was done for the data from 1960 and it confirmed the generalimpression (in Antarctica, Greenland and in high altitude mountainoussnow fields) that maximum sastrugi exists on the surface in later winter andearly spring, with the minimum occurring in the summer. Specifically,in 1960 the standard deviation varied from a maximum of 6-8 cm on 31August to a minimum of 3-3 cm on 30 January. A more completediscussion of the surface features, together with an illustrated treatmentof the continuity of strata on a 4 x 15 m section of one wall has beenpresented by Benson (1969).

Snow strata and accumulation

Annual units were identified in the snow strata by locating the abruptincrease in density and decrease in grain size which marks the transitionfrom summer to fall strata; in well developed cases the base of the fallstrata rests on a depth-hoar layer (Benson 1962, 1969; Shimizu, 1964).The stratigraphie reference datum was taken as 1 March of each year.The results of the analysis are summarized in Table 1. The annual unitswere more difficult to identify in the top meter of snow than below. Asan aid to understanding the stratigraphy in these upper layers severalsupplementary pit studies were made (Benson, 1969). Some of the falldiscontinuities were especially well developed and were unequivocallylocated; the best ones, in rough order of quality, occur at the followingdepths: 480, 521, 430, 378, 564, 250, 216/205, 139 and 178 cm.

TABLE 1DEPTH; BELOW THE SNOW SURFACE, WITH CORRESPONDING LOADS OF OVERLYING SNOW,TO THE RF.FF.RF.NCE DATUM OF 1 MARCH FOR EACH YEAR, 1961 TO 1947, IN THE SNOW

STRATIGRAPHY PROFILES OF FLG. 2

Year(month of March)

0. Dec. 19611. March 19612.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.

10.11.12.13.14.15.

, 1960, 1959, 1958, 1957, 1956, 1955, 1954, 1953, 1952, 1951, 1950, 1949, 1948, 1947

DepthZ(cm)

0306094

139178216250305344378430480521564605

Loada (g cm-2)

012 525-538-055-57 1 085099-5

122-513901540177-0200-3219-5239-8259-5

Average

Load incrementAcr (g cm"2)

012-513012-517-515-514014-523016-515023023-319-220-319-7

17-3

246 ISAGE

The load values in Table 1 were obtained by integrating the depth-densityprofiles in Fig. 2. The load at a given depth is defined as:

a =

where a = load in g cm~2 or cm of water equivalent,p = snow density, an unspecified function of Z,

and Z = depth below snow surface.

The integration was done by measuring the area under the depth-densitycurve. The resulting depth-load curve from the profiles of Fig. 2 isplotted in Fig. 3 along with several selected curves from north Greenlandwhich will be discussed below in the section on faciès.

The depths of annual units listed in Table 1 are plotted in Fig. 4. Thetwo depth-time curves in this figure were calculated by assuming constantannual accumulation values of 14 and 20 g cirr2 yr"1 to obtain sequencesof load values ; the depth-load curve (Fig. 3) was then used to obtain

250 r

200 •

ISO

100

50

200 300 400DEPTH BELOW SNOW SURFACE, CM

500 600

FIG. 3. The depth-load curve from Table 1, plotted together with curves from selectedGreenland stations identified in Table 2. The Greenland curves for Stations 2-175,4-25 and 4-50, lie within the range bounded by the curves from Stations 2-200 and 4-0;they are typical of the dry-snow faciès in north-west Greenland. Station 2-100 is nearthe dry snow line in north-west Greenland whereas Byrd Station is well above thedry-snow line in western Antarctica.

GLACIAL METEOROLOGY 247

NEW BYRD STATION, DEC 1961

I I I 1 1 I

8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19TIME, YEARS

FIG. 4. Stratigraphically determined depths of the fall discontinuities as listed inTable 1. The time scale begins at December 1961 so the first fall discontinuity isMarch 1961. The curves were computed by assuming the constant rates of accumula-tion as indicated, then the depth-load curve (Fig. 3) was consulted to obtain corre-sponding sequences of depth values. The curves indicating constant rates of accumu-lation are useful in discussing the actual accumulation records (see text).

the corresponding sequences of depth values. The data indicate thataccumulation decreased between 1947 and 1961. The decrease appearsabrupt between 1954 and 1955. From 1947 to 1954 the depth-time pointsare roughly parallel to the curve calculated for 20 g cm"2 yi-1, but theyparallel the 14 g cm~2 yr~x curve from 1955 to 1961.

The effect of topography

The apparent change in accumulation may represent a real change inthe rate of snowfall, or it may be due to topographic effects. Topographicridges, troughs, and step-like descents with "wave lengths" of severalkilometres and "amplitudes" of the order of 10 m, are common on thesurface of an ice sheet.* These features control the distribution of

• The quote marks are placed on the words "wave lengths" and "amplitudes"to indicate that the forms are irregular.

248 ISAGE

accumulation with larger amounts in the troughs than on the crests(Swithinbank, 1958; Benson, 1959; Black and Budd, 1964; Gow andRowland, 1965). The possibility that such features can migrate along thesnow surface is of special importance because it could produce a variablerate of accumulation at a given point even though the rate of snowfallremains constant.

Let us assume: (1) that the rate of snowfall has remained constant inthe vicinity of Byrd Station from 1947 to 1961 and, (2) that topographicfeatures, which are able to affect the accumulation, have migrated pastthe station. Fig. 4 then indicates that the local topographic setting at"New Byrd" changed in such a way that the actual rate of accumulationfrom 1955 to 1961 was about J less than it was from 1947 to 1954 (14 ascompared with 20 g cm"2 yr"1). Gow's (1961, Table 4) interpretationof a 19 m core from "Old Byrd", 10 km from "New Byrd", shows asimilar, but oppositely directed, variation for approximately the same timespan. He found J- more accumulation during the period 1954 to 1959than during the period 1947 to 1954 (17 as compared with 12 g cm"2 yr"1).According to the assumption of canstant accumulation in the vicinity,encompassing both stations, it appears that the local topographic settingsat "Old" and "New" Byrd stations changed in opposite ways over thesame time span.

"New" Byrd Station is situated near the bottom of a broad depression*and over a 15-year time span it received 1-18 times more accumulation than"Old" Byrd Station. This is based on comparing the average value of17-3 g cm-2 yr-1 from 1947 to 1961 (Table 1, Fig. 4) with 14-7 g cm~2 yr"1

from 1945 to 1959 (Gow, 1961, Table 4). Topography in the area iscapable of producing this difference, by a factor of 1-18, in the rate ofaccumulation at the ends of the 10 km line connecting "Old" and "New"Byrd Stations. This is best illustrated by the observation that topographicfeatures along this line caused variations in accumulation by a factor of2, over a three-year time span (Gow and Rowland, 1965, Figs. 1 and 2).

The question about migration rates of the surface topography cannotyet be answered by direct observation. However, an approach to thisproblem was made in the Wilkes Station region by Black and Budd (1964).An attempt to apply their approach to topographic features (from Gowand Rowland, 1965) in the Byrd Station area was made by Benson (1969).It was concluded: (1) that the average rate of migration of these featureswas 13 m yr"1, (2) that individual features move at rates which differconsiderably from one another—so that the net effect at a given point iscomplex, and (3) that the time required for sufficient migration to producea change from maximum to minimum rates of accumulation at a singlepoint is on the order of 50 to 100 years.

* A topographic map of the New Byrd area was made during the constructioneffort, the contours on Fig. 1 were derived from it. Gow and Rowland (1965) alsopointed out the existence of two smaller valleys between New and Old Byrd Stations.

GLACIAL METEOROLOGY 249

Comparative studies in the dry-snow faciès of Greenland and Antarctica

A case study

The concept of diagenetic facies on glaciers (Benson, 1962) provides auseful frame of reference for comparing the physical properties of snowstrata in widely separate places (Benson, 1968). It is especially interestingto compare the snow stratigraphy at points on the Greenland and AntarcticIce Sheets which have the same mean annual temperatures and rates ofaccumulation. Byrd Station is an excellent site from this point of viewbecause there are several stations in northern Greenland which may becompared with it (Table 2).

TABLE 2BYRD STATION, ANTARCTICA, COMPARED WITH STATIONS IN NORTH-WEST GREENLANDWHICH HAVE SIMILAR RATES OF ACCUMUOATION AND MEAN ANNUAL TEMPERATURES

Station

AntarcticByrd Station

•Greenland•Station 4-50•Station 4-25•Station 4-0•Station 2-225•Station 2-200•Station 2-175

Latitude

80°00'S

76°19'N76°38'N76°58'N77°04'N77°10'N77°03'N

Longitude

120°00'W

45°06'W45°42'W46°59'W48°01'W49°46'W51°20'W

Eleva-tion

(m)

1500

272026742616253624602390

Averagerate of

ace.

(gcirrsyr->)

17-3

17-517-516-518-52224

Meanann.

temp.

(°C)

- 2 8

- 3 1- 3 1- 3 1- 3 1- 2 9- 2 8

Averagedensityin top5m ofsnow

(gcm-»)

0-418

0-3560-3560-3500-3560-3700-372

Loadat 5mdepthbelowsnow

surface(g

cm-2)

209

178178175178185186

• Traverse stations (Benson, 1962).

These stations, which have comparable rates of accumulation and meanannual temperatures, have similar stratigraphie features. (The Greenlandprofiles comparable to Fig. 2 are plotted on data sheets 6 and 7, in Benson,1962). However, the density values at Byrd Station vary within a different(higher) range than at these selected Greenland stations. This is bestdemonstrated by comparing the top 5 m of snow as in the last two columnsof Table 2. The depth of 5 m includes about 10 annual units at eachstation so it is meaningful in terms of facies. The depth-load curves forsome of these stations are plotted in Fig. 3.

The difference in average density values is significant. Indeed, theByrd Station density and load values, considered by themselves, do noteven fit into the dry-snow facies on the west slope of the Greenland IceSheet. In the latter region the 5 m load values in the dry-snow facies are

250 ISAGE

invariably less than 200 g cm-2, they exceed 200 g cm"2 a little below thedry-snow line and increase gradually through the percolation faciès toabout 225 g cm~2 near the saturation line (Benson, 1962, Fig. 46). Thesnow at Byrd Station clearly does not fit into the percolation faciès becauseof the lack of melt evidence and the low mean annual temperature.Therefore, the different ranges of density and load values expressed in Fig.3 and Table 2 require an explanation. Two factors seem to be involved;namely, wind action and range of temperature. These factors varied onlyslightly from place to place on the west slope of the Greenland Ice Sheet,where the faciès were originally defined, and consequently they were nottreated as variables. However, they vary significantly between ByrdStation and the Greenland stations considered here. Byrd Station iswindier and has a smaller temperature range; these differences favour thedevelopment of denser, harder snow at Byrd.

The effect of range of temperatureThe average temperature of the warmest month exceeds the mean annual

temperature by several more degrees at the Greenland stations than atByrd Station. The fact that summer temperatures at Byrd Station arelower than at the Greenland stations which have the same mean annualtemperature, means that the strong temperature gradients in the fall willoccur in a lower range of temperatures. Because vapour pressuredecreases markedly with decreasing temperature, there is less water vapouravailable for transport within the snow at Byrd Station during the fall.The result is less depth-hoar development, and this contributes to thehigher density snow at Byrd Station.

There are no long-term records available for the Greenland stations inTable 2. However, there are records from stations 100 miles (160 km)west and 150 miles (240 km) north-east of them ; namely, "Site 2" (Benson,1962, p. 44-45) and "Northice" of the British North Greenland Expedition(Hamilton and Rollitt, 1957, p. 43-44). The average temperature, to thenearest °C, of the warmest month departs from the mean annual valueby 15° at Byrd Station, by 18° at Site 2, and by 22° at Northice. The datafrom the three stations have the same general appearance when graphedto show deviations from the mean annual temperature (Fig. 5); the winterminimum is broader and departs less from the mean value than does thesharper summer peak. The curves drawn in Fig. 5 were calculated fromthe first two terms of a Fourier Series, which, in each case gives a goodrepresentation of the data. Data from Eismitte, at 71CN, 40°W, during'1930-31 (Sorge, 1935) agree in phase with the data from Site 2, but theamplitude at Eismitte is about 10 per cent greater (Benson, 1962, p. 46-52and Fig. 36). Only the peak of the Eismitte curve is shown in Fig. 5between the curves for Site 2 and Northice. These temperature data havebeen presented and discussed in detail together with the Fourier Coefficients for the curves in Fig. 5 (Benson, 1969).

GLACIAL METEOROLOGY 251

• 20

S -10

a NORTHICE• SITE Zo BYRO STATION

I I I I

GREENLAND APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP

ANTARCTICA OCT NOV DEC JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUS SEP OCT NOV DEC JAN FE8 MAR

FIG. 5. Mean monthly temperature data for Byrd Station, Antarctica, and Site 2,Eismitte, and Northicc in Greenland. The data are plotted as departures from themean annual values which are as follows:

Station Mean annual temperatureByrd Station — 28-TCSite 2 -24-4°CEismitte -31-0°CNorthice -31-8°C

The curves were computed from the first two terms of a Fourier Series (see text).

The effect of wind action

The average annual wind speed at Byrd Station is at least 2 knotsgreater than at the selected Greenland stations; this produces more windpacking at Byrd Station. The annual average wind speed at the selectedGreenland stations probably lies within the range of 12 and 14-5 knots

252 ISAGE

determined at Camp Century* and Northice respectively. The ByrdStation average of 16t5 knots represents a significant increase in terms ofthe effect of wind on the snow. This is illustrated by the observation ofDiamond and Gerdel (1957, p. 1) at Site 2:

"When wind speeds were below 15 knots, blowing snow was reportedabout 4-7% of the time. When wind speed was between 15-19 knots,blowing snow occurred 28-32% of the time. At 20-24 knots, blowingsnow was recorded 54-67% of the time, and for periods when the windspeed was in excess of 30 knots, blowing snow occurred 79-92 % of thetime."

In addition to comparing the average annual wind speeds it is significantto compare the maximum monthly values. The maximum monthlyaverage value of 19 knots listed for Camp Century was exceeded during35 months or 41 -7 per cent of the Byrd Station record. The correspondingmaximum of 18-2 knots at Northice was exceeded during 32-3 per cent ofthe Byrd Station record. Also, the average monthly wind speed neverexceeded 20 knots in the records from Camp Century or Northice but theyexceeded 20 knots during 17 months, or 20-2 per cent of the records fromByrd Station (Benson, 1969).

A more complete investigation of the effects of temperature range andwind action should be part of a general study of diagenetic processes insnow. However, it seems clear that these two factors vary in such a wayas to reinforce one another in causing the observed differences in densitybetween Byrd Station and the Greenland stations with comparable meanannual temperatures and rates of accumulation.

AcknowledgementsGrateful acknowledgement is due to many people. Support from the

National Science Foundation and the Institute of Polar Studies of theOhio State University made it possible to do the studies at Byrd Station,where excellent hospitality was provided by Lt. D. De Vicq, commanderof U.S. Navy MCB-1 at "New Byrd" Station, and by Mr. K. Moulton,Station leader at "Old Byrd". Mr. P. Parks provided his unpublished1960 stake farm accumulation data from "Old" Byrd. Drs. R. P.Goldthwait and C. Bull of the Institute of Polar Studies provided valuableencouragement and Dr. Bull, together with Dr. J. Mercer and Mr. A.Rundle made comments on an early draft of the manuscript. Thepreparation of this paper was aided by grants from Dr. Terris Moore,Former President of the University of Alaska, and by the Arctic Instituteof North America. The final draft was completed, with support froma grant (GA-11811) from the U.S. National Science Foundation, whileI was a guest of the Scott Polar Research Institute, Cambridge, England.

• The Camp Century data have been summarized by Bates (1965). CampCentury was located near traverse station 2-0, Site 2 was located at traversestation 2-100 (Benson, 1962).

GLACIAL METEOROLOGY 2 5 3

REFERENCES

BATES, R. E. 1965. Unpublished. Camp Century wind and temperature sum-maries from October 1960 through October 1963 continuous. In the CRRELfiles, Hanover, N.H.

BENSON, C. S. 1959. Physical investigations on the snow and firn of north-westGreenland during 1952, 1953 and 1954. SIPRE Research Report 26.

BENSON, C. S. 1962. Stratigraphie studies in the snow and firn of the GreenlandIce Sheet: SIPRE Research Report 70, 93 p., Appendices A-C; Summarized in:Folio Geographica Danica Tom IX, 1961, p. 13-35.

BENSON, C. S. 1968. Glaciological studies on Mount Wrangell, Alaska, 1961,ARCTIC\o\. 21, No. 3, p. 127-152.

BENSON, C. S. 1969. Stratigraphie studies in the snow at Byrd Station, Antarctica,compared with similar studies in Greenland (manuscript submitted to AmericanGeophysical Union, Antarctic Research Series).

BLACK, H. P., and BUDD, W. 1964. Accumulation in the region of Wilkes, WilkesLand, Antarctica. J. ofGlaciol., Vol. 5, No. 37, p. 3-15.

DIAMOND, M., and GERDEL, R. W. 1957. Occurrence of Blowing Snow on theGreenland Ice Cap. SIPRE Research Report 25.

Gow, A. J. 1961. Drill hole measurements and snow studies at Byrd Station,Antarctica. CRREL Technical Report 78.

Gow, A. J. 1965. On the accumulation and seasonal stratification of snow at theSouth Pole. J. Glaciol., Vol. 5, No. 40, p. 467-77.

Gow, A. J., and ROWLAND, R. 1965. On the relationship of snow accumulation tosurface topography at "Burd Station", Antarctica. J. Glaciol., Vol. 5, No. 42,p. 843-47.

HAMILTON, R. A., and ROLLITT, G. 1957. British North Greenland Expedition1952-54, climatological tables for the site of the expedition's base at Britannia Soand the station on the Inland-Ice "Northice": Meddr. om Grönland, Bd, 158,Nr. 2.

SHIMIZU, H. 1964. Glaciological studies in West Antarctica, 1960-1962. Antarc-tic snow and ice studies, American Geophysical Union, Antarctic Research Series.Vol. 2, p. 37-64.

SORGE, E. 1935. Glaziologische Untersuchungen in Eismitte (Glaciological investi-gations in Eismitte), in: Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der Deutschen GrönlandExpedition Alfred Wegener 1929 und 1930-1931, Leipzig, F. S. Brockhaus,Band III.

SWITHINBANK, C. W. M. 1958. Glaciology I, Norwegian-British-Swedish AntarcticExpedition, 1949-52 Scientific Results. Vol. Ill, Parts D and E.

WELLER, G. 1969. The heat and mass balance of snow dunes on the CentralAntarctic Plateau. J.jGlaciol., Vol. 8, No. 53, p. 277-84.