Column Theory

8/12/2019 Column Theory

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Columnor pillarinarchitectureandstructural engineeringis a structural element that transmits,

throughcompression,the weight of the structure above to other structural elements below. In other

words, a column is a compression member. The term column applies especially to a large round

support with a capital and base[1]

and made of stone, or appearing to be so. A small wooden or

metal support is typically called a post, and supports with a rectangular or other non-round section

are usually calledpiers.For the purpose ofwindorearthquake engineering,columns may be

designed to resist lateral forces. Othercompression membersare often termed "columns" because

of the similar stress conditions. Columns are frequently used to support beamsorarcheson which

the upper parts of walls or ceilings rest. In architecture, "column" refers to such a structural element

that also has certain proportional and decorative features. A column might also be a decorative

element not needed for structural purposes; many columns are "engaged", that is to say form part of

a wall.

Contents

[hide]

1 History

2 Structure

o 2.1 Nomenclature

o 2.2 Equilibrium, instability, and loads

o 2.3 Extensions

o 2.4 Foundations

3 Classical orders

o 3.1 Doric order

o 3.2 Tuscan order

o

3.3 Ionic ordero 3.4 Corinthian order

o 3.5 Composite order

o 3.6 Solomonic

4 See also

5 References

History[edit]

All significantIron Agecivilizations of theNear EastandMediterraneanmade some use of columns.

InAncient Egyptian architectureas early as 2600 BC the architectImhotepmade use of stone

columns whose surface was carved to reflect the organic form of bundled reeds; in later Egyptianarchitecture faceted cylinders were also common.
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ikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pier_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Column#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_(physical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_engineeringhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture


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Plan, front view and side view of a typicalPersepoliscolumn, ofPersia (Iran)

Some of the most elaborate columns in the ancient world were those of the Persians,especially the

massive stone columns erected inPersepolis.They included double-bull structures in

theircapitals.The Hall of Hundred Columnsat Persepolis, measuring 70 70 metres, was built by

theAchaemenidkingDarius I(524486 BC). Many of the ancientPersian columnsare standing,

some being more than 30 metres tall.[citation needed]

Illustration of Doric (first three), Ionic (next three) and Corinthian (final two) columns.
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Columns found at theTemple of Apollo in Delphi

The Egyptians, Persians and other civilizations mostly used columns for the practical purpose of

holding up the roof inside a building, preferring outside walls to be decorated withreliefsor painting,

but the Ancient Greeks, followed by the Romans, loved to use them on the outside as well, and the

extensive use of columns on the interior and exterior of buildings is one of the most characteristic

features of classical architecture, in buildings like theParthenon.The Greeks developed

theclassical ordersof architecture, which are most easily distinguished by the form of the column

and its various elements. TheirDoric,Ionic, and Corinthian orders were expanded by the Romans to

include the Tuscan and Composite orders (see below).

Columns, or at least large structural exterior ones, became much less significant in the architecture

of theMiddle Ages,and the classical forms were abandoned in bothByzantine architectureand

theRomanesqueandGothic architectureor Europe in favour of more flexible forms, with capitals

often using various types of foliage decoration, and in the West scenes with figures carved

inrelief.Renaissance architecturewas keen to revive the classical vocabulary and styles, and the

informed use and variation of the classical orders remained fundamental to the training of architects

throughoutBaroque,RococoandNeo-classical architecture.

Structure[edit]

Modern column grid in a car park

Early columns were constructed of stone, some out of a single piece of stone. Monolithic columns

are among the heaviest stones used inarchitecture.Other stone columns are created out of multiple

sections of stone, mortared or dry-fit together. In many classical sites, sectioned columns were

carved with a centre hole or depression so that they could be pegged together, using stone or metal

pins. The design of most classical columns incorporatesentasis(the inclusion of a slight outward

curve in the sides) plus a reduction in diameter along the height of the column, so that the top is as

little as 83% of the bottom diameter. This reduction mimics the parallax effects which the eye

expects to see, and tends to make columns look taller and straighter than they are while entasis

adds to that effect.
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Nomenclature[edit]

Classical columns have a bottom orplinththat rests on thestylobateorfoundation.At the top

acapital(also known as a chapiter) orfinialdecorate the column, depending on whether it is

attached to a structure or free-standing.

Modern columns are constructed out of steel, poured or precast concrete, or brick. They may then

be clad in an architectural covering (or veneer), or left bare. In modern terms the impost (or pier) is

the topmost member of a column. The bottom-most part of the arch, called the springing, rests on

the impost.

Equilibrium, instability, and loads[edit]

Main article:Buckling columns

These are composed of stacked segments and finished in theCorinthianstyle (Temple of Bel,Syria)

[show]

V

T

E

Mechanical failure modes

As the axial load on a perfectly straight slender column with elastic material properties is increased

in magnitude, this ideal column passes through three states: stable equilibrium, neutral equilibrium,

and instability. The straight column under load is in stable equilibrium if a lateral force, applied

between the two ends of the column, produces a small lateral deflection which disappears and the

column returns to its straight form when the lateral force is removed. If the column load is gradually

increased, a condition is reached in which the straight form of equilibrium becomes so-called neutral
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equilibrium, and a small lateral force will produce a deflection that does not disappear and the

column remains in this slightly bent form when the lateral force is removed. The load at which neutral

equilibrium of a column is reached is called the critical orbucklingload. The state of instability is

reached when a slight increase of the column load causes uncontrollably growing lateral deflections

leading to complete collapse.

For an axially loaded straight column with any end support conditions, the equation of static

equilibrium, in the form of a differential equation, can be solved for the deflected shape and critical

load of the column. With hinged, fixed or free end support conditions the deflected shape in neutral

equilibrium of an initially straight column with uniform cross section throughout its length always

follows a partial or composite sinusoidal curve shape, and the critical load is given by

where E=elastic modulusof the material, Imin= the minimal moment of inertia of the cross section,and L= actual length of the column between its two end supports. A variant of (1) is given by

Table showing values of K for structural columns of various end conditions (adapted from Manual of Steel

Construction, 8th edition, American Institute of Steel Construction, Table C1.8.1)

where r=radiusof gyration of [column]cross-section which is equal to the square root of (I/A), K=ratio of the longest halfsinewave to the actual column length, and KL= effective length (length of an

equivalent hinged-hinged column). From Equation (2) it can be noted that the buckling strength of a

column is inversely proportional to the square of its length.

When the critical stress, Fcr(Fcr=Pcr/A, whereA= cross-sectional area of the column), is greater

than the proportional limit of the material, the column is experiencing inelastic buckling. Since at this
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stress the slope of the material's stress-strain curve, Et(called thetangent modulus), is smaller than

that below the proportional limit, the critical load at inelastic buckling is reduced. More complex

formulas and procedures apply for such cases, but in its simplest form the critical buckling load

formula is given as Equation (3),

where Et= tangent modulus at the stress Fcr

A column with a cross section that lacks symmetry may suffer torsional buckling (sudden twisting)

before, or in combination with, lateral buckling. The presence of the twisting deformations renders

both theoretical analyses and practical designs rather complex.

Eccentricity of the load, or imperfections such as initial crookedness, decreases column strength. If

the axial load on the column is not concentric, that is, its line of action is not precisely coincident with

the centroidal axis of the column, the column is characterized as eccentrically loaded. The

eccentricity of the load, or an initial curvature, subjects the column to immediate bending. The

increased stresses due to the combined axial-plus-flexural stresses result in a reduced load-carrying

ability.

Column elements are considered to be massive if minimal side dimension is equal or more than

400 mm. Massive columns have ability to increase concrete strength during long time period (even

during exploitation period). Taking into account possible loads onto structure increase in future (and

even threat of progressive failure, terroristic attacks, explosions etc.) massive columns have

advantage comparing with not ones. A little economy today has no sense as usual for future.

Moreover relatively small sections are not technological for reinforced structures during their

production. Balance between economy, mass of structures and so called "sustainable" construction

is necessary.

Extensions[edit]

Construction ofSigismund's ColumninWarsaw,detail of the 1646 engraving.
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When a column is too long to be built or transported in one piece, it has to be extended or spliced at

the construction site. Areinforced concrete columnis extended by having the steel reinforcing bars

protrude a few inches or feet above the top of the concrete, then placing the next level of reinforcing

bars to overlap, and pouring the concrete of the next level. A steel column is extended by welding or

bolting splice plates on the flanges and webs or walls of the columns to provide a few inches or feetof load transfer from the upper to the lower column section. A timber column is usually extended by

the use of a steel tube or wrapped-around sheet-metal plate bolted onto the two connecting timber

sections.

when e


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Doric order[edit]

Main article:Doric order

TheDoric orderis the oldest and simplest of the classical orders. It is composed of a

verticalcylinderthat is wider at the bottom. It generally has neither a base nor a detailed capital.It is

instead often topped with an invertedfrustumof a shallow cone or a cylindrical band of carvings. It is

often referred to as the masculine order because it is represented in the bottom level of

theColosseumand theParthenon,and was therefore considered to be able to hold more weight.

The height-to-thickness ratio is about 8:1. The shaft of a Doric Column is almost alwaysfluted.

The Greek Doric, developed in the western Dorian region of Greece, is the heaviest and most

massive of the orders. It rises from thestylobatewithout any base; it is from four to six times as tall

as its diameter; it has twenty broad flutes; the capital consists simply of a banded necking swelling

out into a smooth echinus, which carries a flat square abacus; the Doric entablature is also the

heaviest, being about one-fourth the height column. The Greek Doric order was not used after c. 100

B.C. until its rediscovery in the mid-eighteenth century.

Tuscan order[edit]

Main article:Tuscan order

TheTuscan order,also known as Roman Doric, is also a simple design, the base and capital both

being series of cylindrical disks of alternating diameter. The shaft is almost never fluted. The

proportions vary, but are generally similar to Doric columns. Height to width ratio is about 7:1.

Ionic order[edit]

Ioniccapital

Main article:Ionic order

TheIoniccolumn is considerably more complex than the Doric or Tuscan. It usually has a base and

the shaft is often fluted (it has grooves carved up its length). On the top is a capital in the

characteristic shape of ascroll,called avolute,or scroll, at the four corners. The height-to-thickness

ratio is around 9:1. Due to the more refined proportions and scroll capitals, the Ionic column is
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosseumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosseumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosseumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluting_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluting_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluting_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylobatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylobatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscan_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscan_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscan_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscan_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscan_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscan_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_(parchment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_(parchment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_(parchment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colonne-p1040009.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colonne-p1040009.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colonne-p1040009.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colonne-p1040009.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volutehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_(parchment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionic_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscan_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuscan_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylobatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluting_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parthenonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colosseumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frustumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital_(architecture)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_(geometry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_orderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Column&action=edit&section=8


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sometimes associated with academic buildings. Ionic style columns were used on the second level

of the Colosseum.

Corinthian order[edit]

Main article:Corinthian order

The Corinthian order is named for the Greekcity-stateofCorinth,to which it was connected in the

period. However, according to the architectural historianVitruvius,the column was created by the

sculptorCallimachus,probably anAthenian,who drewacanthusleaves growing around a votive

basket. In fact, the oldest known Corinthian capital was found inBassae,dated at 427 BC. It is

sometimes called the feminine order because it is on the top level of the Colosseum and holding up

the least weight, and also has the slenderest ratio of thickness to height. Height to width ratio is

about 10:1.

Composite order[edit]

TheComposite orderdraws its name from the capital being a composite of the Ionic and Corinthian

capitals. The acanthus of the Corinthian column already has a scroll-like element, so the distinction

is sometimes subtle. Generally the Composite is similar to the Corinthian in proportion and

employment, often in the upper tiers ofcolonnades.Height to width ratio is about 11:1 or 12:1.

Solomonic[edit]

Two of Constantine'sSolomonic columnsin their present day location on a pier inSt Peter's, Rome.Part ofBernini's

Baldachin,inspired by the original columns, is in the foreground.

ASolomonic column,sometimes called "barley sugar", begins on a base and ends in a capital,

which may be of any order, but the shaft twists in a tight spiral, producing a dramatic, serpentine

effect of movement. Solomonic columns were developed in the ancient world, but remained rare
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there. A famous marble set, probably 2nd century, was brought toSt Peter's, RomebyConstantine

I,and placed round the saint's shrine, and was thus familiar throughout the Middle Ages, by which

time they were thought to have been removed from theTemple of Jerusalem.[2]

The style was used

in bronze byBerninifor his spectacularSt. Peter's baldachin,actually aciborium(which displaced

Constantine's columns), and thereafter became very popular withBaroqueandRococochurcharchitects, above all inLatin America,where they were very often used, especially on a small scale,

as they are easy to produce in wood byturning on a lathe(hence also the style's popularity

forspindleson furniture and stairs).
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Documents

Column Theory