Cognitive and motor development.ppt

Cognitive and Motor DevelopmentChapter 2

2007 McGraw-Hill Higher Education. All rights reserved.

Domains of Human Development


There is a strong relationship between human intellectual function and movement: Any intellectual change is also accompanied by a change in motor function.


ObjectivesDescribe Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development.SensorimotorPreoperations Concrete OperationsFormal OperationsPostformal OperationsExplain two general theories of intellectual development in adulthood. Discuss intellectual decline in older adulthood. Describe the link between knowledge development and sport performance.


Jean Piaget (1896 1980)Swiss psychologist, developmental theorist, and philosopher

Interested in the process of thinking

Established the clinical method of researchCollected data during question-and-answer sessions

1896-1980


Four Stages of Piagets Theory


Piagets TheoryAdaptationCognitive development occurs thorugh this processAdjusting to the demands of the environment and intellectualizing those adjustmentsTwo facets of adaptationAssimilationAccommodation


Piagets TheoryAssimilation

Children interpret new experiences based upon their present interpretation of the world.

Child assimilates past experiencePast experience tells child to use one hand to grab large ball because it worked with rattles and smaller objects.


Piagets TheoryAccommodationAdjustments or modifications in the thinking process that will become a part of a childs new cognitive repetoire.Child accommodates new informationChild is unable to grasp the ball with one hand. He accommodates by using two hands or adapting the one-handed grasp.


Adaption = Assimilation + Accommodation


Criticisms of Piagets TheoryTheory lacks scientific control.Piaget used his own children to study.Subjects were not studied across the lifespan.Piaget may have underestimated a childs capabilities.Theory does not discern between competency and performance.Theory does not account for the influence of motivation and emotion.Stages of developoment were too broad.Developoment is described, but never explained.


Infancy ~ Sensorimotor Stage


Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageEXERCISE OF REFLEXES

Birth through 1 month

Repetition of reflexes helps child to form the foundation for cognitive understandingReflexive movements are innateReflexive movements lead to new behaviors


Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StagePRIMARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS

End of month 1- month 4

Increased voluntary movement

Primary reactions because always occur in close proximity to the infant

Circular reactions because conscious effort to repeat movements


Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageSECONDARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS 4 months - 8 monthsContinuation of primary circular reactions but incorporation of more enduring behaviors Example: Banging pots and pansIntegration of vision, hearing, grasping and movement behaviorsExample: See rattle. Reach rattle. Shake rattle.Imitation behaviorsNo permanenceExample: Remove object. Object is gone.


Object Permanencehttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=BFUInSY2CeY&feature=related


Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageSECONDARY SCHEMATA

8 months to 1 year

New behaviors facilitated by increasing movement capabilities Example: Crawling and creeping

Repetition of experimentation and trial-and-error exploration continue

Prediction of some actions and situationsExample: Parent rolls ball to child. Child roles it back. Child anticipates parent rolling the ball to him again.


Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageTERTIARY CIRCULAR REACTIONS 1 year -11/2 years

Active experimentation to acheive results / learn

First level of visualizing an object beyond its immediate useExample: Child sees the ball and knows she can have fun, but also realizes she does not have to play with it right now it will be there later.

Can distinguish self from othersExample: Child seeks help from immediate family members.


Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageINVENTION OF NEW MEANS THROUGH MENTAL COMBINATIONS

11/2 years - 2 years

Recognition of objects and others as independent from self

Understanding of properties of an objectExamples: Size, shape, color, texture, weight, use

Semimental functioning: Thinking with the body is replaced with thinking with the mindExample: Child can recall an event without a physical reanctment of what happened.


Summary: Infancy ~ Sensorimotor StageIncreasing awareness of the difference between the self and others.

Recognition that objects continue to exist even though they are no longer in view.

Production of the mental images that allow the contemplation of the past, present, and future.


dynamicgraphics/Jupiterimages What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?


What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?


(c) Brand X Pictures/PunchStock What Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?


(c) PhotodiscWhat Sensorimotor Substage is pictured here?


Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage2-7 years

Most significant development:Verbal communication and language development linked to improved motor abilities

Most significant limitation:Children are unable to think logically


Early Childhood ~ Preoperational Stage


Early Childhood ~ Preoperational StagePRECONCEPTUAL2-4 years

Use of symbols to represent someone/thingExample: A rock represents a turtle

Pretend play commonExample: Reading to Baby. Putting Baby to sleep.

Egocentrism a serious deficiency of this stageSocializing somewhat reducing egocentrism.

Flawed thinkingExample: Drooping flower is sad unrealistic.

Transductive reasoningExample: Missed breakfast, so it cant be morning.


Early Childhood ~ Preoperational StageINTUITIVE4-7 years

Reduced egocentrismExample: Better at sharing

Improvement in the use of symbolsExample: Use of symbols in mathematics

Incapable of conservation Example: When ball of clay transformed into elongated sausage child believes its bigger

Cannot consider multiple aspects of a problem at one timeExample: Bumblebee phenomenon in soccer


(c) Royalty Free/CORBISWhy is the activity pictured here anexample of Preconceptual Substage?


Conservationhttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=YtLEWVu815o&feature=related


Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational Stage7-11 yearsBegins when child gains ability to conserve

Improved ability to focus on more than one variable in problem solving situationsExample: Develop strategies in game situations

Can only focus on objects, events or situations that are real or based on experienceExample: Unable to examine hypothetical or abstract situations mentally


Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational StageReversibilityAbility to mentally modify, organize, or even reverse thought processes Example: Can reverse the order of the ball as they go through the tube


Later Childhood ~ Concrete Operational StageSeriationAbility to arrange a set of variables by a certain characteristicExample: Recognize height can determine position in a game of basketball

Learning is enhanced through movementExample: Piaget suggests teaching space or distance by having child move through space or distance


Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational StageBegins at 11-12 years

Able to consider ideas that are not based on observable objects or experiences

Abstract ideas are possible

Never achieved by many individuals


Formal Operationshttp://hk.youtube.com/watch?v=lw36PpYPPZM&feature=related


Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational StageInterpropositional thoughtAllows child to relate one or more parts of a proposition or situation to another part to arrive at a solution to a problem.Applicable to complex movementExample: Position of two players represents onset of a particular play. Ability to read interrelationship (i.e., possible movement pattern) facilitates better counter play.


Later Childhood ~ Formal Operational StageHypothetical-deductive reasoningA problem-solving style that allows child to choose between possible solutions and then pick the best oneAids in emotional development and emerging valuesExample: Child ponders, Do I follow the crowd or do I want to fit in?


Adulthood ~ Postformal OperationsAdulthood not considered by PiagetOthers (Arlin,1975; Rybash et al., 1986) proposed a 5th stage to Piagets TheoryDiscovery of new questionsLogical thinking about abstract ideasDetect inconsistencies in ideas and attempt to reconcile themExists in a minority of people Highly educatedCulture that encourages new ideas and freethinking


Adulthood ~ Theories of Intellectual Development Intellectual decline occur with age.When, how much, why, what???Growing field of study as baby boomers become seniors.Currently, two main theoriesTotal Intellectual DeclinePartial Intellectual Decline


Adulthood ~ Theories of Intellectual Development TOTAL INTELLECTUAL DECLINETraditional view of agingGradual, consistent, pervasive decline in overall intellectual ability throughout adult yearsLacks strong scientific support todayStudies partially backing this theoryStudies using Welchsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)Seattle Longitudinal Study


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentWAIS Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale 11 components of intellectual ability6 verbal, 5 performanceFound declines in intellectLimitationsTest designed to assess psychopathological behaviors not intellectReliability issuesDated research


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentSeattle Longitudinal Study (1956-)Participants: 5000+ participants aged 25 to 88Measurement: 6 primary mental abilities meaningful in daily work and lifeResults:Performance increased until late 30s or early 40sPerformance plateaued by mid 50s to early 60sDeclines began in late 60sMore decline when process was less central part of lifeBy age 88, all participants showed decline in at least one intelligence ability, but none showed in all abilitiesConclusion: Few subjects showed global decline in intelligence.


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentPARTIAL INTELLECTUAL DECLINEWidely accepted theoryIntellectual decline occurs in some areas and not othersMuch research support


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentContextual perspectiveLearning and memory depend on a large number of non-cognitive and situational factors

Culture Seniors in China are highly respected. Intellectual decline in China is substantially less than in NA.Self-fulfilling prophesyIndividuals who think negatively decline more quickly.Knowledge base Greater base of information may helps offset losses in processing efficiency.Other factorsOnes goals, motivation, social activities, daily routines, changes in emotion


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentBiological changes influence declineNeural activation slowsLess efficient circulatory systemBrain decreases in size (variable)Neuronal losses are very gradual


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentType of memory influences decline

Implicit memoryUnintentional, automatic, without awarenessTested without adult being aware of being testedDevelops until adulthood and shows no declineExplicit memoryDeliberate and effortfulTested by traditional tests of recall or recognitionDevelops until adulthood but then shows decline


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentTime of learning influences memory decline

Information learned early in life is easier to retrieve

Information learned in later life more susceptible to age-related decline


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentTime parameters influence decline

Decreased performance in timed tasksOlder adults respond more slowlyDecline in speed of processing information is well-documented


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual Developmentthere are no simple rules about when age differences in memory will and will not occur, and if they do, whether differences will be small, modest, or large (Zacks et al., 2000)


Adulthood ~ Theories ~ Intellectual DevelopmentRECOMMENDATIONS

Practicing cognitive abilities will delay or avoid decline.

A lifestyle that involves movement can limit the decline of intellect.


Knowledge Development and Sport PerformanceHow do children become experts athletes?


Knowledge Development and Sport PerformanceTwo types of knowledge

Declarative knowledgeFactual informationWhat to doFound in a novice performer

Procedural knowledgeProduction systemHow to do somethingFound in an expert performer


Knowledge Development and Sport PerformanceFrench & Thomas, 1987Purpose: Examine relationship between knowledge development, skill development, and expertise.Method: 8-12 year old basketball players of varied skills; multiple instrumentsConclusion: Children learn what to do (i.e. declarative knowledge) before they acquire the physical skills to carry out their strategic plan successfully (i.e. how to do it procedural knowledge).Ongoing Research: Best combination of motor and cognitive instruction at what stages.


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Cognitive and motor development.ppt