CHAPTER3

Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desert

CHAPTER3

Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desert

3.1. Introduction

Livestock husbandry has been the major occupation of indigenous communities in

the cold desert region. Crop husbandry looked in terms of spatial extent of cropped

area is a minor land-use in highly dispersed and tiny permanent settlements

occurring largely in 3400-4500m elevation zones in the Trans-Himalayan cold

desert region (Aswal and Mehrotra, 1994; Mishra 1997). Traditional farming is

being increasingly influenced by external forces with improvement in accessibility

(Allan, 1986). Descriptive accounts of changes in agricultural practices and their

ecological, socio-economic and policy implications in Rupal valley have been

discussed by Nussar & Clemens (1996), in Nanga Parbat region by Kreutzmann

(1993), in Hunza valley, in Ladakh region by Fox et al (1994) and in Spiti region by

Mishra (1997). Limited quantitative information is available on agroecosystem

structure, function and dynamics. The aim of this study was to compare two

different villages (river-side and hill-side) in terms ofi) Changes in agricultural land

use area, ii) Changes in area under different crops, iii) Labour and material inputs~·

iv) Irrigation pattern, v) Crot) Pt:oducitivity;' vi) Econ6inic efficiency~ viiY\S&ll<: '::

physico-chemical properties.

3.2. Description of agroecosystems

All across the- region, crops can be grown only when they are irrigated. Except for

agricultural land, which is privately owned, all lands i.e. meadows and pastures are

owned by forest department. Local people are allowed to use resources within

uncultivated land free of any cost. Traditional village society was differentiated into

three strata- the big holders locally referred as Bada Ghar owning 0.6-0.8 ha of

agricultural land, the small holders locally referred as Chhota Ghar (~ 0.2 ha) sold or

leased to them by big holders and landless people. According to Spiti culture and

tradition, the eldest son of the family will inherit all the property and others have to

lead a bachelor life in Monastery as monks. Small holders and landless families

emerged from those who migrated or the ones who did not follow the tradition of

becoming monk. As at present, landless class does not exist as government has

leased/allotted land to all those who were landless. This land allotted recently is at a

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Deserl

distance from main village and is unproductive because of lack of irrigation facilities

and other biophysical constraints. The small holders secure their livelihood by

working for large holders and by earning wages in development projects

implemented by the government.

Mono-cropping practiced on sloping terraces is an age-old practice.

Agricultural activities start from early March with ploughing of crop fields. If snow

does not melt in time, farmers spread soil collected from microsites poorly affected

by freezing over snow-cover in crop fields so as to accelerate melting process.

Hordeum vulgare, Hordeum winlense, Triticum aestivum, Pisum sativum,

Pisum arvense, Solanum tuberosum, Raphanus sativus are commonly grown. A field

is fallowed for one-year period after three years of successive croppings. The

common cropping sequence is Hordeum vulgare - Hordeum winlense/ Hordeum

vulgare-Pisum arvense -fallow in hill-side villages and Hordeum vulgare - Hordeum

winlensel Triticum aestivum-Pisum arvense-fallow in river-side villages. Farmers

value fallowing as a means of reducing export of nutrients and recovering soil

fertility through natural biological mechanisms. Human and livestock waste are

applied as manure in crop fields.

3.2.1. Irrigation management

As in Ladakh, both surface..-andusub-surface water flows · are ·used ·for 'irrigation

(Bhasin, 1997). Farmers organize meetings to decide on various activities related to

irrigation management. Farmers clean small earthen reservoirs (ponds) for collecting

water and repair channels feeding agriculture plots. Irrigation begins in the first

week of June when seedlings appear and plants start growing rapidly. Water is

conveyed to plots through earthen canals along gravity.

In general, a group of 4-5 farmers jointly carry out various activities viz.

cleaning of pond, repairing of primary/secondary channels and water delivery to

their respective agriculture plots. While women alone irrigate crops, both men and

women carry out maintenance operations.

3.2.2. Weed management:

Weeding begins in May and is continued till last week of July. The weeds are

removed by hand and used as fodder. Chenopodium album is a weed, which is also

used as a green vegetable. All crops except Hordeum winlense and Pisum arvense

are weeded.

37

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desert

3.3. Methodology

A ground survey of both villages carried out to get details on irrigation system.

Information on human population, land and livestock holdings, cropping patterns

and relative area under different crops were extracted from participatory discussions

covering all households (18 Households in the river-side village and 52 households

in the hill-side village). Three plots of each crop (total number of plots: river-side

village= 8 crops x 3 plots= 24 plots; hill-side village= 6 crops x 3 plots= 18 plots)

were monitored to quantify human labour and draught power input. Manure input,

mulch input, seed input, irrigation frequency and intensity, and biomass production

of crop and weed components were measured in these plots. Biomass production

was estimated by multiplying the mean density based on enumeration in three

quadrats (0.5 m x 0.5 m) in· each plot and mean biomass of fifteen individuals.

Individuals harvested for biomass estimations were separated into different parts,

dried at 80 ± 5°C and weighed. Monetary values of all inputs and outputs were

calculated based on selling/buying prices prevailing in the village.

Soil samples from three depths (0-10 em, 10-20 em, 20-30 em) from 15

random points in each village were collected. Five random samples were· mixed.

Thus, three composite samples were obtained for each of the two villages. Soil

texture was determined following standard method given by Piper (1950). Soil pH

and conductivity were measured in soil-water suspension (1: 2.5 ratio) using a

digital pH and conductivity meter. Soil organic carbon was estimated by Walkley­

Black method, nitrogen by Kjeldahl method and phosphorus by molybdenum-blue

method as described in Okalebo et al. (1993). Cations were extracted in 1M

ammonium acetate solution (pH 7) and concentration of potassium, sodium, calcium

and magnesium were determined using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer.

3.4. Results

3.4.1. Population growth

Human population increased by 6.7% in the river-side village compared to 3.4% in

the hill-side village during 1997-2002 periods. The number of households remained

the same (Table 3.1).

38

Table 3 .1. Human population during 1997-2002 period in a typical river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side village (Demul).

River-side village Hill-side village 1997 2002 % increase ( + )/ 1997 2002 % increase ( + )/

decrease (-) decrease(-)

Number of households 18 18 0 52 52 0

Number of members 90 96 +6.66 350 362 +3.42

Table 3.2. Livestock growth during 1997-2002 period in a typical river-side (Lidang) and hill-side (Demul) villages.

River-side village Hill-side village 1997 2002 %increase/ 1997 2002 %increase/

decrease decrease

Yak 3 0 -100% 48 65 +35% Dzo/Dzomo 18 32 +77% 64 83 +29% Cow/Ox 38 22 -42% 40 '52 +30% Horse 14 11 -21% 47 34 -27% -~-~.~.--Donkey 10 12 +20% 64 98 +53% Sheep 32 62 +93% 252 350 +38% Goat 76 118 +55% 74 122 +64% Total 191 257 +34% 589 804 +36%

39

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desert

3.4.2. Livestock growth

In both the villages, population of dzo/dzomo, donkey, sheep and goats increased

and of horses decreased during 1997-2002 periods: Cow population declined by

42% and yak altogether disappear during 1997-2002 period in the river-side village.

In the hill-side village ox/cow and yak population increased by 30% and 35%

respectively in the hill-side village (Table 3.2).

3.4.3. Land-use changes

Table 3.3 represents the relative .area (%} under ctdtivation for, traditional- crops

during 1997-2002 periods. Area under Hotdeum' vulgare; ·Hordeum winlense and

Pisum arvense has been declining rapidly. Cultivation of Hordeum winlense was

abandoned in 1999 in the river-side village but not in the hill-side village. Triticum

aestivum and Raphanus sativus were grown only in river-side village. Pisum sativum

introduced in 1998, has replaced Hordeum vulgare, Hordeum winlense and Pisum

arvense to a significant extent.

3.4.4. Land management practices

Timing of sowing, weeding and harvesting are similar in the two villages except that

Hordeum vulgare was sown and harvested later in hill-side village compared to

river-side village. Weeding was not done in fodder crops Hordeum winlense &

Pisum arvense in both river-side and hill-side village agroecosystems (Table 3.4).

3.4.5. Labour allocation

Table 3.5 presents agricultural activity wise labour input in the cropping season.

Labour input in land preparation for Pisum arvense and Solanum tuberosum was

lesser than other crops in both the villages. Labour input (hours/ha) for seed sowing

was highest in Solanum tuberosum. Ploughing was· done only by men and, leveling

and weeding only by women. However, in Pisum sativum, which is a cash crop

introduced recently, weeding was done jointly by men and women. In crops

common to two villages viz. Hordeum vulgare, Solanum tuberosum, Brassica

campestris, Pisum arvense and Pisum sativum, labour input in ploughing was higher

and weeding was lower in river-side village compared to hill-side village.

40

Table 3.3. Relative area under different crops/fallow (area in a given category as% of total cultivated land) during 1997-2002 period in a typical river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side village (Demul).

Crops River-side village Hill-side village 1997 1998 1999 2002 1997 1998 1999 2002

Hordeum vulgare 36.8 33.8 27.7 26.7 69.2 61.1 50.4 45.2 Hordeum winlense 4.8 1.6 NG NG 9.5 7.5 6.7 5.2

. Triticum aestivum 33.8 32.6 33.6 32.8 NG NG NG NG Solanum tuberosum 3.1 4 4.2 4.1 4.3 2.9 3 4.8 Brassica campestris 1.5 1.4 2 1.9 1 2.1 2.2 2.4 Pisum sativum NG 10.8 15.5 15.7 NG 10 24.1 30.1 Pisum aNense 3.3 1 0.6 0.6 6.3 4.4 3.2 3 Raphanus sativus 4.7 4.8 3.4 4.2 NG NG NG NG Fallow land 12 10 13 4 9.7 12 10.4 9.3

NG - Not grown

41

Table 3.4. Time of different agricultural practices in river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side village (Demul).

Crops Land preparation/sowing Weeding · Harvesting Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Lidang Demul

Hordeum vulgare March April June-July June-July August September

Hordeum winlense NG April NG NW NG September

Triticum aestivum April NG July-August NG September NG

Solanum tuberosum May May July-August July-August September September

Brassica campestris June June July-August July-August September Aug-Sept

Pisum sativum April April June-July June-July July-August July-August

Pisum arvense April April NW NW July-August July-August

Raphanus sativus May NG July-August NG September NG

NG - Not grown NW - No weeding

42

Table 3.5. Labour input (mean± standard deviation, n=3 plots) in different crops in river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side village (Demul).

Crops Land ~re~aration {hours/ha} Seed sowing {hours/ha} Weeding {hours/ha} Harvesting {hourslha} Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Lidang Demul

M w M w M w M w M w M w M w M w Hordeum 58 ±5 Nil 44±3 Nil 3±0.4 Nil 3±0.4 Nil Nil 92 ± 10 Nil 430 ± 14 160±8 256 ± 13 156 ± 11 254 ± 13 vulgare

Hordeum NG NG 42 ±2 Nil NG NG 2.8±0.2 Nil NG NG Nil Nil NG NG 160 ± 8 257 ± 10 winlense

Triticum 60± 1 Nil NG NG 2.8 ±0.2 Nil NG NG Nil 99.3 ±4 NG NG 160 ± 12 257.3 ± 10 NG NG aestivum

Solanum 18 ±5 Nil 10.6 ± 0.9 Nil Nil 85±4 Nil 90±8 Nil 170± 8 Nil 170 ±8 130 ± 8 366.3 ± 12 130 ±8 363 ± 12 tuberosum

Brassica Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 5±0.8 Nil 3.6 ± 0.2 Nil 136.6±12 Nil 170±8 28.3 ±' 6 40 ±0.0 30±8 35£4. campestris

Pi sum 60 ± 2.4 Nil 43 ± 3.3 Nil 3.5 ± 0.4 Nil 2.5 ± 0.4 Nil 102 ± 3.3 285 ± 8.0 140±8.1363±12 173 ± 37 173 ±35 1.40 ±8.1 480 .±16 sativum

Pi sum 19 ± 0.9 Nil 19 ± 0.9 Nil 3±0.4 Nil 2.6±0.2 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 145 ± 12 166 ± 18 140±8 166 ± 18 arvense

Raphanus Nil Nil NG NG 5±0.8 Nil NG NG Nil 1'50 ± 8.16 NG NG 130 ± 8.1 360 ± 16.3 NG NG. sativus

NG - Not grown M-Men w .. -women

43

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desert

3.4.6. Material input

There was no significant difference in seed input in crops barley, potato and green­

pea which were grown in both the villages. Seed input in black pea crop was about

four times higher in hill-side village compared to river-side village. Both manure

and mulch were applied in naked barley, wheat, green pea and black pea and only

manure in potato and radish crops. Neither manure nor mulch was applied in

mustard. In the crops receiving manure and mulch, rate of input in hill-side village

was about two times higher than that in river-side village. In the crops which were

grown only in one village, rate of mulch and manure input was higher in the hill-side

village compared to river-side village. Black pea received comparable manure input

in the two villages. Black pea plots were mulched but only in the hill-side village.

In hill-side village, comparable amount of mulch was applied to naked barley and

green-pea but manure input in barley was about two times of that in naked barley

and green-pea in river-side village (Table 3.6).

3.4. 7. Irrigation pattern

Number of ponds used for irrigation in hill-side village was higher than the river­

side village. However, ponds were closer to crop fields in river-side village

compared to that in the hill-side village. Variation in flow rate, width of irrigation

channel and distance between pond and crop fields was substantially higher in the

hill-side village as compared to river-side village. Five families shared a pond in

hill-side village compared to three in river-side village because of higher irrigation

potential in the former village (Table 3.7).

Crops differed in respect of irrigation frequency and intensity. Most of

irrigation water was diverted to naked barley and wheat. In the hill-side village,

naked barley received the highest level of irrigation (31.5cmha) followed by covered

barley (19 cmha) and other crops (2-4.5 cmha). In the river-side village, naked

barley and wheat received almost equal amount of irrigation water (23-24. 7 cmha)

compared to 2.1-4.6 cmha in other crops. Mustard was irrigated eight times and

black pea three times in the river-side village compared to two times and six times,

respectively, in the hill-side village. Although, the frequency of irrigation of naked

barley was similar·in the two villages, intensity of irrigation was higher in hill-side

village. All crops common to two villages received higher irrigation water in the

hill-side village compared to riverside village except for mustard showing the

reverse trend (Table 3.8).

44

Table 3.6. Material input (mean± standard deviation, n=3 plots) in different crops in river-side village and hill-side village (Demul)

Crops Manure (kg/ha) Seed (kg/ha) Mulch (kg/ha) Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Lidang Demul

Hordeum vulgare 466 ± 125 841 ± 62 206 ± 24 200 ± 16 415 ±52 715 ± 125

Hordeum winlense NG 350 ±50 NG 180 ± 8 NG 715 ± 148

Triticum aestivum 416 ± 76 NG 206 ± 12 NG 398 ±51 NG

Solanum tuberosum 10 ± 2 108 ± 38 180 ± 16 203 ± 12 NA NA

Brassica campestris NA NA 7 ± 0.81 12 ± 2 NA NA

Pisum sativum 241 ±52 416 ± 76 210 ± 10 203 ± 12 463 ± 63 815 ± 241

Pisum aNense 120 ± 25 150 ±50 22 ± 16 80± 8 NA 150 ±50

Raphanus sativus 10 ± 2 NG 2.5 ± 0.4 NG NA NG

NG - Not grown NA - Not applied

45

Table 3.7. Selected features of traditional irrigation system in a typical river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side village (Demul) (mean ±standard deviation, n=3).

River-side village Hill-side village Flow rate (litre/minute) 42 ±4 46±30

Distance between ponds 43±20 187 ± 102 and crop fields (m)

Irrigation channel width (em) 15 ± 2 20 ± 8

Number of families sharing a 3±1 5±1 ond

46

Table 3 .8. Irrigation related features of different crops in river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side Village (Demul).

Crops Number of Time interval between Quantity of irrigation irrigation two irrigation events (in days) water (cmha)

Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Hordeum vulgare 6 7 15 13 23 ± 6.2 31.5 ± 7.5

Hordeum winlense NG 5 NG 16 NG 19 ± 7.1

Triticum aestivum 6 NG 15 NG 24.7 ± 6.7 NG

Solanum tuberosum 4 3 22 15 2.1 ± 0.3 4.5 ± 1.5

Brassica campestris 8 2 10 30 4.6 ± 1.4 2 ± 0.1

Pisum sativum 3 4 16 25 3.6 ± 0.4 4.4 ± 0.3

Pisum arvense 3 6 16 12 2.8 ± 0.6 4.2 ± 0.4

Raphanus sativus 5 NG 20 NG 3.1 ± 0.1 NG

NG - Not grown

47

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desert

3.4.8. Crop productivity

Kitchen garden crops namely potato, mustard and radish showed higher co-efficient

of variation (30-55.4%) of human food and livestock feed production compared to

other crops grown on a larger scale (co-efficient of variation varying from 6.8-25%).

Of the two staple crops namely wheat and naked barley, only naked barley was

grown in the hill-side village whereas both the staples were grown in river-side

village. Yields of both human food and livestock feed from naked barley and potato

were significantly higher in hill-side village as compared to river-side village. There

was no significant (P > 0.05) difference in yields of mustard and green-pea between

the two villages. Grain yield from black pea was three times higher in the river-side

village as compared to hill-side village, but there was no significant difference in

productivity of livestock feed between the two villag~s. Wheat showed a grain yield

of 6207kg/ha compared to 3522kg/ha of naked barley in the river-side village (Table

3.9).

3.4.9. Economic efficiency

Monetary input was highest in green-pea followed by naked barley, potato and

wheat. Input in mustard, radish and black pea was substantially lower (Rs 3067-

9006/ha) compared to other crops (Rs 10,055-20,093/ha). Among the crops common

to two villages, input was substantially higher in the hill-side village compared to

river-side village in naked barley, mustard, green pea and black pea whereas input to

potato was similar in two villages. The highest level of monetary input was observed

in green-pea in both the villages. Potato, mustard and green-pea showed the highest

and almost equal output/input ratio in the hill-side village. On the other hand, in the

river-side village, output/input ratio of mustard was much higher than that of green­

pea or potato. While, there was no difference in output/input ratio related to green­

pea and barley in the two villages, the ratio related to mustard and black pea were

substantially higher in river-side village as compared to hill-side village (Table

3.10).

3.4.10. Ecological and economic changes during 1997-2002 period

Average manure and irrigation water input decreased and that of mulch and labour

increased during 1997-2002 period in both the villages but changes were more

prominent in hill-side village compared to river-side village. Production of staple

food grains per hectare of cropland declined by 35% in the hill-side village

48

Table 3.9. Biomass of different crops (mean± standard deviation, n=3 plots) in river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side village (Demul).

Crops Edible component (kg/ha) Fodder (kg/ha) Lidang Demul Lidang Demul

Hordeum vulgare 3522 ± 681 5657 ± 1201 3820 ± 959 6729 ± 1578

Hordeum winlense NG Nil NG 15805 ± 3867

Triticum aestivum 6207 ± 748 NG 6452 ± 774 NG

Solanum tuberosum 4821 ± 1635 13997 ± 4232 1620 ± 549 4133 ± 1249

Brassica campestris 4153 ± 1555 2806 ± 1555 NF NF

Pisum sativum 857 ± 200 682 ± 168 3638 ± 850 4602 ± 1136

Pisum arvense 2637 ± 19 931 ± 63 6306 ± 457 6569 ± 445

Raphanus sativus 4660 ± 1457 NG 1128 ± 352 NG

NG - Not grown NF - No fodder value

49

Table 3.1 0. Economic efficiency of different crops in river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side village (Demul).

Crops Total input (Rupees/ha) Total output (Rupees/ha) Economic efficiency (Output/Input ratio)

Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Hordeum vulgare 12231 16089 42264 67884 3.45 4.21

Hordeum winlense NG 10055 NG 65100 NG 6.47

Triticum aestivum 11824 NG 62070 NG 5.24 NG

Solanum tuberosum 12337 12442 48210 139970 3.9 11.24

Brassica campestris 3067 3642 62295 42090 20.31 11.55

Pisum sativum 15495 20093 216000 226500 13.93 11.27

Pisum arvense 6226 6559 26370 9310 4.23 1.42

Raphanus sativus 9006 NG 69900 NG 7.76 NG

NG - Not grown

50

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desert

compared to 13% in the river-side village. Productivity of vegetables increased by

29% in the river-side village compared to 50% in the hill-side village. In both the

villages, average fodder production from farmland decreased by 17%. Monetary

value of crop produce increased by 66% in the river-side village compared to 57% in

the hill-side village. Monetary value of inputs also increased but the rate of increase

in input was lower than the rate of incre~e of output resulting in an increase in

output/input ratio from 3.5 to 5.56 in the river-side village and 3.54 to 5.03 in the

hill-side village (Table 3.11).

3.4.11. Soil physico-chemical characteristics

The hill-side village soil was more sandy compared to river-side village soil.

Organic carbon content, available phosphorus and exchangeable Ca2+ concentration

were significantly higher in hill-side village as compared to river-side village .. The

two villages did not differ significantly in respect of exchangeable Mg2+,

exchangeable K+, exchangeable Na+ and total nitrogen. Concentration of available

phosphorus in the hill-side village about five times higher than the river-side village,

but there was no significant difference in total phosphorus concentration of soils of

the two villages (Table 3.12).

3.5. Discussion

Yields of barley and wheat reported here and also in Ladakh cold desert region

(Osmaston, 1985) are higher than the yields reported from intensive high input

farming in more favourable climate in the Himalaya and elsewhere (Osmaston,

1994; Singh et al., 1997). Indigenous knowledge of selection of strains adapted to

high insolation coupled with traditional practices of amelioration of water and

nutrient through recycling of human and livestock excreta, in situ burial of weeds

lacking any fodder value, application of mulch collected from meadows, cereal­

legume rotation, fallowing (three years of cropping followed by one year of

fallowing) and irrigation could sustain high yields in the absence of chemical

fertilizer input. During participatory discussions farmers did not recall any instance

of crop failure due to disease and pests suggesting a high degree of natural control of

pest population and/or resistance of farmer selected cultivars to pests.

Arable land holdings in the present study villages are much smaller (0.35 to

0.44 ha) than those in other parts of trans-Himalayan cold desert (1 to 2.6 ha)

(Osmaston, 1994; Fox et al., 1994; Nusser and Clemens, 1996). Considering the

51

Table 3 .11. Material and monetary input and output .and monetary output/input ratio related to cropping (average at village landscape scale) over 1997-2002 period in river-side (Lidang) and hill-side (Demul) villages.

River-side village Hill-side village 1997 2002 1997 2002

Inputs Manure (kg/ha) 335.46 304.4 627.64 533.22 Mulch (kg/ha) 303.82 317.99 570.72 610.21 Irrigation (cmha) 17.89 . 15.36 24 16.92 Labour (days/ha) 20.62 22.11 29.68 34.49

Monetary value of inputs Labour (Rs/ha) 10176.3 10732.2 13073.4 14724.3 Seeds (Rs/ha) 1764.3 1750 1974.3 1922.3 Total 11940.6 12482.2 15047.7 16646.6

Outputs Staple food grains (kg/ha) 3316.2 2901.9 3914.6 2556.9 Vegetables (kg/ha} 482.9 622.6 629.9 944.5 Fodder (kg/ha) 4656.5 3858.9 6808.1 5671.9

Monetary value of outputs Staple food grains (Rs/ha) 35698 30850 46975 30683 Vegetables (Rs/ha) 6236 38654 6439 53028 Total (Rslha) 41934 69504 53414 83711

Monetary output/ input ratio 3.51 5.56 3.54 5.03

52

Table 3.12. Characteristics (mean± standard deviation, n=3) of agricultural soil (0-30 em) in river-side (Lidang) and hill-side (Demul) villages.

Soil characteristics River-iide village Hill-side village

Texture(%) Sand 15.8±1.08 19.4 ± 0.52 Silt 40.9 ± 0.32 38 ± 0.51 Clay 43.2 ± 0.76 42.4 ± 0.04 pH 8.27 ± 0.02 8.12 ± 0.18 Conductivity (mS/cm) 0.29 ± 0.05 0.47 ± 0.04 Organic carbon(%) 1.79 ± 0.32 2.99 ± 0.60 Total nitrogen(%) 0.26 ± 0.09 0.33 ± 0.13 Total phosphorus (mg/kg) 558.7 ± 179.6 804.9 ± 275.6 Available phosphorus (mg/kg) 86 ± 33.9 470.4 ± 61.2 Exchangeable Ca2+ (meq/kg) 214 ± 5 403 ± 19 Exchangeable Mg2+ (meq/kg) 34 ± 1 34±4 Exchangeable K+ (meq/kg) 15 ± 2 13 ± 2 Exchangeable Na+ (meq/kg) 3±1 3±1

53

Table 3.13. Per capita food, liquor and fodder during the period 1997-2002 in different crops in river-side village (Lidang) and hill-side village (Demul).

Crops Food (kg/capita) Liquor (kg/capita) Fodder (kg/capita)

Lidang Demul Lidang Demul Lidang Demul 1997 2002 1997 2002 1997 2002 1997 2002 1997 2002 1997 2002

Hofdeum 92 62.5 120.7 89 23 15.6 80.48 38.1 16.3 11.31 38.65 19.56 vulgare

Hordeum Nil NG Nil Nil Nil NG Nil Nil 8.71 NG 12.47 5.25 winlense

Triticum 130.4 118.6 NG NG 55.8 50.8 NG NG 25.3 23.51 NG NG aestivum

Solanum 13.4 16.5 30.8 30.8 Nil Nil Nil Nil 0.58 0.74 1.46 . 1.27 tuberosum

Brassica 5.5 6.5 1.4 1.4 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil campestris

Pi sum NG 11.1 NG NG Nil Nil Nil Nil NG 6.32 NG 8.92 sativum

Pisum 7.6 1.4 Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil Nil 2.37 0.43 3.91 1.44 arvense

Raphanus 19.1 16 NG NG Nil Nil NG NG 1.57 1.75 NG NG sativus

NG - Not grown

54

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desert

WHO standard of minimum staple food requirement of 180 kg per capita per year,

the hill-side village, as in 1997 (representing traditional scenario), would seem to be

food-deficient (121 kg staple food per capita per year), the river-side/low altitude

village with a significant surplus (222 kg per capita per year) (Table 3.13) and the

two villages, considered together as one unit, to be close to self-sufficiency (171 kg

per capita year). These observations differ from those of Messerschmidt (1953) and

Kreutzmann (1993) who concluded a high level of food deficiency in some other

parts of trans-Himalayan cold desert based on the assumption that yields in

traditional crop husbandry were low and arable land holdings were small because of

ecological constraints. Isolation faced by Spitian communities due to cultural and

linguistic barriers and inaccessibility coupled with a harsh climate led to evolution

of agricultural practices adapted to prevailing micro-environmental conditions· and

exchanges that favoured complementarity between the low and high altitude

villages. Wheat, though tastes better than barley, was not gtown in the hill-side

village because here temperatures were too low to enable high yields due to

inadequate grain filling. High altitude farmers grow only barley for human food as it

gives high yields in cooler climate and exchanged it for wheat with the low altitude

farmers. Yield of crop byproducts of Pisum arvense used for stall feeding of

livestock during winters did not differ significantly between the two villages but

quality as well as quantity of seed (having both human food and livestock feed

value) yield was better in the low altitude village compared to the high altitude

village. The low altitude village community provides seeds of this crop to the high

altitude community in lieu of hay making/grazing rights during summer in high

altitude meadows. During snow-cover winter period, a few male members from both

the villages used to go to far-off places in the lower Himalaya, where they bartered

wild Allium species (used as a condiment) and medicinal plants collected from high

altitude meadows during summer pasturing with food items like rice, sugar and salt

which could not be produced locally.

Though changes in traditional agricultural land use, visible in the form of

expansion of arable land use and/or changes in cropping patterns and management

practices, constitute a global phenomenon, their intensity varies in time and space

because of variation in internal (e.g., local population growth, potential productivity)

as well as external factors (e.g., policies, market, modem agro-technologies) driving

these changes (V eldcamp and. Lambin,. 2001 ). Human population. growth rate.· in,,, ·.,:

55

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Deserl

Spiti region is quite low compared to other parts of the trans-Himalayan cold desert

region partly because of socio-cultural sanction of married life only to one son in a

family (younger sons go to Gompas, the religious shrines, and pass a bachelor life)

and partly because of resistance from Spitians· for settlement by outsiders within

their traditional territories. Low population pressure, limited capacity of indigenous

irrigation systems and enforcement of exclusion. of arable land use in areas notified

as protected area account for lack of agricultural land use expansion in the region.

However, there has been a prominent change in terms of replacement of traditional

food/fodder crops by new cash crops (Allan, 1986; Chu-Lin et al., 1999). This

change seems to have been facilitated by policy interventions such as (a) supply of

staple food grains and other items like sugar on subsidized price, (b) encouragement

of non-traditional cash-fetching crops like pea by providing subsidy on seeds· and

storage/marketing facilities, (c) introduction of projects giving employment to local

people around their settlements (d) continuation of traditional· grazing/hay making

practices in the protected areas. Stress on cash crops is a reflection of a growing

tendency towards external linkages through market economy which offers new

potentialities, but at the same time, new risks for the livelihood of local communities

(Bohle and Adhikari, 1998; Ives and He, 1998; Renaud et al., 1998) and natural

resources in the region.

Cultivation of the introduced cash crop, the green pea, has brought

substantial improvement in household income. People are able to generate cash

without going to far-off places for earning wages. The tendency for maximization of

income has marginalized the traditional values attached to crop-environment

compatibility and to social integrity achieved through cultivation and exchange of

complementary crop products between the low-altitude and high altitude villages.

Green pea cultivation has been adopted even in areas, such as the hill-side village in

the present case, where climatic conditions are sub-optimal for this crop. As seeds

are available on subsidized price from the government agencies and the produce is

exported to far-off market centres in the plains, mutual relationship between the low

and high altitude village and indigenous efforts towards selection of genotypes

adapted to local conditions get weakened. With income from cash crops, people can

satisfy their food and other needs from market. However, market dependent food

security implies more risks to local livelihood in the events of downfall in market

price/demand of P. sativum, termination of supply of food items on subsidized .price

56

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agroecosystems in Cold Desed

by government and pest outbreaks damaging the introduced crops (Giampietro,

1997). As biological potential of traditional crops/cultivars is poorly understood,

their loss is not in the interest of the scientific and wider community too.

The changes in cropping patterns follow changes in input-output relations of

ecosystems. Bulk of crop biomass and nutrients accumulated in pods of pea is

exported in contrast to recycling of biomass of traditional crops through human and

livestock excreta applied as manure. Continued export of nutrients and ·organic

matter from cash crop coupled with lower inputs of manure may lead to depletion of

soil fertility and thus become a threat to sustainable agricultural productivity. P.

sativum yields significantly lower quantity of fodder compared to the crops it has

replaced. Reduction in fodder output from arable land, increase in livestock

population and a socio-cultural trend of moving away from summer pasturing in

distant areas (Fox et al., 1994) imply a trend of increase in intensity of grazing and

hay making in meadows around settlements. This increas~ in intensity of disturbance

over a period of time may result in shortage of livestock feed and loss of biodiversity

and ecological functions of meadows. A policy intervention restricting grazing/hay

making in meadows could discourage livestock population growth as observed

elsewhere (Maikhuri et al., 2001) but has not been adopted in the region. Threats to

ecological values of meadows could be reduced by promoting cultivation of

leguminous fodder crops in agricultural fallows. As water and manure requirement

of introduced pea crop is low, human labour is still surplus and leguminous fodder

species viz. Cicer microphyllum and Thermopsis inflata grow profusely in and

around arable land in both low and high altitude villages, cultivation of fodder crops

in fallow lands is feasible. Such a response has not emerged possibly because local

people do not foresee the long-term negative impacts of new cropping patterns.

3.6. Conclusion

Agricultural land use expansion has so far been not a problem in the Spiti catchment.

However, the ongoing change in arable land use in terms of replacement . of

traditional staple food and fodder crops by cash crop Pisum sativum has significant

socio-economic and ecological implications. This change has significantly improved

income and purchasing power of local communities, but at the cost of erosion of

traditional practices leading to social integrity through cultivation and exchange of

complementary crops and risks arising from market dependent food security .system,

export of nutrients from agroecosystems and increase in . pres~ure on meadows .. ·

57

Chapter 3: Analysis of Agioecosystems in Cold Desert

Policy and technological interventions promoting sustainable improvement in local

economy together with conservation of cultural and natural resources in the region

are needed.

58