Chapter 5: The selfChapter 5: The self

Is the self Is the self uniunidimensional or dimensional or multimultidimensional?dimensional?

Aspects of the self that one might Aspects of the self that one might want to capture in a theory want to capture in a theory

The self as library (memory storehouse)– Long term memory– Computer metaphor: hard disk memory

The “on-line” self– Awareness– Working memory– RAM

Goal-setting Malleability

– Context-sensitive The self (potentially) at war with itself

– E.g., Balancing immediate desires with long-term goals

Memory for own past behaviors

Beliefs about self

1. Self as an infinitely complex schema?

2. William James2. William James

The known—”Me”– Repository of beliefs about self

The active knower—”I”– Active processor of information

3. Sigmund Freud3. Sigmund Freud

IdEgoSuperego

4. Tory Higgins (1987)4. Tory Higgins (1987)

Actual selfOught selfIdeal selfEmpirical support

– Actual vs. ideal discrepancies—depressed– Actual vs. ought discrepancies—agitation

5. Recent “executive control” theories5. Recent “executive control” theories (e.g. Baumeister & Voss, 2003)(e.g. Baumeister & Voss, 2003)

Emphasis on self-regulation, impulse control

Localization in brain?– Pre-frontal cortex

Appears to be involved in:– goal-setting– self-regulation– Phineas Gage

People have a strong drive for control over their environment– Reactance theory (Brehm, 1966)– Illusions of control

Lottery ticket valuation (Langer, 1975) Detecting contingencies in behavior (Alloy &

Abrahamson (1979)

– Self efficacy theory (Bandura, 1977)– When control taken away…

Learned helplessness (Seligman, 1975)

Self and controlSelf and control

Self control as a finite (limited) resourceSelf control as a finite (limited) resource Baumeister et al. (2000)

– Metaphor: self-control as a “muscle”– Suppressing urges in one domain uses energy, leads to

depleted resources in totally different domain.

Example:

Resist cookies

Don’t think about white bear

Control (no suppression)

Try not to laugh during movie

First task Second task

Baumeister et al. (2000), Baumeister et al. (2000), continuedcontinued

Research could explain – Relapses among former smokers when stress– Self-regulatory failures more likely in evening

Vohs et al. (2001)– Ss asked either to decide between two products

vs. merely indicate how often they used them Self-regulation failures more likely in decision condition

Cultural and Gender Differences Cultural and Gender Differences in the Definition of “Self”in the Definition of “Self”

Gabriel and Gardner (1999)– “Describe either a positive or negative event in your life”

Women– Engagements; death of family member

Men– “Go Cardinals!”;– “Why didn’t Martz call a #$%*&@ timeout in last series with the Panthers?

In the Spotlight: On the Consequences of Self-Awareness

The “adherence to standards” effect (Duval & Wicklund, 1972)

But self awareness can have adverse/negative consequences too.– Legend of Narcissus by Ovid (Roman poet)– “Escape from the Self” (Baumeister, 1991)

Adaptive vs. maladaptive approaches

– “The Curse of the Self” (Leary, 2004) On the potential costs of “self obsession”

– Depression, anxiety

““Telling More than We Can Know:Telling More than We Can Know:Verbal Reports on Mental Processes”Verbal Reports on Mental Processes”

(Nisbett & Wilson, 1977)(Nisbett & Wilson, 1977)

General claim: People are remarkably poor at introspection

• accuracy of inferring/assessing internal states

• knowing the actual reasons for our behavior.

Introspection and causal theoriesIntrospection and causal theories The more sleep I get, the better I feel Sunny days put me in a good mood Using a cell phone won’t affect my reaction time while driving a car The gender of another person won’t affect my evaluation of them (i.e.

I am not sexist) The race of another person is irrelevant to whether I like them or not. “I love her/him because _______”

The Nisbett and Wilson (1977) The Nisbett and Wilson (1977) thesisthesis

often easy to access

often difficult to access

pre-existing causal theories

actual mental states

Queries about mental states

Evidence?Evidence?

What factors determine whether you are in a relatively good or bad mood?– Wilson, Laser, & Stone (1982)

Nisbett & Wilson (1977)—the “distraction” studyNisbett & Wilson (1977)—the “distraction” study

Participants watch film under two conditions: No distraction vs. Distraction

Two questions:– How did the noise actually influence

ratings (objective influence)– How do people think the noise influence

ratings (subjective influence)

Results:Results:Objective influence—actual rated enjoyment of

film by participants in distraction condition

No distraction

distraction

+

-

But when these participants were asked how the distraction might have influenced ratings these participants subjectively believed that it decreased their enjoyment.

But they were wrong!

Rebuttal to the Nisbett and Wilson thesisRebuttal to the Nisbett and Wilson thesis—are people really that clueless?—are people really that clueless?

Smith & Miller, 1978– Studies have often focused on mundane

influences – People have no basis for comparison– Analyses often based on averaging across

participants – Theory hard to falsify

vs.

Affective forecastingAffective forecasting

found a ten dollar bill lying on the sidewalk? won two million dollars in the Missouri lottery? got an A+ on the social psychology exam? fell in love? won the Nobel prize? suddenly went blind? found out your significant other was dating someone else? got a divorce from someone you once loved? discovered you were genetically at risk for cancer? found out that you tested positive for HIV? were sent to a concentration camp?

Exactly how would you feel—and how long would you feel that way--if you……

Valence

Intensity

Duration

General findings from this literatureGeneral findings from this literature

People often think that their emotion reactions will be more extreme, and last longer, than is really the case.Assistant professors and tenure decisionsRelationship outcomesLoss/death of close othersElection outcomesStudent’s feelings after exams

Research on difficulty of accurate Research on difficulty of accurate introspectionintrospection

Affective forecastingSelf-perception theory (Bem, 1972)Perceptions of our own emotions

Buheler & MacFarland (2001)Buheler & MacFarland (2001)

Predicted vs. actual emotional experiences General methodology

Buheler & MacFarland (2001)Buheler & MacFarland (2001)

above expected below

Nature of Actual Performance Relative to Expectations

7.46

predicted

experienced

6.855.54 5.19

2.47 3.06

WhyWhy do you get these effects? do you get these effects?

Misconstrual Inaccurate theories Motivated distortions. Underestimation of emotional defense

(survival) skills “Focalism” +

- -

-

-

+

+

Focal event (+)Other mundane events of everyday-life

+

Additional implications of Nisbett and Wilson: Additional implications of Nisbett and Wilson:

Self Perception TheorySelf Perception Theory

Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972)Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972)

Individuals come to “know” their own attitudes, emotions and other internal states partially by inferring them from observations of their own overt behavior and/or the circumstances in which this behavior occurs.

Thus, to the extent that internal cues are weak, ambiguous, or uninterpretable, the individual is functionally in the same position as an outside observer, an observer who must necessarily rely upon those same external cues to infer the individual’s internal states.

Empirical EvidenceEmpirical Evidence

Bandler, Madaras, and Bem (1968)

Valins (1966): The bogus feedback study

Ubiquitous “reward systems” in the educational system, and elsewhere– E.g. read a book, “earn” a pizza

Unfortunately, there is a downside-– Receiving rewards changes in self-perception

E.g. person thinks: I’m doing X for the reward, not out of my own intrinsic interest

Problem arise when rewards cease (e.g., Greene, Sternberg, & Lepper, 1976)

Overjustification effects

Understanding (perception of) Understanding (perception of) emotionsemotions

Emphasizes the malleability of subjective, emotional experiences

“A + C = E”Arousal cognitive interpretation

subjective experience of emotion

Perceptions of emotions:Perceptions of emotions:Schacter’s two-factor modelSchacter’s two-factor model

Placebo (H2O)Epinephrine—no explanation

Epinephrine--explanation

angry

euphoric

No effect

No effect

No effect

No effect

angry

euphoric

Design of Schacter & Design of Schacter & Singer (1962) studySinger (1962) studyBehavior of

confederate

Misattribution of Misattribution of emotion/affectemotion/affect

Dutton and Aron (1974)—the scary bridge, attractive confederate study

Schwarz and Clore (1983)—the weather study

sunny

cloudy

No reference Indirect reference Direct reference

+

-- + +

+ +

Introspection about abilitiesIntrospection about abilities

Construal of abilities, like emotions/attitudes, are often “constructed” on the spot, depending on external cues in our environment

How does this occur?– Social comparison

Social comparison (Festinger, 1954)Social comparison (Festinger, 1954)

When do you engage in S.C.?– High uncertainty, no objective standard

With whom to you engage in S.C.?– Depends on your motive/goal you have in

mind There are TWO motives

– To gain knowledge (skill—based needs) – To feel better (evaluative-based needs)

The need for valuable knowledge-– Generally speaking, upward comparison

better hereThe need to feel good about yourself

– Often, downward comparison serves this need

A different type of social comparsion– Present vs. past

Impression management Impression management

Basic principlesConceptual and methodological

challenges– Is there such thing as a “real self” How

would you know what is real, and what isn’t? Who decides?

David Duke

“I don’t call myself a white supremacist,” “I’m a civil rights activist concerned about European-American rights.”

“White people don't need a law against rape, but if you fill this room up with your normal black bucks, you would, because n____ are basically primitive animals.”

—The Sun (Wichita, Kan.), April 23, 1975

1982: After a four-year political hiatus, Wallace returns

to the Governor's Mansion, defeating his opponent easily, largely with the help of the majority black vote. During what would be Wallace's final term as governor, he appoints a record number of black Alabamians to government positions and establishes the so-called Wallace Coalition, which included the Alabama Education Association, organized labor, black political organizations, and trial lawyers.

Wallace addresses the Southern Christian Leadership Conference and pronounces his past stand on segregation in the schools "wrong."

1963: I draw the line in the dust and toss the gauntlet before the feet of tyranny, and I say segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever! --Georgia Governor George Wallace