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Nixon, Ford, and Carter

1969-1981

• Richard Nixon’s victory in _________ was particularly sweet for him. His earlier bid for the presidency failed in _________, and two years later he lost the election for _________ of ____________. He had vowed to _______ from _________, but returned at a time when the country needed _____________________.

1968

1960governor

California retirepolitics

strong leadership“You won’t have Nixon to kick around any more, because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference.” – Nixon, after losing to Pat Brown in 1962

• Nixon grew up in a ______________ family in California and never overcame his sense of being an _________.

low-income

outsiderNixon (1913-1994) was raised by conservative Quaker parents in California. After his father’s ranch failed, the family ran a grocery store and gas station. His older brother died in childhood. He excelled in school, especially in the debate team. Nixon resented the way upper-class students looked down on him in college. He then went to Duke University Law School. In 1942 he accepted a job in Washington for the Office of Price Administration, but months later enlisted in the Navy. He was recruited to run for Congress in 1946. He made a name for himself on HUAC and was elected to the Senate in 1950 and as Vice President in 1952.

• Unlike most ____________, he was a __________ and _________ man. __________________ with people, he often seemed _________ and lacking in _________ and _________. He overcame these drawbacks by using _________________________ to communicate his message.

politicians reservedremote Uncomfortable

stiffhumor charm

modern campaign techniques

• He developed a reputation as someone who would say or do anything to ____________________. His _________ included his ____________________, the _____________________________, the _________, and _________ of the __________ ____________.

defeat opponentsenemies political opponents

government bureaucracypress leaders anti-warmovement

• He believed the ____________________ of government had to be _________ to be ___________. When he took office he gathered a close circle of __________ to pursue that goal. More than most other post-_________ presidents, Nixon avoided his _________ and relied on his _________ to develop policies.

executive branchstrong

successfuladvisors

WWIIcabinet staff

H. R. Haldeman

• Harry Robbins Haldeman (1926-1993)• He attended UCLA, where he me met John

Ehrlichman; the two were close friends.• Haldeman was an advertising executive most

famous for his relationship with Nixon. He was his California campaign manager and then served as Chief of Staff. He resigned during the Watergate Scandal and requested, but was refused, a presidential pardon. He was tried for several crimes connected to the scandal and served 18 months in prison. He later implicated Nixon in the affair.

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John Erlichman

• 1925-1999• Ehrlichman was a decorated WWII veteran and

Stanford Law School graduate who worked on several Nixon campaigns. He served as White House Counsel (the president’s personal attorney) and then as Chief Domestic Advisor.

• He created “The Plumbers” that ultimately precipitated the Watergate Scandal. He resigned and was prosecuted for his role, ultimately serving 18 months in prison. He became very bitter toward Nixon toward the end of his life.

John Mitchell

• 1913-1988• Mitchell was another successful lawyer and

Navy veteran who befriended Nixon. He directed the 1968 and 1972 presidential campaigns and served as Attorney General between campaigns. Although he projected a public “law-and-order” persona he was deeply involved in illegal activities connected to Watergate. He served 19 months in prison.

Henry Kissinger

• Born in 1923 in Germany; his family fled to London to escape German anti-Semitism

• He became a professor, prolific writer, Nobel Peace Prize winner, foreign policy expert; he served Nixon as both National Security Advisor and Secretary of State (and continued at State under Ford).

• He is credited with warming relations with both the USSR and China, negotiating America’s withdrawal from the Vietnam War, and introducing a less idealistic (more realistic) approach to foreign affairs.

• The __________ was shaky when Nixon took office. Largely because of _________________ for the ________________, __________ had doubled between 1965 and 1968. The ________ was growing, and so was _________________.

economyrising spending

Vietnam War inflationdeficit

unemployment

• Nixon’s first priority was to halt __________, but he determined to avoid imposing government controls on _________ and _________. He ultimately did accept temporary freezes in _________ and _________.

inflation

wagesprices

19711973

• Although Republicans traditionally aimed for a ___________________, Nixon began to consider __________________ as a way to stimulate the __________. This theory had been proposed by British economist ___________________________. – After WWII, international currencies generally

converted to dollars at fixed rates. The dollar could then be exchanged by foreign governments at the rate of $35 per ounce of gold. In 1971, Nixon ended the convertibility of dollars for gold, and price of gold in dollars quickly increased (inflation). He proclaimed “I am now a Keynesian in economics.”

balanced budgetdeficit spending

economy

John Maynard Keynes

• The United States had been heading toward an _________ crisis long before Nixon’s term. The growing ____________ and _________ used more energy each year.

energypopulation economy

• ______ was plentiful, but _________________ concerns discouraged its use. Coal environmental

• Federal _____________ from the mid-1950s kept the price of _____________ low, so producers had little incentive to raise their _________. Finally, _________ output began to decline in 1972. Americans depended on imported _________ for about _________ of their needs.

regulationsnatural gas

output oil

oil 1/3

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• ________________ served to aggravate the problem. ____________ let supplies run so low during the _______________ that later demand could not be met.

Price controlsRefineries

price freezes

• Unrest in the ______________ turned the problem into a crisis. In 1973, _________ was attacked by _________ and _________. – The Arab coalition launched their attack on October

6th. It was Yom Kippur, a Jewish holy day, that year. The goal seemed to be recapturing territories lost in the 1967 Six-Day War.

– The Israelis anticipated the attack but could not launch a preemptive strike due to diplomatic concerns with the US.

– After initial successes, the Arab armies were humiliated. The US and USSR came close to direct intervention, but fighting ceased on October 25th.

Middle EastIsrael

Egypt Syria

• The US backed _________, so the Arab members of _________ banned shipping oil to the US. They also _____________ the price of oil.

IsraelOPEC

quadrupled

The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries was formed in 1960 to counter Western oil companies’ control over oil production. In 1973, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, Saudi Arabia, Venezuela, Qatar, Indonesia, Libya, UAE, Algeria, and Nigeria were members.

The US, UK, Netherlands, Japan, and Canada were all punished for supporting Israel in 1973.

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• Higher oil prices worsened __________. As the cost of goods like bread and gasoline increased, consumers cut back on other __________. The result was a ___________.

inflation

spending recession

Geopolitical Consequences of the War• Egypt’s defeat in the war and Saudi Arabia’s

leadership of OPEC heralded a change in leadership in the Arab world. Henceforward, Saudi Arabia would be the leading Arab state. Egypt’s pan-Arab, secular, and socialist ideals would recede as Saudi Arabia’s more conservative, Islamic ideal spread.

• Egypt drifted closer to America and away from the USSR, making peace with Israel more likely.

• Energy independence would became a major concern for Western countries.

• Nixon hoped to halt the growth of ______________ ___________ by cutting back or eliminating some of the ___________________ that had mushroomed under Johnson’s ________________.

governmentspending

social programsGreat Society

• Critics claimed that these programs were __________, encouraged _________, and discouraged people from seeking _________. wasteful cheating

work

• Nixon decided to call for a new partnership between the _______________________ and _________ known as ___________________. Congress passed a series of ___________________ bills that gave federal _________ to state and local governments to use as they wished.

federal government statesNew Federalismrevenue-sharing

funds

• Nixon believed he had little to gain by supporting ____________. Few _________ _____________ had voted for him in 1960 or 1968, and efforts to attract their support might cost him the support of ___________________.

civil rights AfricanAmericans

southern whitesRemember that southern states began moving away from the Democratic Party as early as the 1952 Eisenhower campaign. Communism, the counterculture, and civil rights all played a part in the regional realignment.

• Nixon attempted to find a _________ to win over ____________________, and Senator ____________________ (who left the _____________________ in 1948) became a strong supporter.

strategywhite Democrats

Strom ThurmondDemocratic Party

Thurmond (1902-2003) was a governor and senator from South Carolina who quit the Democratic Party in 1964. He was a segregationist until the 1970s. He was 100 when he retired (the oldest serving senator in history_. Ironically, he fathered a child with his family’s 16-year-old African American maid in 1925, but that was kept secret until after his death.

“The Southern Strategy”• The states of the former Confederacy had been the

Democratic Party’s base from the 1860s until the Great Depression.

• Eisenhower was the first president to make significant inroads on the Democratic south. His wartime service and Red Scare concerns about communist influence over the Democrats were the source of his appeal.

• By the late 1950s and 1960s the Southern Democrats were increasingly disaffected from the national party’s position on civil rights. The Republican Party’s concept of a new federalism (limiting federal power and empowering the states) appealed to many southern whites unhappy about expanding federal power.

• Southern whites also tended to be more culturally conservative. They were dismayed by the counterculture and the lawlessness increasingly associated with the civil rights and anti-war movements.

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So, were the Republicans just racist?• This is one of the sloppiest, laziest conclusions students of

history can make. The 1964 Civil Rights Act received the support of 27 out of 33 Republican Senators and 136 out of 171 Republican Representatives (higher percentages than Democrats mustered). Goldwater did vote against the law (after supporting bills in 1957 and 1960 and the 24th

Amendment), but his opposition was based on concerns about the constitutionality of Title II (outlawing discrimination in “public accommodations” engaged in interstate commerce).

• Nixon recognized that racial concerns could help him win southern voters but focused on issues with broader political support. That is to say, not everyone who wants to reduce welfare payments, keep their children in neighborhood schools, and so forth are racist.

Fair Housing Laws

• Nixon sought to cut funding for the enforcement of fair housing laws.

Desegregation Requirements• Nixon made it easier to meet desegregation

requirements.

Voting Rights Act

• Nixon tried to prevent the extension of certain provisions of the Voting Rights Act that were set to expire, though Congress renewed them anyway.

School Busing• Several cities were busing students between

neighborhoods in order to eliminate de facto segregation. This proved very unpopular and people in several cities launched boycotts or started riots.

• The Supreme Court issued guidelines that allowed for busing, but Nixon made a nationally televised speech and asked Congress to put an end to it.

• Nixon also allowed the government to restore funding to school districts that were still experiencing de facto segregation.

• During his election campaign, Nixon had criticized the __________________ for being too _________ and easy on ___________. In his first term, ______________ died, resigned, or retired.

Supreme Courtliberal criminals

four justices

• He first named __________________, a moderate, to replace the liberal _______________ in 1969. – Burger (1907-1995) was an attorney who rose through

the Minnesota Republican Party to a position in the Eisenhower Justice Department and then on the US Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia.

Warren BurgerEarl Warren

- Conservatives hoped that Burger would undo many of the Warren Court decisions, but that did not happen. Burger was considered as a possible nominee to replace Agnew after his resignation.

• He later nominated ____________________, _______________, and ______________________. They were ___________________ who generally tilted the _______ in a more ______________ direction, though ____________ later became increasingly _________ in his decisions.– Nixon had difficulty securing these appointments

(several prior nominations were defeated). Nixon had campaigned on promises to appoint “strict constructionist” justices. This philosophy of judicial interpretation requires judges to enforce the law as written and intended rather than allowing the meaning of laws to “evolve” in the minds of judges.

Harry BlackmunLewis Powell William Rehnquist

respected juristscourt conservative

Blackmunliberal

• Blackmun (1908-1999) was a friend and schoolmate of Burger’s (they were called the “Minnesota Twins” in the press). He became one of the most liberal and political justices in history. He is best remembered as the author of Roe v. Wade (1973).

Powell (1907-1998) grew up in Virginia (he graduated from Washington & Lee University). He was active in state politics and encouraged corporations to become more aggressive in resisting socialism in the United States. He tended to be fairly conservative in his opinions.

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William Rehnquist

• Rehnquist (1924-2005) was raised in Wisconsin and served in WWII before attending both Stanford and Harvard. He spent many years in private practice and Republican politics. As a judge he was a strong advocate for federalism. He succeeded Burger as Chief Justice in 1986.

• The Nixon years witnessed the fulfillment of ____________ 1961 commitment to land a man on the _________. Kennedy’s

moon

• That man was __________________. On July 20, 1969 he descended from the _______________ as ____________________ around the world witnessed this triumph.– It is estimated that 1/6 of the world’s population heard or

saw the moon landing as it happened.

Neil Armstronglunar lander

television viewers

Armstrong (1930-2012) grew up in Ohio. He was an Eagle Scout and Navy pilot who studied engineering and served in the Korean War. After the war he worked as an experimental pilot and joined NASA in 1962. He tried to live a fairly private life in spite of his fame.

• The ___________ crew also included ______________ and __________________.

Apollo XIBuzz Aldrin Michael Collins

Edwin Eugene Aldrin joined Armstrong’s walk on the moon, but Collins stayed in orbit.

• Upon their return the crew was ______________ for _________ to ensure they weren’t carrying __________________.

quarantined18 days

lunar microbes

Hailed as Heroes

Moon Landing Conspiracy• Some people deny any of the six

moon landings ever occurred. Conspiracies blossomed after Vietnam and Watergate, when trust in the government was at an all-time low. They claim NASA faked the landings for propaganda purposes against the Soviet Union. You can read about various conspiracy theories on the internet, but they have all been rebutted.

• Earth telescopes and satellites can still zoom in on the debris left behind on the moon by the landings.

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• As President, Nixon’s greatest achievements came in the field of ________________. With ___________ charting his course, he helped ease _____________________ with both _________ and the _______________.

foreign policyKissinger

Cold War tensionsChina Soviet Union

• Henry Kissinger’s studies of _________________ (and of Austrian __________________________ in particular) gave him an admiration for _________ (or “____________________”). Nations following this policy make decisions based on maintaining their own __________ rather than following ____________________. – “Nations have no permanent friends or allies, they only

have permanent interests.” – Lord Palmerston

– Removing ideology or morality from international affairs and focusing solely on a country’s security interests (what makes us stronger?) does not have a very long history in American government.

European historyKlaus von Metternich

realpolitikpractical politics

strengthmoral principles

• Kissinger also understood the power of the ______ and used it to shape ________________. His efforts at ending the ________________ and easing ______________________ made him a celebrity and earned him the 1973 _____________________. – The Vietnamese negotiator, Le Duc Tho, was also

awarded the prize that year, but he declined to accept because the war had not ended.

presspublic opinionVietnam War

Cold War tensionsNobel Peace Prize

• Nixon and Kissinger’s greatest accomplishment was bringing about _________ between the United States and the world’s two Communist giants, _________ and the _______________.

detente

China Soviet Union

• Nixon’s willingness to talk with them stunned many because he had been one of the most active ___________________ in government. Keeping much of his diplomacy secret, he bypassed ___________ and his own __________ to change American foreign policy.– Kissinger worked through Pakistan’s government

to secure an invitation. He made a trip to China in secret in July 1971.

anti-communists

Congressadvisors

• The _________ and _________, once allies, had become ________________. Seeking to exploit this rift, Nixon undertook a series of moves to improve the relationship between the US and _________. – Khrushchev’s repudiation of Stalin’s reign upset

Mao, who considered himself Stalin’s true ideological successor. The USSR and China competed for international influence and fought over their border in 1969. China opposed the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 and the USSR opposed China’s invasion of Vietnam that same year. The two became closer in the 1980s.

USSR Chinabitter enemies

China

• This was quite surprising because the US had refused to recognize its Communist government since _________, insisting instead that the government on the island of _________ was the rightful government.

1949

TaiwanThis cartoon reflects the fact that Chiang Kai-shek could not prevent Nixon from engaging China. It also commemorates the “ping pong diplomacy” of 1971, when the US Table Tennis Team travelled to China - a first for Americans since 1949.

• In July 1971, after extensive diplomacy, Nixon announced that he planned to visit _________ - a first for an American president. – Nixon hoped that he could exploit the Sino-Soviet

tensions for American advantage. An opening to China would leave the Soviets feeling slightly paranoid and eager to improve relations with both China and the US, lest those two ally against it.

– Nixon also hoped that the USSR and China would push the North Vietnamese to an acceptable resolution of the Vietnam War.

China

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• In October 1971, _________ lost its seat in the ________________________ to the ________________________________.

TaiwanUN Security CouncilPeople’s Republic of China

Many anti-communists (especially Republicans) were outraged at Nixon’s apparent betrayal of an ally, but criticism of Nixon was relatively muted. China-Taiwan relations remain complicated for the United States to this day.

• The visit occurred in February 1972, and Nixon met with both the revolutionary leader _______________ and premier _____________. Mao Zedong Zhou Enlai

• Nixon recognized that he could use _________ ____________ as a bargaining chip with the _________ and boost his popularity at home.

China’sfriendshipSoviets

• Several months after this trip, Nixon visited ____________. In a series of meetings with Premier ____________________, Nixon reached agreements to work together to ________________, ease longstanding ______________, and conclude a ________________.

the USSRLeonid Brezhnev

explore spacetrade limits

weapons pactBrezhnev (1906-1982) led the USSR from 1964 until his death, though he did not exercise the same degree of personal control as his predecessors. The Soviets fell further behind economically during his rule.

• Nixon viewed _______________ as a vital part of his foreign policy. The two _______________ were making more powerful bombs all the time, and Nixon came to believe that this kind of ___________ made little sense. Each nation already had enough to destroy the other ____________________.

arms controlsuperpowers

arms race

many times over

• To address the issue, the US and Soviet Union began the ______________________________________ in 1969. In 1972, the talks produced a treaty that would limit ______________________________. This treaty, known as _________ included a _________ agreement that _________ the number of certain missiles at 1972 levels. It also included an agreement restricting the development of ________________________.

Strategic Arms Limitation Talks

offensive nuclear weaponsSALT I

5-year froze

anti-ballistic missilesIf either side gained an advantage in anti-ballistic missile technology, it would negate the nuclear deterrent of the other power and neutralize the policy of Mutually Assured Destruction. This was seen as making war, or at least a massive preemptive strike, more likely.

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• This treaty was a triumph, yet it did not reduce the number of ___________ each nation possessed. It did not stop them from ____________ weapons in other ways. In fact, the US specifically committed to building a better _________ and a larger ___________ in response. The treaty did demonstrate that cooperation was possible, though, and it paved the way for future progress.

warheads

improving

bomber submarine

• Nixon was determined to win an _______________ ________ in the 1972 election. With such a __________ he would be able to move his ___________ through ___________.

overwhelmingvictorymandateprograms Congress

• Loyal aides completed schemes to ensure his success, sometimes committing _________ in the process. When Nixon tried to hide their actions, he became involved in a _________ that ended his presidency and shook America’s faith in ______________.

crimes

scandal

government

• The Nixon White House operated as if it were surrounded by _________. One result of this mind-set became known as the __________________. Aides considered how to _________ those listed, including an idea to arrange _____________ ________________for them.

enemies“Enemies List”harass

income taxinvestigations

The list of 20 names was compiled by staff and sent to Attorney General John Dean in 1971. It asked “how can we use the available federal machinery to screw our political enemies[?]” The IRS refused to go along with the plan.

• In 1969, when someone on the _________________ _________leaked secret information to the ___________________, Nixon ordered that __________ be installed on the ____________ of several staff members and reporters. Though this was legal at the time, it led to illegal ones later.

National SecurityCouncilNew York Timeswiretaps telephones

• In the spring of 1971, __________________, a former ________________________ official, leaked a secret study to the _______________, which published it. The study became known as the ____________________, and Nixon was furious at it and other leaks.

Daniel EllsbergDefense Department

New York Times

Pentagon Papers

Ellsberg did undergraduate and doctoral work at Harvard, during which time he turned strongly against the Vietnam War. He worked at the Pentagon and made copies classified documents that showed the Johnson administration had lied. He ultimately convinced several newspapers to print them.

• By upholding the newspapers’ right to print the material, the Supreme Court upheld the freedom of the press. While not all “prior restraints” will be unconstitutional, the government cannot censure publications simply to avoid embarrassment or political problems.

• Nixon approved a plan to organize a special unit, nicknamed the ___________, to stop the leaks. This unit included ________________, a former _________ agent, and ____________________, a former _________ agent.

PlumbersHoward Hunt

CIA G. Gordon LiddyFBIHunt (1918-2007) served in the WWII Office of Strategic Sources (later the CIA) and wrote spy novels. He was involved in planning the Bay of Pigs Invasion. He went to work for a private security firm in 1970 and was hired by Haldeman.

Liddy served in the Army during the Korean War and then graduated from Fordham Law School before going to work for the FBI. After five years he returned to legal and political work before working for Nixon. In later life he wrote books and became a television and radio personality.

• In September 1971, _____________________ approved the unit’s plan to break into the office of __________________________ and find damaging information with which to punish him for leaking information to the press.– No damaging information was found, so the

Plumbers proposed breaking into Ellsberg’s home. Ehrlichman vetoed the plan.

John Ehrlichman

Ellsberg’s psychiatrist

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• Ellsberg was prosecuted for theft and conspiracy. He probably would have gone to prison but for the fact that the judge dismissed all charges due to gross governmental misconduct and illegal evidence gathering.

• In 1972, the Committee to _______________ ____________used similarly questionable tactics. Headed by _________________, who resigned as _____________________ to take command, the committee raised money to pay for both routine ______________________ and ___________ actions hidden from the public.– Acronyms can be tricky things. The CRP was often

referred to as CREEP in the press.

– CREEP provided an alternative fundraising vehicle for expenses best kept private.

Re-Elect thePresident

John MitchellAttorney General

campaign activitiesunethical

• Though a few of the committee’s actions seemed like _________, others were damaging. For example, ____________________’s tearful reaction to insults aimed at his wife hurt his candidacy.

pranksEdmund Muskie

This was not an era for men to cry in public. This press conference shattered his reputation for being steady and calm under stress. Muskie’s aides claimed he hadn’t cried but that snow had melted on his cheeks.

Muskie (1914-1996) served in the Navy in WWII. He became a lawyer and a politician. He served as a governor and US Senator from Maine. He was the Democratic nominee for Vice President in 1968 and sought the presidential nomination in 1972. He won in both Iowa and New Hampshire but lost the nomination to George McGovern. He returned to the senate and later served in the Carter administration as Secretary of State.

• They also sent __________ to disrupt ____________________________________ and sent spies to join opponents’ ____________.– On November 2, 1972, a heckler so irritated the Democratic

nominee that he responded by saying, “I’ve got a secret for you… kiss my ***.” The press reported this lack of composure. It was exactly the sort of thing the Nixon campaign hoped to accomplish.

– Many other campaigns have used similar tactics. For example, in the 2006 Virginia Senate campaign, a Democratic operative got the Republican candidate to call him a “macaca,” a term the press judged to be racially derogatory.

hecklersDemocratic campaign meetings

campaigns

• The Committee also developed a scheme to find damaging information about _________ at the Democratic ______________. The original plan was vetoed twice because it was ________________. In March 1972 an alternative was approved.

delegatesConvention

too expensive

• _________ would oversee the wiretapping of phones at the Democratic National Committee ________________ in the ____________ apartment complex in ___________________.

Liddy

headquarters WatergateWashington, DC

• The first __________ to install ______________ failed. A second attempt on June 17, 1972 ended with the _________ of the _________ men involved. The burglars carried _________ that could be linked to the _________, thus tying the break-in directly to ______________________.– One of the burglars had a $25,000 check from the

CRP in his bank. A total of $86,000 had been diverted from the campaign to the CRP for Liddy’sactivities. They tried to hide the transactions by working through foreign banks, but records were kept.

break-in listening devices

arrest fivemoney

CRPNixon’s campaign

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• When the _____ traced the money to the reelection committee, _______ contacted the _____ so it could discourage the FBI from investigating a matter of “____________________.” This action would later haunt him. Although he was not involved in ___________ the break-in, he was now part of the __________.

FBINixon CIA

national security

planningcover-up

• “[A]s far as a president is concerned, that in war time, a president does have certain extraordinary powers which would make acts that would otherwise be unlawful, lawful if undertaken for the purpose of preserving the nation and the Constitution, which is essential for the rights we’re all talking about.” – Richard Nixon, April 6, 1977

• The break-in barely reached the ______________ for months. The President’s __________ worked feverishly to hide the truth. In the summer of 1972 they attempted to _________ the burglars. They distributed _____________ in illegal “_______________” and coached them about how to commit _________ by lying under oath.

public’s noticeadvisors

bribe$100,000’s

hush moneyperjury

• In the election, Nixon trounced ________________ by _____ to ___ electoral votes. The Democrats never united sufficiently and were perceived as too _________ to campaign effectively. Nixon got his __________, but did not get a ________________________ in ___________.

George McGovern520 17

liberalmandateRepublican majority Congress

Democrats were badly split by McGovern’s nomination. Solid Democratic authorities (Lyndon Johnson, the AFL-CIO, etc.) remained neutral or barely supported McGovern. Many Democrats endorsed Nixon. Nixon outspent McGovern by a margin of 2 to 1 and won the popular vote by a margin of 61% to 37%.

George McGovern• McGovern (1922-2012) grew up in South Dakota and

served as a pilot in WWII. He served in the US House (1957-1961) and Senate (1963-1981). He was an outspoken liberal who lost the 1972 presidential election.

• Attacked by rivals Hubert Humphrey and George Wallace for being too liberal (his platform was mocked as “amnesty, abortion, and acid”), he received fewer primary votes than Humphrey but had solid support in the press. His young supporters also helped him to win delegates in caucus states.

• He first picked Missouri Senator Thomas Eagleton as his running mate but then dropped him two weeks later when his history of psychiatric treatment was revealed. His next five choices all turned him down, but Kennedy in-law, Peace Corps leader, and Ambassador Sargent Shriver ultimately accepted.

• McGovern briefly ran for his party’s presidential nomination in 1984 and remained active in public affairs until his death.

1972 Presidential Election Results

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• The trial of the Watergate burglars began in January 1973. All of the defendants received _____________ terms, up to __________. The judge did suggest the sentence would be _________ if the defendants cooperated with the upcoming _________ hearings on Watergate.– Dozens of government officials were ultimately

convicted of crimes connected to the scandal.

– The five burglars served sentences ranging from 2 months to 18 months in prison.

– Hunt served 33 months in prison.

– Liddy served four and a half years in prison.

long prison 40 years

reducedSenate

• Two ___________________ reporters, __________________ and _________________, were enthusiastically investigating the scandal. Their stories helped the official investigation and vice versa.– The reporters had a secret and mysterious source who they

nicknamed “Deep Throat.” In 2005 the source was revealed to be former Deputy FBI Director Mark Felt.

Washington PostBob Woodward Carl Bernstein

Date Event(s)

February1973

April 1973

May 1973

October 1973

July 1974

August 9, 1974

Nixon forces Haldeman and Ehrlichman to resign

Senate Select Committee begins its investigation

Senate begins televised hearings; Nixon agrees to appoint a special prosecutorNixon orders the firing of Special Prosecutor Archibald Cox; Vice President Agnew resigns

House Judiciary Committee begins impeachment hearings

Nixon resigns

The Nixon Tapes and Saturday Night Massacre

• Nixon had secretly installed an automatic voice-recorder in the Oval Office. When this fact was revealed, investigators demanded access to the recordings. Nixon refused, citing “executive privilege.”

• Nixon then ordered his Attorney General to fire the Special Prosecutor (Archibald Cox), but he refused and resigned in protest. So did the Deputy Attorney General. The Solicitor General, Robert Bork, finally agreed to fire him.

Boarding the helicopter to leave the White House on his last day as President.

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• The scandal still stands as a ___________ in American political history, but it also proved the strength of the nation’s _________. When members of the ____________________ violated the law instead of ______________, the _________ and ____________ branches stepped in and stopped them.

low point

systemexecutive branch

enforcing itjudicial legislative

• The new President, _______________, faced a difficult job. He had to help the US emerge from its worst ___________________ while the __________ was in trouble and the __________ over the ________________ hadn’t healed.

Gerald Ford

political scandaleconomy

divisions Vietnam War

Ford (1913-2006) assumed office with humility. Admitting he was only a Ford, not a Lincoln (a pun based on car brands), he declared “Our long national nightmare is over. Our constitution works. Our great republic is a government of laws and not of men.”

• Ford was one of the ________________ politicians in Washington when he was appointed _________________ in October 1973 following _________’s resignation.

most popular

Vice PresidentAgnew

The Twenty-Fifth Amendment (1967) allowed presidents to nominate candidates to fill VP vacancies for the first time. To take office, majorities of both houses of Congress had to approve.

• A ______________ in his youth, he had earned a _____________ and served in the _________ during _________.

football starlaw degreeNavy WWII

Ford was named Leslie Lynch King, Jr., at birth, but his parents divorced when he was only a few months old. He was renamed in honor of his stepfather. Ford was an Eagle Scout and played football for the University of Michigan. He turned down offers to play professionally and went to Yale Law School. He practiced law until WWII intervened. After the war he married and started his political career.

• He was elected to the ___________ in 1948 and rose to become ____________________ in 1965. Over the years he had opposed much _________________________ but supported ____________________ and measures for ________________. He also had a reputation for _________, __________, and __________.

US HouseMinority Leader

government spendingdefense spendinglaw and order

honesty integrity stabilitySince Democrats had majorities in both houses of Congress in 1973, they could reject any Nixon nominee for VP. Nixon consulted them was told that they would only approve Ford.

• When he became President he named former ____ Governor ______________________ to be _________________. This created the unique situation of having both a President and Vice President who had been ____________.

NY Nelson RockefellerVice President

appointedI am acutely aware that you have not elected me as your president by your ballots, and so I ask you to confirm me as your president with your prayers.” -Gerald Ford, August 9, 1974

Rockefeller (1908-1979), grandson of the Standard Oil tycoon, was a liberal Republican who had previously sought his party’s presidential nomination three times. He refused to support Goldwater in 1964 and Goldwater voted against his confirmation as VP. He had no real duties as VP and Ford dropped him from the ticket in 1976.

• Barely a month after Nixon resigned, Ford ___________ him for ___________________. Ford expected __________ but underestimated the reaction. Some suggested that a ___________________ had been made.

pardoned any crimes committedcriticism

corrupt bargain

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Was there a corrupt bargain?

• There is no historical evidence to support any kind of quid pro quo between Ford and Nixon.

• Nixon’s acceptance of the pardon is construed as a de facto legal admission of criminal behavior, but it did not satisfy those who wanted Nixon to apologize and suffer.

• Ford sincerely believed that the country needed to move on and thought the pardon was the best way to achieve that.

• The public, angry both at ____________ and the _________, voted a number of ______________ out of office in 1974.– Democrats gained 49 seats in the House of

Representatives, giving them a total of 291 out of 435 (67%).

– Democrats also gained 4 seats in the Senate, giving them a total of 60 out of 100.

Watergatepardon Republicans

• Preoccupation with ____________ kept _______ from dealing with the __________, and by 1974 __________ was about _______. Unemployment climbed that year from _____ to ____. ________________ slowed as ________________ rose, and the fears of ___________ brought a drop in ___________.

WatergateNixon economy

inflation 11%5%

7% Home-buyinginterest ratesinvestors stock prices

• Policymakers usually had to deal with either __________ (the result of a _______________ economy) or __________________ (the result of a __________________ economy). Most thought they two would balance each other out, but when they persisted simultaneously a new term was coined - _____________.

inflation rapidly growingunemployment

slowly growing

stagflation

• Not since _________ took office during the _____________ had a new president faced such harsh ____________________. Ford’s approach was to try to restore _________________.

FDRDepression

economic troublepublic confidence

• In October 1974 he unveiled a program called “_________,” an acronym that stood for _______________________. It asked people to voluntarily _________ money, not _________ it; conserve _________; and plant _________.

WINWhip Inflation Now

savespend fuel

gardens

• Ford soon recognized the need for more _______________. The _________________ tightened the _________ supply to control __________, but the ___________ only worsened.

direct action Federal Reservemoney

inflation recession

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• Unemployment soared to over _________ in 1975, and Congress backed an antirecession ___________ program. Ford agreed to an increase in ____________________________ as well as a _________. The economy only recovered _________.

8%

spendingunemployment benefitstax cut

slightly

• In spite of his long experience as a ____________, Ford was often at odds with the ______________-controlled ___________. He basically believed in ________________________, while Congress wanted the president to take a more ____________ in the economy. – A famous example of Ford’s restraint came in 1975 when he (temporarily)

resisted efforts to bail out a bankrupt New York City. City residents were not amused.

congressmanDemocratic

Congresslimited government

active role

• Ford _________ bills to create agencies and fund programs, and Congress responded by creating its ______________________ of _________________ since the 1850s.

vetoed

highest percentageveto overrides

• In foreign policy, Ford generally followed _________ approach and worked for _________. He kept ____________ as Secretary of State. He made several trips abroad, met with ___________ leaders, and was the first president to visit _________.

Nixon’sdetente Kissinger

EuropeanJapan

Ford and Hirohito

• In 1973, Congress, angry at the growth of the ________________________, had passed the ___________________ over _____________. The law was designed to limit the president’s ability to involve the US in _________ without receiving a formal __________________ from Congress.

“imperial presidency”War Powers Act Nixon’s veto

combatwar declaration

• The law states: – 1. The President must notify Congress of combat

within 48 hours of its start

– 2. Combat missions can’t last more than 60 days without Congress’ approval

– 3. Congress can demand cessation of hostilities at any time

• In the spring of 1975, Ford asked for ______________ to help _________________ meet an attack, but Congress rejected his request. Most Americans had no wish to become involved in __________ again.

military aid South Vietnam

Vietnam

Ford requested $522 million in aid but Congress overwhelmingly voted against him. The president of South Vietnam resigned in protest. On April 23, 1975, Ford declared the Vietnam War over as far as America was concerned.

• Ford did agree to an _________ that evacuated ___________ of people from _________.

airliftthousands Saigon

So many Vietnamese

fled to American

carriers that their

helicopters had to be dumped

overboard to make room for

more incoming flights.

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• In May 1975, soldiers from Communist ____________ captured the ____________, an American _________________. When his protests went unanswered, Ford sent _________ to recapture it. – The Khmer Rouge attacked the ship less than a

month after seizing control of their country.

Cambodia Mayaguezmerchant ship

marines

• The crew was saved, but _________ Americans were killed. The incident helped to _________ a perception of American ___________.– The American public approved of the operation,

although some historians questioned whether the Cambodians were about to release the ship due to diplomatic pressure. The Americans who died in this operation were the last to be listed on the Vietnam War Memorial.

41

dispelweakness

• On another front, Ford signed the ______________, a series of agreements on European _________. The US, _________, the _________, and about _________ European countries pledged to cooperate ________________, respect existing _________, and promote ________________. Ford also continued the _________ talks.

Helsinki Accordssecurity

Canada USSR30

economically bordershuman rightsSALT

• Americans held a national _________________ to mark the ______________ of the approval of the __________________________________. Many observers saw the festivities as a revival of ___________ after years of _________.

birthday partybicentennial

Declaration of Independence

optimism gloom

• The 1976 presidential campaign brought surprises for ______________. Ford, who said at first he would not be a ____________, later changed his mind.

both partiescandidate

• Even though he was the _____________, he faced strong opposition from ______________ Republicans.

incumbentconservative

Conservatives rallied behind former California Governor Ronald Reagan. They were unhappy with several decisions Ford had made, especially in foreign policy.

Reagan won enough delegates to keep the nomination in doubt until the convention opened in August 1976. Ford won on a vote of 1187 to 1070. This was the last time in history that a major party nominee was unknown prior to the convention.

• Reagan endorsed Ford in a speech that was widely considered better than Ford’s own acceptance speech. This campaign positioned Reagan to run again in 1980.

• The Democrats nominated ________________, a former __________ of __________, about whom few Americans had even heard at the start of the campaign.

Jimmy Cartergovernor Georgia

Carter was not considered a front-runner for the nomination in a crowded field of candidates, but he realized how the new nominating system could be played for advantage. By finishing second in Iowa (behind “No Preference) he was able to portray himself as the candidate with momentum. He also had a resume that made him seem like the “Anti-Nixon.”

• _________ won by a narrow margin. Carter

The Ford-Carter election was actually extremely close. Ford’s campaign benefitted from the many popular functions at which he presided but suffered in a televised debate when he said that there was no Soviet domination in Eastern Europe.

Carter won 50.1% of the popular vote to Ford’s 48%, but a switch of just over 3,600 votes in Hawaii and 5,500 votes in Ohio would have given Ford another term.

1976 saw the first televised presidential debates since 1960.

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1976 Presidential Election Results

• _________, a _____________ with no national political experience, was different from his recent predecessors. A 1946 graduate of the __________________, he served as an ______________________ on ____________ before taking over his family’s ____________ and _____________.

Carter southerner

Naval Academyengineering officer nuclear subs

peanut farmwarehouse

• He entered politics in _________ and was elected ___________ in 1970.

1962governor

Carter’s election signaled a shift in southern Democratic politics. He used racial appeals (praising George Wallace, criticizing his opponent for praising Martin Luther King) to win the primary, but once elected declared himself strongly in favor of civil rights. He focused on government reorganization and promoting his national profile during his term in office.

• He was a ______________________ whose deeply felt ________________ was central to his world-view.

born-again Baptistreligious faith

Carter became much more religious in the late 1960s and used religious appeals to enhance his presidential campaign.

He gave an interview to Playboy magazine just before the 1976 election, upsetting some religious voters.

• At first, people responded warmly to Carter’s ________________ approach. Critics, however, began to complain about a lack of _________ and ____________ in the presidency.

“down home”

dignity ceremony

While Carter was more casual than his predecessors, his brother Billy Carter probably did more to harm the president’s perceived dignity. Billy capitalized on his brother’s celebrity by endorsing his own brand of beer. He also once urinated on an airport runway in full view of the press and gathered guests. Most controversially, Billy became a registered agent for Libya (then led by anti-American dictator Moammar Gadhafi) in 1980. He received hundreds of thousands of dollars and hurt his brothers reelection bid.

• Carter also appointed more _________ and ____________ to his staff than previous administrations.

womenminorities

• Carter’s lack of connections to ______________ helped him in the ____________, since he had not been tarnished by _________ or _________. Once in office, however, it posed problems. Carter and his staff struggled to work with ___________. They had no _____________ and no former ____________ in Congress to help.

Washingtoncampaignfailure scandal

Congressexperience

colleagues

• Carter had ______________ promoting his _______________________. He had trouble controlling __________ without hurting _____________________. To prevent another ___________, Carter tried to stimulate the economy with ___________________. As _________ grew, the ___________________ raised _______________. ___________ rose to about _________.

little successdomestic programs

inflationeconomic growthrecession

deficit spendingdeficits Federal Reserve

interest rates Inflation10%

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• To stop __________, slow the __________, and reduce the _________, Carter then cut ___________. The cuts fell mostly on ___________________, angering _________. Americans soon lost confidence in Carter.

inflation economydeficit

spendingsocial programs liberals

Liberal Democrats would vent their displeasure by supporting Massachusetts Senator Edward “Ted” Kennedy in the 1980 Democratic Primaries. Although Carter was re-nominated, the challenge complicated his reelection effort.

• Carter had more success in the area of _______________. Carter argued that regulations hurt ______________ and increased __________________. While ____________________ and many _________ opposed the plans, they continued during the next ________________________, both of which were ______________.

deregulationcompetition

consumer costsconsumer groups liberals

two administrationsRepublican

• In the 1970s, more than _________ of the _________ used in the US came from other countries. _________ had been raising prices steadily since 1973.

40%oil

OPEC

• In April 1977, Carter presented his _____________ to Congress and the public. He encouraged Americans to conserve by _________ less and using less ______ and ___________________ in their homes.

energy plan

drivingheat air conditioning

Carter encouraged people to car pool, use public transportation, and wear sweaters in cold weather and reduce their heating bills. He also installed solar water heaters on the roof of the White House. His plea for Americans to embrace a less comfortable lifestyle proved unpopular.

“The Malaise Speech”• On July 15, 1979, Carter delivered a nationally televised address in

which he blamed America’s problems on a crisis in confidence. Americans were not receptive to the idea that they were to blame for their own problems. Carter asked all of his cabinet secretaries to draft letters of resignation, and he accepted five of them.

“I want to talk to you right now about a fundamental threat to American democracy... I do not refer to the outward strength of America, a nation that is at peace tonight everywhere in the world, with unmatched economic power and military might. The threat is nearly invisible in ordinary ways. It is a crisis of confidence. It is a crisis that strikes at the very heart and soul and spirit of our national will. We can see this crisis in the growing doubt about the meaning of our own lives and in the loss of a unity of purpose for our nation...

In a nation that was proud of hard work, strong families, close-knit communities, and our faith in God, too many of us now tend to worship self-indulgence and consumption. Human identity is no longer defined by what one does, but by what one owns. But we've discovered that owning things and consuming things does not satisfy our longing for meaning....”

• He also created the Department of _________ to coordinate federal programs promoting _______________ and _______________________.

Energy

conservation new energy sources

• __________________ seemed to be a promising alternative energy source. Doubts about this technology were apparently confirmed in March 1979 by an accident at the _____________________ power plant near ______________.

Nuclear power

Three Mile IslandHarrisburg

The TMI power plant opened in 1974. It sits in the Susquehanna River about three miles from Middletown and ten miles from Harrisburg. It continues to operate and provides enough electricity to power 800,000 homes.

• A partial ____________ of the reactor core occurred, releasing some ___________. – Although studies by different agencies have

concluded there were no deaths, injuries, or sicknesses caused by the release, many activists persist in their belief that the plant has caused lasting harm to the area. Many lawsuits against the plant were settled after the accident.

meltdownradiation

• About _________ people who lived near the plant fled their _________. The story made ___________ around the world.

140,000homes

headlines

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The China Syndrome• The accident occurred twelve

days after a movie, The China Syndrome, premiered. The film starred Jane Fonda and Michael Douglas and told a fictional story about an accident at a nuclear power plant.

• The movie heightened fears about the accident. The accident heightened interest in the film.

• Carter appointed a commission to investigate the accident, and it reported __________________ that made the initial problem worse. Carter proposed reorganizing the _________ and called on ____________________ to improve safety standards.

operator errors

NRCutility companies

• Soon after taking office, Carter fulfilled his promise to grant _________ - a general pardon - to those who had evaded the _________ during the ________________.

amnestydraft

Vietnam War

• In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled on a ______________ case that would have important effects on _____________________ policies. These policies were designed to amend for past _________________ by increasing opportunities for specific groups.

civil rightsaffirmative action

discrimination

• A white applicant to the University of California sued, saying its policy amounted to __________________________. The Court ordered him admitted, upheld the school’s right to consider _________ as one factor in admissions decisions, but forbade the use of _________. This signaled the start of a __________ against the policy.

reverse discrimination

race

quotasbacklash

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• Support for ________________ was the cornerstone of Carter’s foreign policy. His commitment to solve complicated problems was most visible in the ______________. In that unstable region, _________ and ________________ had fought several wars, most recently in _________ and _________.

human rights

Middle EastIsrael

Arab nations1967 1973

• In 1977, Egypt’s President __________________ made a historic visit to _________ to begin negotiations with Prime Minister _______________. Carter sent Secretary of State _______________ to invite both of them to _______________.

Anwar el-SadatIsrael

Menachem BeginCyrus Vance

Camp DavidSadat and Begin shared the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978 (and Carter received his in 2002).

As a reward for making peace, Israel and Egypt became the top non-NATO recipients of American aid.

• At Camp David in _________, Carter helped the two sides conclude a framework for _________. Under its terms, Israel withdrew from _________ and Egypt became the first ________________ to recognize Israel’s ___________. – Sadat and Begin brought peace between their

countries but paid high prices personally. Sadat was assassinated in 1981 by members of a group called Islamic Jihad. Begin was soon embroiled in a war in Lebanon and, increasingly unpopular, he retired in 1983. He died a natural death in 1992.

1978

peaceSinai

Arab countryexistence

• This agreement did not solve all the region’s problems, of course, including those issues concerning the ______________.Palestinians

Hundreds of thousands of Muslim Palestinians fled their homes during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War, with the largest number settling in Jordan and Syria. They and their descendents have not been fully integrated into their host countries, and many claim a “right of return” to Israel. Additionally, those Muslim Palestinians who live in the territories occupied by Israel in the 1967 war seek independence. If all of those populations combined, Jewish Israelis would be a minority in their country.

• _________ was at a high point when Carter took office, but his stand on _______________ angered ________________. They were especially annoyed when Carter spoke in support of ___________________. – Carter, along with his Polish-born National

Security Advisor Zbigniew Brezinski, became more critical of the Soviet Union.

– The USSR had a long history of killing or imprisoning its domestic political opponents. One of the most prominent, Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1970.

Detentehuman rights

Soviet leaders

Soviet dissidents

• In spite of this discord, the _________ treaty was signed in June 1979. This agreement limited the number of ____________ and _________ held by each power.

SALT II

warheadsmissiles

• Late in 1979, before the Senate could ratify this treaty, the Soviet Union invaded _______________. (Though the treaty was never ratified, both sides complied with its terms.)

Afghanistan

The Soviets intervened in a civil war to support a friendly government. The rebels were resisting reforms launched by the government aimed at modernizing the traditional Islamic society. The Soviets were able to secure the main cities and transportation corridors, but more than 80% of the countryside remained beyond their control.

• Carter warned them to withdraw, and a ______ resolution also called for their withdrawal. Carter also halted ___________________ and took additional steps to demonstrate his disapproval, such as boycotting the 1980 ____________ held in __________.

UN

grain shipments

OlympicsMoscow

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979-1989) has been described as the Soviet Vietnam War. Many countries, including the US, Iran, Pakistan, and China, aided anti-Soviet fighters. Approximately 1 million Afghanis and 14,000 Soviets died. When the Soviets finally withdrew, Afghanistan was a failed state that became a training ground for Islamic terrorists.

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Olympic Boycotts

• ______, ______________’s neighbor to the west, was the scene of Carter’s worst foreign policy crisis. The US had long supported the ______ who had taken steps to ____________ his country and support Western interests. In exchange, the US overlooked the __________ and ____________________ of his government.

Iran Afghanistan

shah modernize

corruptionharsh repression

Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi (1919-1980) was king from 1941 until 1979. While generally a dependable ally he did not always cooperate with US interests (for example, exploiting the oil crisis for profit). He wandered the world after losing power and died in Egypt.

• In January 1979, a ____________ led by _________ fundamentalists broke out. An elderly _________ leader, _______________________, became the supreme ruler.

revolutionMuslimIslamic Ayatollah Khomeini

Ruhollah Khomeini (1902-1989) grew up in Iran and focused on religious studies and gained influence as an Islamic scholar and authority. He became politically active in 1963 by opposing the shah’s westernizing efforts. He then spent 14 years in exile in Iraq but maintained his spiritual leadership of his country. He returned to Iran after the shah fled in 1979. His supporters imposed a new constitution that made him the Supreme Leader. He remained hostile to the “Great Satan” (the United States) and did much to spread resistance to it in the Islamic world.

• In October Carter allowed the _________ to enter the US, outraging many __________. On November 4, 1979, protesters seized the American __________ in _________ and took _________ hostages.

shahIranians

embassy Tehren52

• Carter broke _______________________, froze all ________________, and then authorized a risky _________________ that ended in disaster and the deaths of _________ American soldiers.

diplomatic relationsIranian assets

rescue missioneight

Operation Eagle Claw was launched on April 24, 1980. Eight helicopters were committed, but several developed problems and the military decided to abort the mission. As they began to withdraw one of the helicopters crashed into a plane, causing a fire and eight deaths. The Ayatollah credited Allah with causing the crash.

• The hostages were held for _____ days and released on the day that Carter ___________.

444left office

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• In spite of his achievements, Carter had lost the confidence of many Americans. His approval rating dropped to _________ in early 1980. In the Democratic primaries, ________________ won a large number of delegates but withdrew just before the convention.

21%

Ted Kennedy

Several other Democrats ran or were encouraged to considered running, including California Governor Jerry Brown and Secretary of State Edmund Muskie. Kennedy proved the strongest challenger but was easily defeated.

Carter and the Killer Rabbit• On April 20, 1979, Carter went fishing with

the White House photographer. A large rabbit swam toward the boat but Carter splashed with his paddle to scare it away. On August 28, 1979, Carter’s press secretary shared the story with reporters to popular amusement. The pictures were released after Carter left office.

• The episode demonstrated to many Americans just how helpless Carter was. The Monty Pythonkiller rabbit debuted four years earlier but invited many comparisons at the time.

• More voters turned to __________________, a leading _______________ who had unsuccessfully sought his party’s nomination in _________.

Ronald Reaganconservative

1976

Reagan (1911-2004) was raised in Illinois, worked in radio and film, and became more politically active after joining the Republican Party in 1962. He served as California governor from 1967 to 1975 before challenging Gerald Ford for the Republican nomination in 1976. In spite of concerns about his age, he won the 1980 nomination easily.

• He won the 1980 election in a ___________.– Polls suggested it would be a very close election,

but Reagan’s strong performance in the presidential debates and dissatisfaction with Carter helped to propel him to an easy victory.

landslide