Chapter 2: Transplantations and Borderlands

1)The Early Chesapeakea)The Founding of Jamestowni)Charter granted to London Company in 1604 by King James I, Godspeed, Discovery, and Susan Constant left England and landed in Jamestown, VA in 1607ii)Colony mostly al men, inadequate diets contributed to disease, by 1608 colony had almost failed (poor leadership, location, disease, food) except Capt. John Smith saved it by imposing work and order and organizing raids against Indiansb)Reorganizationi)London Company became Virginia Company 1609, gained expanded charter, sold stock, wish to grew VA colony with land grants to plantersii)Winter of 1609-1610= starving timeiii)First governor Lord De La Warr arrived 1609, established harsh discipline w/ work gangsiv)Communal system didnt work well, Governor Dale thought better off with personal incentive to work and private ownershipc)Tobaccoi)1612 VA planter John Rolfe began to grow tobacco, cultivation spread, created a tobacco economy that was profitable, uncertain, and high labor and land demands, created need for territorial expansiond)Expansioni)Tobacco still not enough to make profits, 1618 campaign to attract settlersii)Headright system- land grants to new settles, encouraged family groups to migrate together, rewarded those who paid for passages of othersiii)Company brought women and skilled workers, allowed for a share in self-govt (VA House of Burgesses met July 30, 1619)iv)1919 saw arrival of first Negro slaves on Dutch ship, but palnters continued to favor indentured servants until at least 1670s b/c cheaper and more abundantv)Colony grew b/c Indians suppressed, Sir Thomas Dale led assaults, huge uprising staged by Powhatans in 1622 but eventually put down, again 1644vi)By 1624 Virginia Company defunct, lost all funds, charter revoked by James I and colony put under control of crowne)Exchanges of Agricultural Techi)Survival of Jamestown result of agricultural tech developed by Indians and borrowed by English, such as value of corn w/ its high yields, beans alongside corn to enrich soilf)Maryland and the Calvertsi)Dream of George Calvert (first Lord Baltimore) as speculative venture + retreat for English Cath. oppressed by Anglican church, 1632 son Cecilius (second Lord Balt) got charter from king, made complete sovereigns of new landii)1634 Lord Balt named brother Leonard Calvert governor, settlers arrived in Marylandiii)Calverts invested heavily, needed many settlers to make profit, encouraged Prot. as well as Catholics (Cath became minority), Act Concerning Religion granted toleration; yet politics in MD plagued by tension btwn Catholic minority and Prot. majority, civil war 1655iv)Proprietor was absolute monarch, Lord Balt. granted land to relatives and other English aristocrats, labor shortages required headright systemg)Turbulent Virginiai)Mid 17th century VA colony had larger pop, complexity and profitability of economy, debates over how to deal with Indiansii)Sir William Berkeley apptd governor by King Charles I 1642, put down 1644 Indian uprising and agreed to not cross settlement line. Impossible to protect Indian territory b/c of growth of VA after Cromwells victory in English Civil War and flight of opponents to colony(1)Choice lands along river occupied, new arrivals pressed westwardiii)At first vote extended to all, later only to landowners and elections rare, led to recent settlers in back country to be underrepresentedh)Bacons Rebellioni)Nathaniel Bacon and other members of backcountry gentry disagreed on policies toward natives, backcountry in constant danger from Indian attack b/c on land reserved to natives by treaty, believed east. aristocracy wanted to protect dominance by holding down white settlers in westii)Bacon on governors council, in 1675 led counter-attacks against Indians against governors orders, kicked off council, unauthorized assault on Indians became a military challenge to colonial govtiii)Bacons army marched on Jamestown twice, died suddenlyiv)Rebellion showed unwillingness of settlers to abide by agreements with natives, also potential for instability in colonys large population of free, landless men eager for land and against landed gentrycommon interest in east and west aristocracy to prevent social unrest, led to African slave trade growing2)The Growth of New Englanda)Plymouth Plantationi)1608 Pilgrims (Separatists from Ang. Chur) went to Holland to seek freedom, unhappy with children entering Dutch societyii)Leaders obtained permission from VA Company to settle in VA, king would not molest them. William Bradford was their leader and historianiii)Left 1620 aboard Mayflower with 35 saints (members of church) and 67 strangers, original destination Hudson River but ended up @ Cape Codiv)Land outside of London Companys territory, therefore signed Mayflower Compact to establish a civil govt and give allegiance to kingv)Found cleared land from Indians killed by disease, natives provided assistance (Squanto), Indians weaker than Southern counterparts, 1622 Miles Standish imposed discipline on Pilgrims to grow corn, develop fur tradevi)William Bradford elected governor, sought legal permission for colony from Council for New England, ended communal labor and distributed land privately, paid off colonies debtb)The Massachusetts Bay Experimenti)Puritans persecuted by James I, and afterward by Charles I who was trying to restore Catholicism to England. 1629 sought charter for land in Massachusetts, some members of Massachusetts Bay Company saw themselves as something more than a business venture, creating a haven for Puritans in N.E.ii)Governor John Winthrop led seventeen ships in 1630, Boston became company headquarters and capital but many colonists moved into a number of other new towns in E. Mass. iii)Mass. Bay Company became colonial govt, corporate board of directors gave way to elections by male citizens. Didnt separate from Anglican church but more leeway in church than centralized structure in England, congregation churchiv)Mass Puritans serous and pious ppl, led lies of thrift and hard work, city upon a hill (Winthrop). Clergy and govt worked close together, taxes supported church, dissidents little freedom, Mass a theocracyv)Large number of families ensured feeling of commitment to community and sense of order, allowed pop to reproduce very quicklyc)Expansion of New Englandi)As more ppl arrived many didnt accept all religious tenets of colonys leaders, Connecticut Valley attracted settlers b/c of fertile land and less religiousii)Thomas Hooker led congregation to Hartford, established Fundamental Orders of Connecticut- created govt with more men given right to vote and hold offiii)Fundamental Orders of New Haven established New Haven b/c viewed Boston as lacking in religious orthodoxy, later made Connect. with Hartford (royal)iv)Rhode Island origins in Roger Williams, minister from MA who John Winthrop and others viewed as heretic. Was a Separatist, called for sep of church and state, banished + created Providence, 1644 obtained charter from Parliament to establish govt, liberty in religious concernmentsv)Anne Hutchinson believed that Mass clergy were not among elect and ad no right to spiritual office, went against assumptions of proper role of women in Puritan society. Developed large following from women who wanted active role in religious affairs, and those opposed to oppressive colonial govt(1)Unorthodoxy challenged religious beliefs + social order of Puritans, banished and moved to Rhode Island, vi)Followers of Hutchinson moved to New Hampshire and Maine, established in 1629 by Captain John Mason and Sir Ferdinando Gorges who received grant from Council for New England (former Plymouth Company)d)Settlers and Nativesi)Natives less powerful rivals to N.E. settlers, small to begin with and nearly extinguished by epidemicsii)Provided assistance to settlers, whites learned about local food crops + technique, trade with Indians created fortuneiii)Peaceful relations did not last, whites appetite for land grew as pop increased, livestock required more land to graze. Character of conflict and white bruatity emerged in part out of Puritan attitude toward Natives now seen as heathens and savagese)The Pequot War, King Philips War, and Technology of Battlei)First major conflict 1637 w/ settlers in Connecticut Valley and Pequot Indians over trade w/ Dutch and land, English allied with rival Indians to Pequots. Capt John Mason killed many Indians, Pequots almost wiped outii)Most prolonged and deadly encounter began n 1675 btwn chief of Wampanoags under chief named King Philip, believed only armed resistance could protect land from English invasion and imposition of English law(1)for three years natives destroyed towns, Mass economy and society weakened, white settlers eventually fought back(2)1676 joined with rival Indians, Wampanoags shortly defeated, pop decimated and made powerlessiii)Settlements still remained in danger from surviving Indians, & new competition from French and Dutchiv)Indians had made effective use of new weapon technology: flintlock rifle, which allowed them to inflict higher amounts of casualties. But Indians were no match for advante of English in numbers and firepower3)The Restoration Coloniesa)The English Civil Wari)Charles I dissolved Parliament 1629 and ruled as absolute monarch, 1642 some members organized military challenge to king. Cavaliers (king, Cath) vs. Roundheads (Parl, Puritans + Prot). 1649 king defeatedii)After Cromwells death in 1658, Stuart Restoration put Charles II back on throne, rewarded courtiers with grants of land. Carolina, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania all chartered as proprietary venturesb)The Carolinasi)Carved out of Virginia and given to eight proprietors 1663, proposed to sell or give land away using headrights and collect annual payments (quitrents), freedom of worship to Christians, but efforts failedii)Anthony Ashley Cooper (Lord Shaftesbury) financed migration from England 1670, founded Charleston 1690. Wanted planned and ordered community, with help of John Locke drew up Fundamental Constitution for Caroline 1669- elaborate system of land distribution and social order(1)Colony never united, north and south separated socially and economically. N=backwoods, poor. S=Charles Town, trade, prosperous, aristocratic. Rice principal cropiii)SC close ties to overpopulated Barbados where slavery had taken root. White Carribbean migrants- tough profit seekers- brought with them slave-based plantation societyiv)Tension btwn small N farmers and S wealthy planters, after Coopers death in 1719 colonists seized col from prop., king divided region into 2 royal colonies: North and South Carolinac)New Netherland, New York, and New Jerseyi)1664 Chalres II gave brother James duke of York territory btwn Connecticut and Deleware River, much of which was claimed by Dutch. Conflict part of wider commercial rivalry, but English fleet under Richard Nicolls forced New Amsterdam and Peter Stuvyesant to surrender it to English. Became New Yorkii)Diverse colony w/ may ppl, granted religious toleration, but tension over power distribution. Dutch patrons (large landowners, also wealthy English landlords, fur traders w/ Iroquois tiesiii)Colony was growing and prosperous, most ppl settled within Hudson valleyiv)Duke gave land to political allies in John Berkeley and Sir George Carteret, named their territory New Jersey. 1702 ceded control back to crownd)The Quaker Coloniesi)Pennsylvania born out of effort of dissenting English Prt. to find home for religion and distinctive social order. Led by George Fox, Margaret Fellii)Society of Friends (Quakers) anarchistic, democratic, pacifist, no class distinction. They were unpopular, some jailed. Looked to America for asylumiii)Wanted colony of their own, in William Penn found son of Navy admiral and Quaker. After death of father 1681 claimed debt owed by Charles II in form of a large grant of territory w/ Penn having virtual total authorityiv)Penn advertised PA (wanted profit), became cosmopolitan, settlers flocked there from Eur, but also wanted it to be a holy experiment(1)Created liberal Frame of Government with Rep assembly, 1682 founded Philadelphia, befriended Indians and always paid them for land(2)PA prospered but was not without conflict. By 1690s ppl upset by power of proprietor, south believed govt unresponsive. 1701 Penn agreed to Charter of Liberties establishing rep assembly with limited power of proprietor, lower counties allowed own rep assemblyresult was later Delaware4)Borderland and Middle Groundsa)The Caribbean Islandsi)Early 17th century migrants flocked to Caribbean. B4 settlers substantial Native populations, wiped out by Eur epidemics, Islands became nearly desertedii)Spanish claimed title to al islands but only settled Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico. After Spain and Netherlands went to war 1621 English colonization increased thru 17th century raids by Spanish, Portuguese, French, Dutchiii)Colonies built economy on exporting crops, tobacco and cotton unsuccessful, turned to sugar cane and rum. Sugar labor intensive and native population too small for workforce, planters found it necessary to import laborers(1)Started with indentured servants but work too hard, began to rely more heavily on enslaved African work force. English soon outnumberedb)Masters and Slaves in the Caribbeani)Small white, successful population, large bonded African population led to fear of revolt, 1660s legal codes to regulate relations between master and slaves(1)Many white slave owners concluded cheaper to buy new slaves than to protect well-being, worked them to deathii)Establishing stable society and culture difficult b/c of harsh and deadly conditions, wealthy returned to England, whites left behind were poor + mostly single and contributed little, no church, family, community(1)Africans developed world of their own, sustained African religion and social traditionsiii)Caribbean connected to NA colonies, principle source of slaves, plantation system provided models to mainland peoplesc)The Southwestern Borderlandsi)In C and S America Span established impressive empire, settlers prosperous. Areas N of Mexico unimportant economically, peopled by minorities, missionaries, soldiersii)New Mexico after Pueblo revolt 1680 developed flourishing agriculture, still not as successful as Span in Mexico and other denser areasiii)Span began to colonize California after other Eur began to establish presence 1760s. Missions, forts (prestidos) trading areas led to decline in native population, rest forced to convert to Catholicism. Spanish wanted prosperous agricultural economy, used Indian laborersiv)Late 17th century early 18th cent Spanish considered greatest threat to northern borders French. French traveled down Mississippi R., claimed Louisiana 1682. (1)Fearing French incursions west + displaced natives, Span began to fortify Texas by building forts, missions, settlements, San Fernando (San Antonio) 1731 (2)North Arizona part of N Mexico ruled by Santa Fe, rest Mexican region Sonora. Heavy Jesuit missionary presence, little success thoughv)Spanish colonies in SW created les to increase wealth of empire than to defend it from threats by other Eur powers in NA, but helped create enduring society unlike those established by English. Enlisted natives instead of displacing themd)The Southeast Borderlandsi)Direcy challenge to English in NA was Spanish in southeastern areas. Florida claimed in 1560s missionaries and traders expanded north into Georgia. 1607 founding of Jamestown Span felt threatened, built forts, area between Carolinas and Florida site of tension btwn Span English and Span Frenchii)By 18th century Spanish settlers driven out of Florida, confinded to St Augustine and Pensacola, relied on natives and Africans, intermarriediii)Eventaully English prevailed, acquired Florida in Seven Years War (French and Indian War), English had always wanted to protect southern boundarye)The Founding of Georgiai)Founders group of unpaid trustees led by General James Oglethorpe, interested in economic success, military and philanthropic motives. Military barrier against Spanish and refuge for impoverished English to begin anewii)Treaty recognized English lands 1676, fighting continued in 1686 w/ raid against Carolina, hostilities broke out in 1701 in Queen Annes War/ War of the Spanish Succession ended in 1713iii)Oglethorpe wanted colony south of Carolinas, wanted prisoners and poor people in debt to be farmer-soldiers of the new colonyiv)1732 King George II granted trustees land, compact settlement to defend against Spanish and Indians, excluded Africans, prohibited rum, regulated trade w/ Indians excluded catholicsall to prevent revolt/conflictv)1733 founded at mouth of Savanna R, few debtors released form jail so hundreds of impoverished ppl from England and Scotland as well as religious refugees from Switzerland and Germany settled colonyvi)Strict rules stifled early development- ppl demanded right to buy slaves, restrictions on size of individual property, power of trusteesvii)1740 Ogelthorpe failed assault on St Augustine, trustees removed limitation on individual landholdings, 1750 allowed slavery, 1751 gave control of colony to king who then allowed for representative assemblyf)Middle Groundsi)Struggle for NA not only among Eurs, but btwn Eurs and native populationsii)In VA and New England settlers quickly established dominance and displaced natives, but in other areas balance of power more precariousiii)In western borders neither side dominant, in middle grounds frequent conflict but each side had to make concessions. In these areas influence of colonial govt invisible, had own relationship with tribesiv)To Indians Eurs menacing and appealing. Feared powerful weapons, but wanted them to moderate their own conflicts, offer giftsv)17th century before English settlers French adept at beneficial relationships with tribes, many were solitary fur tradersvi)By mid 18th century French influence declinging and British settlers becoming dominant, had to deal with leaders thru gifts, cememonies, mediation instead of simple commands and raw forcevii)As British and American influece grew, new settlers had difficulty adapting to these complex rituals, stability btwn whites and Indians deteriorated, by 19th century middle grounds collapsed. Sotry of whites and Indians not only of conquest and subjugation but in some regions of difficult but stable acomodation and mutual adaption5)The Evolution of the British Empirea)The Drive for Reorganizationi)Imperial reorganization some believed would increase colonial profits, power of govt, success of mercantilism. Colonies= market for manufactured goods, source for raw materials, but foreigners had to be excludedii)Govt sought to monopolize trade with its colonies, but at times American colonists found it more profitable to trade w/ Spanish, French, Dutch. Trade developed btwn them and non-English marketsiii)@ First govt made no effort to restrict, but during Oliver Cromwells Protectorate in 1650 + 1651 passed laws to keep Dutch ships out of English colonies, Charlies II adopted three Navigation Acts(1)First 1660 allowed trade to occur only in British ships. Second 1663 all goods to Eur had to pass thru England on way, taxable. Third 1673 created duties on coastal trade and allowed customs officials to enforce Actsiv)Laws advantage for England, but some for colonies as well: created important shipbuilding industry, encouraged and subsidized the development production of goods English neededb)The Dominion of New Englandi)1679 Charles II tried to increase control over MA yb making New Hampshire a royal colony, five years later after MA refused to enforce Navigation Acts Charles revoked Massachusetts corporation charter, became royal colonyii)James II 1686 created Dominion of New England, combined govts of MA w/ rest of NE colonies, 1688 NY and NJ as well. Eliminated assemblies, appt a single governor, Sir Edmund Andros. Rigid enforcement of Navigation Acts, dismissal of claims rights of Englishmen, strengthened Anglican churchc)The Glorious Revolutioni)James II ruled autocratically, Cath. ministers, w/o Parliament, 1688 daughter Mary and husband William of Orange assumed throne= bloodless coupii)Bostonians heard of overthrow of James II, unseated unpopular viceroy. Dominion of NE abolished, separate govts restored- except 1691 Plymouth + MA merged 2 royal colony, charter restored General Court but governor too, replaced church membership w/ property ownership as basis 4 voting + officeiii)Adros governed NY thru Captain Francis Nicholson (supported by wealthy merchants and fur traders), dissidents were led by Jacob Leisler who raised militia and captured city fort, drove Nicholson to exile. 1691 William and Mary appd new governor, Leisler charged with treason, rivalry btwn Leislerians and anti-Laslerians dominated NY poitics for yearsiv)Maryland ppl erroneously assumed Cath Lord Baltimore had sided with James II, so 1689 John Coode started revolt, drove out Lord Balts officials, thru elected convention chose committee to govern and applied for chater, 1691 William and Mary granted. Church of Eng. offical religion, Cath prevented to hold office, vote, practice religion in public. 1715 5th Lord Baltimore became proprietor after joining Anglican Churchv)Colonies revived rep assemblies, thwarted plan for colonial unification, asserted idea that colonists had some rights within the empire

Chapter 3:Society and Culture in Provincial America

1)The Colonial Populationa)Indentured Servitudei)Young men and women bound themselves to masters for a fixed term of servitude, in return received passage to America, food shelter, and males clothing, tools, and land at endin reality left with nothing at all(1)Provided means of coping with severe labor shortage, masters received headrights, for servants hope to escape troubles, establish themselvesii)Most former servants formed large floating population of young single men, traveled from place to place, source of social unrestiii)1670s flow began to decline b/c of prosperity in England, decrease in birth rateb)Birth and Deathi)Inadequate food, frequent epidemics, large number early deaths. But growth of population even after immigration, after 1650s natural increase= most growthii)N= cool climate, relatively disease-free, clean water, no large population centers for epidemics= long lives. S= mortality rates high (infants too), life expectancy low, disease and salt-contaminated water. growth b/c immigrationiii)By late 17th cent ratio of males to females becoming more balanced, led to increase in natural growthc)Medicine in the Coloniesi)17th + 18th cent no concept of infection + sterilization, midwives in childbirth and recommended herbsii)Humoralism led to purging, expulsion, bleeding. Most ppl treated themselvesd)Women and families in the Chesapeakei)B/c of sex ration women married young, high mortality rates, premarital sex common. Life of childbearing, average of 8 children, 5 of which typically died in childhood or infancy. Had greater levels of freedom @ first b/c of ratioii)High mortality rates led to many orphans, special courts and institutions to protect and control them. By 18th century life expectancy increasing, indentured servitude decreasing, more equal sex ratio, life easer for whitese)Women and Families in New Englandi)Family structure more stable + traditional, women minority married young, children more likely to survive, much of life spent rearing and childbearingii)Family relationships and women status dictated by religion. S established churches weak, NE power in men who created patriarchal view of societyf)The Beginnings of Slavery in British Americai)Demand for black servants to supplement scare southern labor supply, limited @ first b/c Atlantic slave trade did not serve American colonies- Portuguese to SA and Caribbean, by late 17th century came to America w/ French and Dutch(1)Sugar economies of Caribbean + Brazil demanded slaves, not until 1670s did traders import blacks directly 2 (b4 mostly W. Indies to America)ii)Mid 1690s Royal African Companys monopoly broken, prices fell, number of Africans increased. Small number in NE, more in middle colonies, majority in S b/c flow of white laborers had all but stoppediii)Early 18th century rigid distinction established btwn blacks and whites, no necessity to free black workers, serve permanently, children= new work force(1)Assumptions of white superior race, applied like it had to natives. Slave codes limited rights of blacks in law, almost absolute authority of mastersg)Changing Sources of European Immigrationi)BY early 18th century immigration from England in decline- result of better economic conditions and govt restrictions on emigration. French, German, Swiss, Irish, Welsh, Scottish, Scandinavian immigration increased(1)French Huguenots, German Protestants (many from Palatinate)- settled in NY, PA (Dutch mispronunciation of Deutsch), around 1710 Scotch-Irish immigrated + pushed out to edges of Eur settlements- significant in NJ and PA, established Presbyterianism as important religion there2)The Colonial Economiesa)The Southern Economyi)Chesapeake- tobacco basis of economy, bust and boom pattern, enabled some planters to grow enormously wealthyii)South Carolina and Georgia staple was rice. Arduous + unhealthful, whites refused to cultivate, dependent on African labor more than elsewhere. Blacks showed greater resistance 2 disease, more adept at agricultural tasks than white(1)Early 1740s indigo contributed to SC economy, high demand in Englandiii)B/c of S dependence on cash crops developed less of a commercial or industrial economy, few cities, no large local merchant communitiesb)Northern Economic and Technological Lifei)Agriculture dominated, more diverse but conditions less favorable, hard to develop large-scale commercial farming, middle colonies more suited 4 wheatii)Home industries, craftsmen and artisans, mills for grinding grain, large scale shipbuilding operations, 1640s MA metals industry w/ ironworks. Metal became important part of colonial economy, largest enterprise was German Peter Hasenclever in NJ- but Iron Act of 1750 limited surpassing Englandiii)Biggest obstacles for industrialization were inadequate labor supply small domestic market, inadequate transpiration facilities and energy suppliesiv)Natural resources- lumber, mining, fishing, impt commodities to tradec)The Extent and Limits of Technologyi)Ppl lacked guns, plows, lack of ownership of tools b/c of poverty, isolationii)Few colonists self-sufficient in late 17th early 18th cent, ability of ppl to acquire manufactured implements lagged behind capacity to produce themd)The Rise of Colonial Commercei)At first no commonly accepted medium of exchange, difft forms of paper currency ineffective + could not be used for goods from abroadii)Imposing order on trade difficult, production and markets of goods not guaranteed, small competitive companies made stabilization more difficultiii)Commerce eventually grew, large coastal trade w/ each other + W. Indies, expanding transatlantic trade w/ England, Eur continent, west Africa. iv)Triangular trade, trade in rum, slaves, sugar, manufactured goodsv)New merchant class developed in port cities (Boston, New York, Philadelphia), protected from competition by Navigation Acts, access to market in England. Ignored and developed markets with other nations, higher profits, financed import of English manufactured goodsvi)During 18th century commercial system stabilized, merchants expandede)The Rise of Consumerismi)Growing prosperity created new appetite and ability to satisfy, material goodsii)Increasing division of societies by class, ability to purchase and show goods impt to demonstrate class, especially in cities w/o estate to prove wealthiii)Industrial Revolution allowed England and Eur to produce more affordable goods, increasingly commercial society created social climate where buying goods considered social good. Merchants and traders began advertisingiv)Things once considered luxuries came to be seen as necessities once readily available, such as tea, linens. Quality of possessions associated with virtue + refinement, strive to become more educatedv)Growth of consumption and refinement led cities to plan growth and ensure elegant public squares, parks, boulevards, public stages for social display3)Patterns of Societya)The Plantationi)Some plantations enormous, but most 17th cent plantations were rough and small estates, work force seldom more than 30 pplii)Economy precarious- good years growers could earn great profit and expand, but couldnt control markets, when prices fell faced ruiniii)Most plantations far from towns, forced to become self-contained communities, some larger ones approached size of towniv)Society highly stratified, wealthy landowners exercised greater social and economic influence. Small farmers with few or no slaves formed majorityb)Plantation Slaveryi)By mid-18th cent blacks lived on plantations with 10+ slaves, lived w/ 50+ii)In larger establishments society and culture developed btwn slaves, attempts at nuclear families made but members could be sold at any time, led to extended families. Developed own languages, religion w/ Christianity and African loreiii)Occasional acts of individual resistance, at least twice actual slave rebellions. Stone Rebellion in SC 1739- 100 Africans rose up + attempted to flee to Florida, quickly crushed by whites. Other slaves tried to run awayiv)Some slaves learned skills, set up own shops, some bought freedomc)The Puritan Communityi)Social unit of NE was town, covenant of members bound all in religious + social commitment to unity. Arranged around a common, outlying fields divided by family size, social station. Little colonial interference, self govtii)English primogeniture (passing of all to firstborn son) replaced by division amongst all sons, women more mobile than brothers b/c no inheritanceiii)Tight knit community controlled by layout, power of church, town meeting. Strayed by pop increases, ppl began farming further lands, moved houses to be closer, applied for church of their own, eventually led to new towniv)Patriarchal society weakened by economic necessity, needed help w/ farm, ect.d)The Witchcraft Phenomenoni)Gap btwn expectation of united community and reality of increasingly diverse and fluid one difficult for NEers to accept- led to tensions that produced hysteria such as witchcraft (Satanic powers) in the 1680s and 1690sii)Salem, MA- accusations spread from W Indians to prominent ppl. This model would repeat itself, mostly middle-aged, childless widowed women who may have inherited property. Puritan society no tolerance for independent womeniii)Reflection of highly religious character of society, witchcraft was mainstreame)Citiesi)Commercial centers emerged along Atlantic by 1770s- New York, Philadelphia, Boston, Charles Town, Newport (RI)ii)Trading centers for farmers, marts for international trade, leaders merchants w/ large estates, large social distinctions. Center of industry such as ironworks and distilleries, advanced schools, cultural activities. Crime, vice, epidemics, ect.iii)Vulnerable to fluctuations in trade, countryside effects muted. Places where new ideas could circulate, regular newspapers, books from abroad= new ideas4)Awakenings and Enlightenmentsa)The Pattern of Religionsi)Religious toleration flourished in America b/c of necessity. Church of England official religion for some colonies, ignored except in VA and MA. Protestants extended toleration more readily to each other than to Roman Catholics- persecuted in MA after 1691 overthrow of proprietors. NEers viewed Cath French agents of Romeii)Early 18th cent some troubled w/ decline religious piety in society, movement west + scattered settlements= loss with organized religion, commercial success created more secular outlook in urban areas. jeremiads= sermon of despairb)The Great Awakeningi)Began in 1730s climax 1740s, new spirit of religious fervor, appeal to women and younger sons b/c of rhetoric of potential for every person to break away from constraints and renew relationship with Godii)Evangelists from England such as John and Charles Wesley, George Whitfield spread revival. Most famously NE Congregationalist Jonathan Edwardc)The Enlightenmenti)Product of great scientific and intellectual discoveries in Eur in 17th cent, natural laws discovered that regulated nature, celebrated human reason + inquiry. Reason and not just faith create progress and knowledgeii)Ppl should look at themselves for guidance to live and shape society, not to God. Didnt challenge religion, insisted rational inquiry supported Christianityd)Educationi)Even b4 Enlightenment colonists placed high value on education, MA 1647 law required each town to have a public school. Most white males were literate, womens rate lagged, Africans virtually no access to educationii)Six colleges by 1763, most founded by religious groups: Harvard (Puritans) created to train ministers, William and Mary (Anglicans) Yale (Congregationalists). Despite religious basis, liberal education. Kings College (Columbia) and UPenn created as secular institutionse)The Spread of Sciencei)Prominent members of society members of the Royal Society of London. ii)Value placed on scientific knowledge can be seen by rise of inoculation, spread by Cotton Mather and adopted in Boston 1720s, became common proceduref)Concepts of Law and Politicsi)Americans believed they were re-creating institutions of Europe but b/c of lack of lawyers before 1700 English legal system was simplified- rights to trial by jury maintained but pleading and procedure simpler, punishment different b/c of labor-scarce society, govt criticism not libel if accurateii)Large degree of self-govt. Local communities ran own affairs, had delegates to colonial assemblies filed role of Parliament, apptd provincial governors powers were limitediii) Provincial govts accustomed to acting pretty independently, expectations about rights of colonists began to take hold in America that policymakers in England did not share. Few problems before 1760s b/c British did little to exert authority they believed they possessed

Chapter 4:Empire in Transition

1)Loosening Tiesa)A Tradition of Neglecti)After Glorious Revolution Parliamentary leaders less inclined to tighten imperial control b/c depended on support of merchants + landholders who feared taxes, diminished profitsii)Colonial administration inefficient split btwn Board of Trade and Plantations, Privy Council, admiralty, treasury. Many Royal officials in America apptd b/c of bribery or favoritismiii)Resistance centered in colonial legislatures, claimed right to tax, approve appts, pass laws. Saw themselves as little parliaments, checked governor powerb)The Colonies Dividedi)Colonists often felt stronger ties to England than to one another. Yet cnxns still forged, Atlantic settlement created roads, trade, colonial postal serviceii)Loath to cooperate even against French and Indian threat. Still, delegation in Albany to Iroquois proposed establishing a general govt with power to govern relationships with Indians, but colony retaining constitution but power. This Albany Plan was rejected by all the colonies2)The Struggle for the Continenta)New France and the Iroquois Nationi)By 1750s growing English and French settlements produced religious and commercial tensions. Louis XIV sought greater empire, French explorers had traveled down Mississippi R. and looked Westward, held continental interiorii)To secure holdings founded communities, fortresses, missions, trading posts. Seigneuries (lords) held large estates, Creoles in S had plantation economy iii)Middle ground of interior occupied by French, British, Indians. English offered Indians more and better goods, French offered tolerance + adjusted behavior to Indian patterns- French developed closer relationshipsiv)Iroquois Confederacy a defensive alliance, most powerful tribal presence in NE. Forged commercial relationship w/ Dutch and English, played French against English to maintain independence. Ohio valley became battlegroundb)Anglo-French Conflictsi)Glorious Revolution led to William III and later Queen Anne to oppose Frenchii)King Williams War (1689-1687), Queen Annes War began 1701 brought border fighting w/ Spanish, French and Indian allies. Treaty of Utrech 1713 ended conflicts, gave much land to Englishiii)Conflict over trade btwn Spanish and English merged w/ conflict btwn French and English over Prussia + Austria. Resulted in King Georges War 1744-1748iv)After, relations in America btwn English, French, Iroquois deteriorated. Iroquois granted concessions to British, French built new fortresses in Ohio valley, British did the same. Iroquois balance of power disintegratedv)1754 VA sent militia under George Washington to challenge French, assaulted Fort Duquesne. F counter-assault on his Fort Necessity resulted in its surrenderc)The Great War for the Empire- The French and Indian Wari)First phase lasted from 1754 after For Necessity to expansion to Eur in 1756. Colonists most on own w/ only moderate British assistance- navy prevented landing of larger French reinforcements, but failed Ohio R. attack. (1)Local colony forces occupied with defending themselves against W. Indian tribes (except Iroquois) raids who allied themselves with French after Fort Necessity defeat. Iroquois hesitant to molest French but allied with Englishii)Second phase began 1756 when French and English opened official hostilities in Seven Years War. Realignment of allies. Beginning 1757 British Sec. of State William Pitt began to bring most impt war effort in America under British control: forcibly enlisted colonists (impressments), seized supplies and forced shelter from colonists w/o compensation. By 1758 much frictioniii)Third phase Pitt relaxed policies, reimbursed control, returned military control to assemblies, additional troops to America. Finally tide in Englands favor, after poor French harvests 1756 suffered many defeats at hands of generals Jeffrey Amherst and James Wolfe thru 1758. Fall of Quebec 1759 by Wolfe resulted in surrender of French 1760iv)Pitt didnt pursue peace, but George III ascended throne and signed Peace of Paris 1763. F ceded Canada and land east of Miss. Rv)War expanded Englands New World territory, enlarged English debt. English officials angry at American ineptitude and few financial contributionsvi)Colonists had been forced to act in concert, return of authority to assemblies 1758 seemed to confirm illegitimacy of English interference in local affairsvii)Disaster for Indians in Ohio Valley allied with French, Iroquois passivity resulted in deteriorated English relationship, Confed began to crumble3)The New Imperialisma)Burdens of Empirei)After 1763 empire management more difficult. In past viewed colonies in terms of trade, now ppl argued land and populations support and taxes were valuableii)Territorial annexations of 1763 doubled size of British Emp in NA. Conflict over whether west should be settled or not, colonial govts competed for jurisdiction, other wanted English to control or make new coloniesiii)English govt had vast war debt, English landlords + merchants objecting to tax increase, troops in India added expense, England couldnt rely on cooperation of colonial govts. Argued tax administered by London only effective wayiv)New king George III 1760 determined to be active monarch, created unstable majority in Parliament, suffered mental illness, immature, insecure(1)Apptd PM George Grenville 1763, unlike brother-in-law Pitt didnt sympathize w/ American view, believed colonists indulged too long and should obey laws and pay cost of defending and administering empireb)The British and the Tribesi)To prevent conflict w/ Indians from settlers moving to western lands issued Proclamation of 1763 forbidding settlers to advance beyond Appalachian line(1)Allowed London to control westward movement, limit depopulation of coastal trade markets, land and fur speculation to British and not colonistsii)More land taken from natives but many tribes still supported it. John Stuart (south) and Sir William Johnson (north) in charge of native affairsiii)Proc failure, settlers swarmed over boundary, new agreements failures as wellc)The Colonial Responsei)Grenville stationed British troops in America, Mutiny Act of 1765 required colonists to assist in provisioning of army, British navy patrolled for smugglers, customs service enlarged, no royal official substitutes, limited manufacturingii)Sugar Act 1764 tried to eliminate illegal sugar trade btwn colonies, foreignersiii)Currency Act of 1764 disallowed use of paper currency by assembliesiv)Stamp Act of 1765 imposed tax on all printed documents v)New imperial program effort to reapply mercantilism, increased revenues. Colonists had trouble effectively resisting b/c on conflict amongst themselves, tension over backcountry settlersvi)1771 small-scale civil war after Regulators in NC opposed high taxes sheriffs apptd by governor collected + felt underrepresented. Suppressed by governorvii)After 1763 common grievances began to counterbalance internal divisions. N. merchants opposed commercial + manufacturing restraint, backcountry resented closing land speculation and fur trading, debted plantesr feared new taxes, professionals depended on other colonists, small farmers feared taxes ad abolition of paper money. Restriction came at beginning of economic depression, policies affected cities greatest where resistance first arose. Boston suffering worst economic problemsviii)Great political consequences, Anglo-Americans accustomed to self-govt thru provincial assemblies and right to appropriate money for colonial govt. Circumvention of assemblies by taxing public directly and paying royal officials unconditionally challenged basis of colonial power: public finance(1)Same time democratic, but also conservative- to conserve liberties Americans believed already possessed4)Stirrings of Revolta)The Stamp Act Crisisi)Stamp Act of 1765 affected all Americans. Economic burdens were light but colonists disturbed by precedent set- past taxes to regulate commerce and not raise money, stamps obvious attempt to tax w/o assemblies approvalii)Few colonists did more than grumble- until Patrick Henry 1765 in VA House of Burgesses spoke against British authority. Introduced resolutions known as Virginia Resolves declaring Americans possessed same rights as English, right to be taxed only by their own repsiii)In MA James Otis called for intercolonial congress against tax, October 1765 Stamp Act Congress met in NY to petition king. Summer 1765 riots broke out along coast led by new Sons of Liberty. Boston crowd attacked Lt. Gov.iv)Some opposition b/c of wealth/power disparity, mostly political + ideologicalv)Stamp Act repealed b/c boycott of 1764 Sugar Act expanded to other colonies, aided by Sons of Liberty. Centered in Boston b/c that is where customs commissioners headquartered. English merchants begged for repeal b/c of lost markets, Marquis of Rockingham succeeded Grenville + convinced king to repeal it 1766. (Also, Declaratory Act asserted Parl. control over all colonies)b)The Townshend Programi)Negative rxn to appeasement in England. Landlords feared would lead to increased taxes on them, king bowed and appt William Penn (Lord Chatham) PM, but was incapacitated by illness to chairman of the exchequer Charles Townshend held real powerii)1st problem Quartering Act, British believed reasonable since troops protecting, colonists objected b/c made contribution were mandatory. NY and MA refusediii)1767 disbanded NY assembly until colonists obeyed Mutiny Act, new tax (Townshend Duties) on goods imported from England- tea, paper. Believed external tax would be difft than Stamp Acts internal taxiv)Colonists still objected b/c saw same purpose as to raise revenue w/o consentv)MA Assembly lead opposition, urged all colonies stand up against every tax by Parl. Sec of State for Colonies Lord Hillsborough said any assembly endorsing MA would be dissolved. Other colonies railed to support MAvi)Townshend attempted stronger enforcement of commercial regulations + stop smuggling thru new board of customs commissioners, based in Boston. Boston merchants organized boycott against products with T. Duties, 1768 NY and Philadelphia joined nonimportation agreementvii)1767 T. died, Lord North repealed all Town. Duties except that on teac)The Boston Massacrei)Before news of repeal reached America impt event in MA. B/c of Boston harassment of customs commissioners Brit govt placed regular troops in city. Tensions ran high, soldiers competed in labor marketii)March 5, 1770 dockworkers + liberty boys pelted customs house sentries w/ rocks, scuffle ensued and British fired into crowd and killed 5 ppliii)Incident transformed by local resistance leaders into Boston Massacre, Paul Reveres engraving pictured it as an organized assault on a peaceful crowdiv)Samuel Adams leading figure in fomenting public outrage, viewed events in moral terms- England sinful and corrupt. Organized committee of correspondence 1772, other networks of dissent spread 1770sd)The Philosophy of Revolti)Three years of calm but 1760s aroused ideological challenge to England. Ideas that would support revolution stemmed from religion (Puritans), politics, radical opposed to GB govt (Scots, Whigs), used John Locke for argumentsii)New concept that govt was necessary to protect individuals from evils of ppl, but govt made up of ppl and therefore safeguards needed against abuses of power, ppl disturbed that king and ministers too powerful to be checkediii)English const an unwritten flexible changing set of principles, Americans favored permanent inscription of govt powersiv)Basic principle was right of ppl to be taxed only with their consent, no taxation w/o representation absurd to English who employed virtual representation (all Parl members rep all interests of whole nation) vs American actual representative elected and accountable to communityv)Difft opinion of sovereignty, Americans believed in division of sov btwn Parl and assemblies, British believed must be a single, ultimate authoritye)The Tea Excitementi)Apperant calm disguised sense of resentment at enforcement of Navigation Acts 1770s. Dissent leaflets and literature, tavern conversation, not only iltellectuals but ordinary ppl haerd, discussed, absorbed new ideasii)1773 East India Company had large stock of tea could not sell in England, Tea Act of 1773 passed by Parl allowed company to export tea to America w/o paying navigation taxes paid by colonial merchants, allowed company to sell tea for less than colonists + monopolize colonial tea trade. Enraged merchantsiii)Enraged merchants, revived taxation without rep. issue. Lord North colonists would be happy with reduced tea prices but resistance leaders argued it was another example of unconstitutional tax. Massive boycott of tea followediv)Women role in resistance- plays of Mercy Otis Warren, Daughters of Libertyv)Late 1773 w/ popular support leaders planned to prevent E. India Company from landing its cargoes in colonial ports, NY, Philadelphia, Charleston stopped shipment. December 16, 1773 Bostonians dressed as Mohawks boarded ships, poured tea chests into harborBoston tea partyvi)When Bostonians refused to pay for destroyed property George III and Lord North passed four Coercion Acts (Intolerable Acts to Americans) in 1774- closed port of Boston, reduced self-govt power, royal officers could be tried in England or other colonies, quartering of troops in empty housesvii)Quebec Act provided civil govt for French Roman-Caths of Canada, recognized legality of Rom Cath church. Americans inflamed b/c feared was a plot to subject Americans to tyranny of pope, would hinder western expansionviii)Coercive Acts didnt isolate MA, made it a martyr, sparked new resistance5)Cooperation and Wara)New Sources of Authorityi)Passage of authority from royal govt to colonists began on local level where history of autonomy strong. Example- 1768 Samuel Adams called convention of delegates from towns to sit in place of dissolved General Court. Sons of Liberty became source of power, enforced boycottsii)Committees of correspondence began 1772 in MA, VA made first intercolonial committee which enabled cooperation btwn colonies. VA 1774 governor dissolved assembly, rump session issued call for Continental Congressiii)First Continental Congress met Sept 1774 in Philadelphia (no delegates from Georgia), made 5 major decisions(1)Rejected plan for colonial union under British authority(2)Endorsed statement of grievances, called 4 repeal of oppressive legislation(3)Recommended colonists make military preparations for defense of British attack against Boston(4)Nonimporation, nonexportation, nonconsumption agreement to stop all trade with Britain, formed Colonial Association to enforce agreements(5)Agreed to meet in spring, indicating making CC a continuing organizationiv)CC reaffirmed autonomous status within empire, declared economic war. In Eland Lord Chatham (William Pitt) urged withdrawal of American troops, Edmund Burke for repeal of Coercive Acts. 1775 Lord North passed Conciliatory Propositions- no direct Parl tax, but colonists would tax themselves at Parls demand. Didnt reach America until after first shot firedb)Lexington and Concordi)Farmers and townspeople of MA had been gathering arms and training minutemen. IN Boston General Thomas Gage knoew of preparations, received orders from England to arrest rebel leaders Sam Adams and John Hancock in Lexington vicinity. Heard of minutemen stock in nearby Concord and decided to act on April 18, 1775ii)William Dawes and Paul revere road from Boston to warn of impending British attack. At Lexington town common shots fired and minutemen fell. On march back from hidden farmers harassed British armyiii)Rebels circulated their account of events, rallied thousands of colonists in north + south to rebel cause. Some saw just another example of tension

Chapter 5:The American Revolution

1)The States Uniteda)Defining American War Aimsi)2nd Continental Congress (CC) agreed to support war, disagreed on purpose. One group led by John and Sam Adams favored full independence, others wanted modest reforms in imperial relationship. Most sought middle groundii)Olive Branch Petition conciliatory appeal to king, then July 1775 Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Armsiii)Public @ first fought not for independence but redress of grievances, later began to change reasons b/c cost of war too large for such modest aims, anger over British recruitment of Indians, slaves, mercenaries, and b/c GB rejected Olive Branch Petition and enacted Prohibitory Act w/ naval blockadeiv)January 1776 Common Sense by Thomas Paine was revolutionary propaganda, argued that problem was not parliamentary acts but English constitution, king, and ruling system. GB no longer fit to rule b/c of brutality, corruptionb)The Decision for Independencei)After Common Sense support grew, CC recommended colonies establish independent govts from British, July 4 1776 Declaration of Independenceii)Dec of Indep. written mostly by Thomas Jefferson, restated contract theory of John Locke that govts formed to protect rights of life, liberty, pursuit of happiness, then listed alleged crimes of king and Parliament c)Revising State Governmentsi)By late 1770s state govts divided and unstable, believed to be so b/c they were too democraticsteps taken to limit popular powerii)To protect constitutions from ordinary politics created the constitutional convention- special assembly to draft constitution that would never meet againiii)Executive strengthened as rxn to weak governors, fixed salary + elected by ppld)Toleration and Slaveryi)New states allowed complete religious freedom, 1786 VA enacted Statue of Religious Liberty by Thomas Jefferson which called for separation of church and stateii)Slavery abolished in New England and PA b/c of Quakers, every southern state but SC and GA prohibited further importation of slaves from abroad- slavery continued though b/c of racist assumptions about black inferiority, enormous economic investments in slaves, and lack of alternatives5)The Search for A National Governmenta)The Confederationi)Articles of Confed adopted in 1777, Congress had power to conduct wars, foreign relations, appropriate money- would not regulate trade, draft troops, or levy taxes on ppl. Each state had one vote, articles ratified only after VA and NY gave up western land claims in 1781b)Diplomatic Failuresi)GB failed to live up to terms of peace treaty of 1783- forces continued to occupy posts, no restitution to slave-owners, restrictions on access to empires markets. 1784 John Adams sent to make deal but British refusedii)Treaty w/ Spain 1786 solidified Floridas borders, limited US rights to navigate Mississippi R.- Souterhn states blocked ratification, weakened Articlesc)The Confederation and the Northwesti)Ordinance of 1784 divided western territory into 10 districts, Ordianance of 1785 Congress created surveying + sale system, areas north of Ohio R. were to be parceled and sold w/ some money going to create schoolsii)Northwest Ordinance of 1787 abandoned ten districts, designated five territories that when had 60,000 ppl would become states, slavery prohibitediii)S of Ohio R. chaotic, Kentucky and Tennessee entrance conflict not resolvedd)Indians and the Western Landsi)Western land policies meant to bring order and stability to white settlement, but many territories claimed by Confederation were also claimed by Indiansii)Series of treaties with Indians failed, violence climaxed in early 1790s. Negations not continued until General Anthony Wayne defeated Indians 1794 at Battle of Fallen Timbers. Treaty of Grenville w/ Miami indians ceded landse)Debts, Taxies, and Daniel Shaysi)Confederation had war bonds to be repaid, owerd soldiers money, foreign debt- had no way to tax, states only paid 1/6 of requested fundsii)Group of nationalists led by Robert Morris, Alexander Hamilton, James Madison called for a 5% impost on imported goods, when Congress rejected plan they withdrew involvement from Confederationiii)To pay war debts states increased taxes, poor farmers burdened by their own debt and new taxes rioted throughout New Englandiv)Some farmers rallied behind Daniel Shays, 1786 Shayites prevented debt collection. Boston legislature denounced them as traitors, when rebels advanced on Springfield state militia defeated them January 1787