CGC1D - Exam Review

CGC1D – Exam Review

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Copyright CourseCentral 2011 – Written by Syed Kamran & Ved Petkar 1

Table of Contents

Maps: Geography’s Basic Tools ..................................................................... 6 Map Projections ........................................................................................................ 6 Mercator Projection ................................................................................................. 6 Equal-Area Projection ............................................................................................. 6 Winkel Tripel ............................................................................................................. 6 Maps ............................................................................................................................. 7

Requirements ............................................................................................................ 7 General-purpose Maps .............................................................................................. 7 Thematic Maps .......................................................................................................... 7 Topographic Maps ..................................................................................................... 7

Locating Places on a Map .............................................................................. 8 Compass Points and Bearing ................................................................................. 8 Grid Systems .............................................................................................................. 8

Alphanumeric Grid ................................................................................................... 8 Map Grid (Military Grid) .......................................................................................... 8 Latitude and Longitude ............................................................................................ 9

Global Positioning System (GPS) ....................................................................... 10 Longitude and Time Zones ................................................................................... 10 International Date Line ........................................................................................ 10 Daylight-Saving Time ............................................................................................ 10

Using Map Scales ........................................................................................... 11 Direct Statement Scale .......................................................................................... 11 Line Scale ................................................................................................................. 11 Representative Fraction (R.F) Scale .................................................................. 11 Scale Conversion .................................................................................................... 11

Converting an R.F Scale to a Direct Statement .................................................... 11 Converting a Direct Statement Scale to R.F scale ................................................ 11

Geologic History ............................................................................................. 12 Plate Tectonics ........................................................................................................ 12 Continental Drift .................................................................................................... 12 Canada’s Geologic History ................................................................................... 13

Precambrian Era ..................................................................................................... 13 Paleozoic Era ........................................................................................................... 13 Mesozoic Era ........................................................................................................... 13 Cenozoic Era ............................................................................................................ 14

The Rock Cycle ........................................................................................................ 14 Layers of the Earth ................................................................................................ 15

Landform Connections ................................................................................. 15 The Canadian Shield .............................................................................................. 15 The Lowlands .......................................................................................................... 15

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Interior Plains ......................................................................................................... 16 Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Lowlands .................................................................. 16 Hudson Bay – Arctic Lowlands .............................................................................. 16

The Highlands ......................................................................................................... 16 Appalachian Mountains ......................................................................................... 17 Innuitian Mountains ............................................................................................... 17 Western Cordillera .................................................................................................. 17

Climate Connections ..................................................................................... 18 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 18

Weather ................................................................................................................... 18 Climate .................................................................................................................... 18

Latitude ..................................................................................................................... 18 Ocean Currents ....................................................................................................... 18 Winds ......................................................................................................................... 18 Elevation ................................................................................................................... 19 Relief Barriers ......................................................................................................... 19 Near Large Water Bodies ...................................................................................... 19 Urban Centers ......................................................................................................... 19 Maritime and Continental Climate .................................................................... 19 Precipitation ............................................................................................................ 19

Relief Precipitation ................................................................................................. 20 Conventional Precipitation ..................................................................................... 20 Cyclonic Precipitation ............................................................................................. 20

Soil and Natural Vegetation Connections ................................................ 20 The Soil Base ........................................................................................................... 20

Minerals ................................................................................................................... 20 Bacteria and Organic Materials ............................................................................. 20 Air ............................................................................................................................ 21 Moisture .................................................................................................................. 21

Leaching and Calcification .................................................................................. 21 Soil Profile ................................................................................................................ 21 Vegetation Regions ................................................................................................ 21

Tundra ..................................................................................................................... 21 Boreal and Taiga Forest ......................................................................................... 22 Mixed Forest ........................................................................................................... 22 Deciduous Forest ..................................................................................................... 22 Grasslands ............................................................................................................... 22 Cordilleran Vegetation ........................................................................................... 22 West Coast Forest ................................................................................................... 22

Deciduous and Coniferous Trees ........................................................................ 22 Vegetation in Dry and Wet climates .................................................................. 23 Vegetation in Cool and Warm climates ............................................................. 23

Making the Connections: Canada’s Eco zones ........................................ 23

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Canada’s Eco zones ................................................................................................ 23 Mixed wood Plains: ................................................................................................. 23 Prairie: ..................................................................................................................... 24 Pacific Maritime: ..................................................................................................... 24

Demographics ................................................................................................. 25 Use of Rates .............................................................................................................. 25 Calculating Rates ................................................................................................... 25

Birth Rate ................................................................................................................ 25 Death Rate .............................................................................................................. 25 Immigration Rate & Emigration Rate ................................................................... 25 Net Migration Rate ................................................................................................. 26 Natural Increase Rate ............................................................................................ 26 Population Growth Rate ......................................................................................... 26

Compounding .......................................................................................................... 26 Dependency Load ................................................................................................... 26 Population Pyramid ........................................................................................... 26

Settlement Patterns ...................................................................................... 27 Population Distribution ........................................................................................ 27 Rural Settlement Patterns ................................................................................... 27

Long Lot of Southern Quebec ................................................................................. 27 Concession System of Southern Ontario ............................................................... 27 Section System of the Southern Prairies ............................................................... 27

Urban Settlements .................................................................................................. 27 Manufacturing ........................................................................................................ 28 Transportation ........................................................................................................ 28 Resource Use ........................................................................................................... 28 Service Center ......................................................................................................... 28

Urban Land Use .............................................................................................. 28 Types of Land Use .................................................................................................. 28

Residential (40%) .................................................................................................... 28 Transportation (32%) .............................................................................................. 28 Commercial Land Use (5%) .................................................................................... 28 Industrial Land Use (6%) ....................................................................................... 29 Institutional and Public Buildings (10%) .............................................................. 29 Open Space and Recreational Land (7%) .............................................................. 29

Land Value and Zoning ......................................................................................... 29

Industries in Canada ..................................................................................... 30 Types of Industries ................................................................................................. 30

Primary Industries ................................................................................................. 30 Secondary Industries .............................................................................................. 30 Tertiary Industries ................................................................................................. 30 Basic and Non-Basic Industries ............................................................................. 30

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Location Factors for Manufacturing ................................................................. 30 Availability of Raw Materials ................................................................................ 30 Location of Markets ................................................................................................ 30 Availability of Fresh Water and Power ................................................................. 30 Labour Supply ......................................................................................................... 31 Transportation ........................................................................................................ 31 Political Factors ...................................................................................................... 31 Circumstance .......................................................................................................... 31

Transportation ............................................................................................... 31 Movement of People ............................................................................................... 31

Automobiles ............................................................................................................. 31 Bus ........................................................................................................................... 31 Rail Travel ............................................................................................................... 31 Air Travel ................................................................................................................ 31

Movement of Cargo ................................................................................................ 32 Rail ........................................................................................................................... 32 Road ......................................................................................................................... 32 Ship .......................................................................................................................... 32 Air ............................................................................................................................ 32 Pipelines .................................................................................................................. 32

Water ................................................................................................................. 33 Hydrologic Cycle ..................................................................................................... 33 Lakes and Wetlands ............................................................................................... 33 Rivers and Drainage Basins ................................................................................. 33 Groundwater ........................................................................................................... 33

Water Uses ....................................................................................................... 34

Water Issues .................................................................................................... 34 Pollution ................................................................................................................... 34 Loss of Wetlands ..................................................................................................... 34

Sustainable Development ............................................................................ 34

Acid Precipitation .......................................................................................... 34 Formation ................................................................................................................. 34 Effects of Acid Precipitation ................................................................................ 34 Controlling Acid Precipitation ............................................................................ 34

Climate Change .............................................................................................. 35 Greenhouse Effect .................................................................................................. 35 Carbon Cycle ........................................................................................................... 35 Impact of Global Warming ................................................................................... 35 What can we do? ...................................................................................................... 35

Energy ............................................................................................................... 35

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Conventional Energy ............................................................................................. 36 Oil and Gas .............................................................................................................. 36 Hydro-Electricity (58%) .......................................................................................... 36 Thermal-Electricity (28%) ...................................................................................... 36 Nuclear-Electricity (14%) ....................................................................................... 36

Alternative Energy ................................................................................................. 36 Solar ......................................................................................................................... 36 Tidal ......................................................................................................................... 36 Wind ......................................................................................................................... 36 Biomass ................................................................................................................... 37 Geothermal .............................................................................................................. 37

Ecological Footprint ...................................................................................... 37 Type of Land ............................................................................................................ 37 What this means? .................................................................................................... 37 How can we reduce our ecological footprint? ................................................. 37

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CGC1D – EXAM REVIEW Exam Notes

MAPS: GEOGRAPHY’S BASIC TOOLS Maps are the most important tools used by Geographer to do their jobs. Humans have used them for over 4500 years for exploring, determining their location and direction of travel, and describing the shape of the world. Maps are very useful tools. They help you visualize the shape of countries and landmarks and features. A globe is the only accurate method to represent the earth, which is basically a sphere. However they are not as convenient as maps, maps were created to provide detailed images of small areas. When the features of a globe are transferred onto a flat surface, a map projection is created.

Map Projections Maps projections are created on computers, and some use very advanced

mathematical calculations. Each projection is slightly different and contains different information about the earth. Projections do have errors do to enlargement issues, resulting in inaccuracies.

Mercator Projection Mercator projections, are well suited for navigation charts because it gives

one true bearing points, however highly distorts the size of land. Countries near the equator appear smaller and those near the poles appear larger.

Equal-Area Projection An equal-area projection shows the correct size of countries in relation to one

other.

Winkel Tripel In 1998, the National Geographic Society adopted the Winkel Tripel

projection, which provides the best balance between size, shape, distance, and direction. This projection gives a more realistic representation of earth.

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Maps A map is defined as a representation of the earth’s features drawn on a flat

surface. Maps do not provide a look of the land shown, like photographs might. Maps utilize symbols and colours to represent features of a given area. In addition maps are simplified and do not provide details such as the location of every tree or post office. Maps are classified as: General-Purpose maps, thematic maps, and topographic maps.

Requirements Whenever you draw a map, certain elements should always be

included such as, Title, Legend, Scale, Date of Publication, Direction, and Borders.

General-purpose Maps General-purpose maps provide many types of information on one

map. The following is some of the things that might be on a general-purpose map.

• Bodies of water • Roads • Railway lines • Parks • Elevations • Towns and Cities

Thematic Maps If one requires very specific information about a certain region

thematic maps are useful. These maps are designed to show information about a particular topic.

Topographic Maps Topographic Maps use symbols to show variety of feature in a very

small geological area. These maps can be used when you need examine a small area in detail.

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LOCATING PLACES ON A MAP Finding location is an age-old problem that involves everyone in one way or another. To the right you can see a compass rose. The compass has been used for centuries in order tell North, South, East, and West. The compass rose is usually found on maps. However if a compass is not present it is assumed that north is at the top, or it is indicated by longitude and latitude.

Compass Points and Bearing For directions like go south one km and then east two km to work. You require the knowing the where south and east are in relation to your location. Compass points (south and east) are displayed upon the Compass Rose on a map. Although some maps do not have compass roses they still provide direction by longitude and latitude. A compass rose has four principle points that are north, south, east and west, these are then divided into subdivision, such as South East, and more in detail south-south east. The four principal points of a compass are called the cardinal points, and the secondary points are called ordinal points. Direction that is given to a higher degree of accuracy is called compass bearings, which are preferred over compass points. Compass bearings measure the angle of a direction in relation to North, moving clockwise.

Grid Systems The most common method to locate places upon maps are called grid systems,

they are three different grid systems.

Alphanumeric Grid The alphanumeric grid uses letter and numerals to identify certain

squares on the map. This form of a grid system is often utilized in road maps. Letters on one side and numbers on the other side are used to identify the squares within the grid.

Map Grid (Military Grid) This grid is identified by blue grid line on a topographic map. This is

commonly utilized to locate a place on a topographic map.

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Latitude and Longitude Latitude and longitude divide the earth into a series of grid squares.

The 0o latitude and 0o longitude is at Gulf of Guinea. Latitude is measured north and south from the equator, and longitude is measured east and west from the prime meridian.

Arctic Circle This is one of the five major lines of latitude on the earth, located 66.5622° north of the equator. This marks the beginning of the arctic region. The Arctic Circle is known to have at least one day of 24-hr sunlight and one day of 24-hr night. This is the only place where these events occur exactly once per year on the winter and summer solstice.

Tropic of Cancer Marks the most northerly position at which the sun will appear directly overhead; this occurs in the June solstice. It is located at approximately 23° N as of 2011.

Equator An imaginary line around the middle of the earth that separates the earth into the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. It is also where we start measuring latitude; the equator is at 0o

latitude.

Tropic of Capricorn Marks the most southerly position at which the sun will appear directly overhead; this occurs during the December solstice. It is located at approximately 23° S as of 2011.

Antarctic Circle Like the Arctic Circle, this marks the place where the 24hr sunlight/24-hr night will only occur once per year at the summer and winter solstice respectively. It is located 66° south of the Equator.

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Global Positioning System (GPS) A Global Positioning System or GPS is a satellite-tracking device, which

pinpoints the latitude and longitude, of a person, or thing. This information can be transfer to another device to tell other people where something is. GPS technology is used in cars to locate them if lost, and by shipping companies to track shipments.

Longitude and Time Zones The earth rotates around it axis once every 24 hours, there are 24 time zones

around the earth, each with one hour difference between them. Since the earth rotates 360 degrees in 24 hours it must rotate 15 degrees in longitude in 1 hour. The idea was approved in 1884 in Washington. The prime meridian is the center of the time zone that extends 7.5 degrees on either side. This time zone is called Universal Time. Every 15 degrees from the prime meridian is the center of a time zone. The time zone to the west of the prime meridian are behind UT and the time zones to the east of the prime meridian are ahead of UT.

International Date Line If you cross the International Date Line moving westwards, you add a day. If

you cross the International Date Line moving eastwards, you lose a day.

Daylight-Saving Time Many parts of the world change their time according to season. During the

summer, daylight-saving time is used to extend daylight hours into the evening. In Canada and the USA daylight-saving time begins on the first Sunday of April and the end the last Sunday in October.

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USING MAP SCALES In life we make models to represent things such as an airplane or building. These models are in true proportion to the real life object, meaning that the reduction of size is done according to a scale. A scale is defined as something showing the relationship between the distance on a map and a distance in real life. There is three different ways scales can be represented: direct statement, line scale, and representation fraction.

Direct Statement Scale A direct statement scale uses words to describe the distance on a map to the

actual distance, for example, 1 cm to 10 km. In order to utilize the direct statement scale you would have to measure a distance on the map and calculate the distance in the real world. 2 cm for example would be equal to 20 km.

Line Scale A line scale is a special kind of ruler scale, which increases by constant

intervals which are in relation to a line segment.

Representative Fraction (R.F) Scale This fraction is a ratio and is shown as follows: 1: 50 000. The R.F scale on

the map represents 1 unit on the map, which is equal to 50 000 units on the earth’s surface. We usually want to know the distances into kilometers for if a distance on the map is 2 cm it is equivalent to 100 000 cm on the earth surface which can be converted to 1 km.

Scale Conversion The RF scale is practical because everyone all over the world can use it.

However its now really useful, since when we want to indicate an actual distance. So we usually convert the scales.

Converting an R.F Scale to a Direct Statement To convert and R.F scale into a direct statement divide the

denominator by 100 000 to convert cm to kilometer. For example:

1 !" = 50 000 !"

1 !" = 50 000 ÷ 100 000 !"

1 !" = 0.5 !" !" 1 !" !" 500 !

Converting a Direct Statement Scale to R.F scale To convert from a direct statement to an R.F scale, multiply the

number of kilometers by 100 000.

1 !" = 2.5 !"

1 !" = 2.5 × 100 000 !"

1 !" = 250 000 !" !" 1: 250 000

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GEOLOGIC HISTORY The study of geology can be understood using the analogy of a frozen lake. The ice may appear frozen however it breaks into large plates, and moves apart by wind and currents within the water. Some collide and pull atop of one another, while some are pulled apart. The structure of the earth is similar to that of a frozen lake. The surface of the earth is a thin layer of moving plates, and similar to water below the ice, there is material beneath the plate that is in motion. Earthquakes indicate the movement of the earth plates, and on average there are 30,000 earthquakes that can be felt per year. The frequency of earthquakes and volcanoes is greater at the edge of two plates, colliding or moving apart.

Plate Tectonics

They you ever noticed that the shapes of continents appear as if they could fit one another. If so, you are right. But if these continents were once together, what pulled them after. Alfred Wegener first invented this theory, in 1915 that said that the answer was continental drift. The theory stated that 300 million year ago all the earth’s continents formed one supercontinent, called Pangaea. 200 million years ago it began to break up. Wegener could not properly prove his theory thus it was abandoned until the 1960’s. This is when J. Tuzo Wilson, created the theory of plate tectonics. The theory states that the outer shell of the earth is composed of about twenty plates, which make the oceans and continents. These plates are moving upon a layer of hot rock, several hundred kilometers below the earth’s surface. It is believed that convention currents are responsible for the movement of these plates.

Continental Drift Alfred Wegener had four pieces of evidence for his theory on continental drift

they are as follows:

1. He saw the jigsaw fit between South America and Africa. 2. He found similar fossils on both of the continents. 3. There are mountains in similar structure and age on both sides of the

Atlantic. 4. Ice sheets once covered southern Africa, India, and Australia about 250

million years ago; this could only possible if they were in a different location.

The current shape of Canada has greatly been affect by the movement of the plates. Plates colliding formed our mountain ranges. They also had a role in making our fossil fuels, which formed when Canada was close to the equator.

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Canada’s Geologic History Plate tectonics play a role in our country’s physical development; however

there are other forces at play here as well. Canada’s landscape is in conflict between forces making it higher and those wearing it down. Land it pushed upwards by great forces, and slowly worn down by wind, rain, running water, and ice, this is called erosion. This process is different for each part of the earth, where one force maybe greater than the other. This conflict has taken place for millions of years, and is the story of how the earth is currently shaped. In order to easily tell this story geologists have divided the earth’s history into four time periods known as eras. The eras are separated by major events, such as mass extinction or mountain building.

Precambrian Era The earth was formed about 4.6 billion years ago, this era began when the

earth formed and lasted for 4 billion years (approx. 87% of earth’s history). Cycles of mountain building and erosion occurred during this era. The only part of Canada that existed was the Canadian Shield, measuring above 12 000 m above sea level. Folding, and faulting in the earth’s crust took place during this era. The Canadian Shield is largely composed of igneous and metamorphic rock, and some sedimentary rock. The first single celled organisms where formed during this era, this era ended when more complex organisms had developed.

Paleozoic Era The Paleozoic era lasted for 345 million years, while Canada continued to

take shape. Sediments for the Canadian Shield were moved by river and added to seas surrounding the Shield. Over time this turned into Sedimentary rock, which is now the bedrock of parts of our provinces. During this era, Canada was located close to the equator; organisms lived in shallow seas around the Shield. Swamps that grew eventually formed the coal of Nova Scotia, and sediments produced he salt beds of South Western Ontario. During this era Pangaea was formed (300 mya). The collision of the all the continental plates caused the Appalachians to form. During this era, more organisms developed and formed on land (age of the amphibians). The end of this era was a mass extinction.

Mesozoic Era

The Mesozoic Era began 245 mya, and was the beginning of the breakup of Pangaea. During much of this era, seas and swamps covered central and western Canada. Later on sedimentary rock formed atop the layer made in the Paleozoic Era. The Coast Mountains were formed during this era, when the North American plate collided with the Pacific plate. Tectonic forces also began to fold the curst to form the Rockies later in this era, in addition to the Innuitian Mountains. The climate of Canada was still warm, and dinosaurs and other reptiles lived in Canada. Vegetation was covered with salt and silt, which compressed to form coal in British Columbia. The shallow seas in the Interior Plains and the organisms living in them got covered with sediments. Which later formed sedimentary rock, the weight and pressure of this rock changed the remains of the organisms to oil and gas. This era was ended by a mass extinction, possibly a giant asteroid hitting the earth.

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Cenozoic Era This era began 66 mya, and gave the final changes to Canada’s landforms for

their current shape. The formation of the Coast Mountains and the Rocky Mountains completed during this era. The seas in the Interior Plains vanished and land began to rise. During the last two million years, the world experienced an Ice Age. Huge glaciers, developed from the earth’s climate cooling. The glaciers scraped and gouged the land they covered. The moving ice rounded the Canadian Shield and the Appalachian Mountains. The Ice Age ended around 6000 years ago, but glaciers can still be found in the Arctic. This era is the age of the mammals, as dinosaurs have died out.

The Rock Cycle

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Layers of the Earth

Crust: Outermost layer of the Earth, in oceans about 4 miles thick, in the thickest continents about 40 miles thick.

Mantle: 1800 miles thick, this layer is a weak layer of hotter rock.

Outer Core: Sea of Liquid Iron, extending for about 1300 miles.

Inner Core: Solid Iron center, diameter is around 1500 miles.

LANDFORM CONNECTIONS Canada is made up three distinct landforms, the shield, highlands and lowlands. The highlands and lowlands are subdivided into regions.

The Canadian Shield Today, most of the Shield is relatively flat with rounded hills of rock, which

are actually the roots of ancient mountains. Two types of rocks, igneous and metamorphic, form most of the Shield. They contain valuable minerals in great quantities. The Canadian Shield was formed over billions of years ago by the collision of the volcanic island arches the built on top of each other. This made igneous rock and highly metamorphosed rocks. The minerals deposits were formed when magma forced its ways into cracks and cavities in the shield rock. As it cooled, some formed minerals, dissolved in very hot water, were forced deep into cracks in the surrounding rock.

The Lowlands The three lowland regions surrounding the Shield are the Interior Plains, the

Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands, and the Hudson Bay-Arctic Lowlands. The bedrock under these lowland formed mainly of sediments eroded from the Shield.

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Interior Plains The Interior Plains for the most part are composed of rolling hills, and deep,

wide, river valleys. Overall, the land slopes gently downward from west to east. Glaciation has also marked the landscape is visible ways and affected land. Shallow inland seas often covered the Interior Plains. Sediments from the Shield and the Rocky Mountains were deposited in these seas over millions of years. Eventually the sediments were compressed by the weight of the layers above into sedimentary rock. Part of the sedimentary rock deposited in these areas consists of coral reefs the formed close the surface of the seas during the Paleozoic Era. Today, the reefs are thousands of meters below surface, and contain much oil and gas. The area is known as Canada’s “breadbasket” because so much wheat is grown here. Agricultural products from this region are used both in Canada and overseas.

Great Lakes – St. Lawrence Lowlands Flat plains with glacial hills and deep

river valleys characterize the landscape. The Great Lakes are located in basins were gouged out by glaciers. The Paleozoic bedrock can be seen in several escarpments in the Great Lakes Lowland. The best known is the Niagara Escarpment was formed by differential erosion. Similar to the Interior Plains, these lowlands are having bedrock formed of sedimentary rock from the Paleozoic era. In the Great Lakes portion of the lowlands, glaciation has created a rolling landscape. The St. Lawrence Lowland was formed in a different way from Great Lakes Lowland. Faulting formed a rift valley; this rift valley was flooded toward the end of the last ice age. The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands Region is the most southerly region in Canada. It is well suited to agriculture because of its excellent soils and warm climate. The flat land is also ideal for transportation routes and the development of cities. Because of these factors, it is most densely populated region in Canada. About 70% of the country’s manufacturing industries. It is sometimes referred to Canada’s industrial and urban heartland.

Hudson Bay – Arctic Lowlands Around the southwestern shore of Hudson Bay and James Bay is a very flat,

low area, by swampy forest. The waters of Hudson Bay covered much of this lowland at the end of the last Ice Age. The Arctic Lowlands are made up of a series of islands located in Canada’s far north, and have a gently rolling landscape. This region has a layer of sedimentary rock, which rests on top of the ancient rock of the Shield. The harsh climate does not permit farming. However, the Paleozoic sedimentary rock, form which the Lowlands are formed, contains lignite (a form of coal), oil, and natural gas deposits.

The Highlands Canada’s highlands lie far from the Shield near the edge of the North

American Plate. The Appalachians, the Innuitian, and the Western Cordillera, each have a different appearance, and history.

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Appalachian Mountains Millions of years of erosion have reduced the Appalachians’’ once jagged

peaks to rolling mountains and hills. In recent geologic times, glaciation has played a part in this erosion. The Appalachians are the oldest highland region in Canada, and formed about 300 million years ago. Layers of sedimentary rock were uplifted and folded the end of the Paleozoic era when North America collided with Europe and northern African during the formation of Pangaea. Rocks found in the Appalachians of Nova Scotia and Newfoundland are similar to rocks found in Wales and Scotland. The long ocean bays have provided deep harbors for ocean freighters, and some have become today’s sites of major cities. Other settlement is located mainly in the fertile river valleys and along the seacoast. Coal mining is also done in this region.

Innuitian Mountains The Innuitian Mountains

stand like icy watch towers in Canada’s far north, measuring in some areas over 2500 meters in height. Their present forms were shaped in the middle of the Mesozoic era when the North American plate moved northward. The Innuitian’ are mostly made up of sedimentary rock however they also have some igneous and metamorphic rock. Although the Innuitians’ contain similar minerals to the Appalachians, there mineral resource has not been greatly exploited; this is because the region’s remote location, which makes development too costly when cheaper alternatives, exists further south.

Western Cordillera The Western Cordillera stands along the western edge of Canada like a great

wall: range of mountain separated by plateaus and valleys. The mountains and valleys of the Western Cordillera run in a north-south direction. The great height and rugged appearance of these ranges tell us that they are geologically young. The collision of the North American and the Pacific Plate is responsible for the uplifting this region into several mountain ranges about 680 km wide. The heavier Pacific plate forced its way under the lighter North American plate causing folding, faulting and volcanic activity. Since it is so mountainous, the Cordillera is lightly populated. Most people live in the farming and mining towns located in the river valleys. Towns such as Banff and Jasper thrive because of tourists who come to see the beautiful majesty of the mountains.

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CLIMATE CONNECTIONS Introduction

Nature affects our day-to-day lives in many ways, for example it can change the clothing we wearing throughout the whole year, the ways are building are constructed, and the types of recreational activities we participate in.

Weather Weather is defined as the day-to-day characteristics of these atmospheric

conditions. Weather affects all of us, for example a rainstorm can cancel a cricket match, or a snowstorm may cancel school for a day. Over the years, records show weather patterns, which have occurred over long periods of time.

Climate Climates influence where we live, what farmers can grow, which clothes we

wear, and how we live. There are four main facts when considering Canada’s climate.

1. Canada extends for a great distance from north to south. 2. Different elevations produce different climate conditions 3. Coastal regions have different climates from inland regions. 4. Wind and pressure systems move weather conditions form one part of the

country to another.

Latitude Latitude has an effect on climate; distance from the equator is a key factor in

whether a region is hot or cold. When energy from the sun hits the equator it is spread over a small area, however when its hits near the polls it is spread over a wider area due to the curvature of the earth.

Ocean Currents

When warm, they raise temperatures along the coast (especially in winter) and when cold, they lower temperatures (especially in summer). When warm, they help to create wet coastal climates. When cold, they help create drier coastal climates. Ocean currents affect climate, because the temperature of the ocean current determines the temperature the air that moves above it. Where the air above two currents meets, the weather is often damp and foggy.

Winds An air mass is a large volume of air with the climate conditions of the area it was formed in. Air which start from oceans contain moisture and as they move over land they release this moisture as precipitation. (This is why maritime regions receive more precipitation). Air masses, which start inland, are dry as they are far from water, and they bring extreme temperatures.

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Elevation If you were to hike from sea level up a mountain you would notice a steady

drop in temperature as you climb. Why do you get colder even though you are moving closer to the sun? This is because air masses move up mountains. As it rises it loses pressure, expands, and loses heat. The higher you go, the more precipitation you are likely to get.

Relief Barriers They block winds and air masses so temperature from one side to the other can be quite different (moderate on the ocean side, extreme on the continental side). Windward areas (facing the ocean) are wet since moist winds are forced to rise, cool and give up their moisture and leeward areas (facing away from the ocean) are dry, as winds descend, warm up and evaporate moisture.

Near Large Water Bodies Bodies of water have moderating effect on land temperatures. Water heats and cools at a slower pace than land, thus in the summer the water takes longer to heat up, and in the winter it takes longer to cool. Winds blowing of the water moderate the land temperature. Therefore, maritime locations have cooler summers and milder winters. Precipitation is higher next to oceans, especially when winds move off the oceans inland onto mountains, and lower when areas are located far inland, especially when they are behind high mountains barriers.

Urban Centers Areas in and near large cities have higher temperatures due to the fact that

the pavement, cars, and buildings absorb and reradiate more of the sun’s energy than natural areas. Areas downwind of cities tend to have more precipitation because the pollution particles from the city act as nuclei for water droplets.

Maritime and Continental Climate Areas far from oceans and large lakes in the interior of landmasses have a

continental climate. The temperature range is great because there is no large water body to moderate the range. Meanwhile coastal locations have maritime climate, which means that the average temperature range is small, and precipitation levels are high. The temperature range for continental climates is > 25o and the range for maritime climates is < 25o. The Total precipitation for continental climates is < 1000 mm and the range for maritime climates is > 1000 mm.

Precipitation To understand why precipitation occurs you must remember two very

important points.

1. Air-cools as it rises. 2. As air-cools, water vapor condenses more than it evaporates.

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Relief Precipitation Mountains create relief precipitation. As moist air rises up the windward

slope of the mountains, it expands and cools. The rate of evaporation deceases and the rate of condensation increases, as the air rises. This results in the formation of heavy raindrops, which fall to the ground (in colder temperatures as snow). Moisture is measured in terms of RH (Relative humidity).

• RH = (amount of moisture in air ÷ moisture hold capacity) × 100% Cold air descends on the leeward slope the mountain becoming warmer so precipitation and cloud formation decrease.

Conventional Precipitation Conventional precipitation is very common in inland locations such as the

Prairies. Here, the land is subject to intense heating, this causes air to rise. As air rises it expands and forms small white clouds. As more air condenses the white clouds are turned into storm clouds. The clouds develop vertically as more water vapor condenses. The result is very heavy clouds, falling to the earth in form of violent downpours. In extreme cases, even tornadoes may develop in these storm clouds.

Cyclonic Precipitation Air masses that are different don’t mix easily, they have a front between them. This front a basically a battlefield and cyclonic precipitation develops here. A cyclonic storm is a large, low-pressure system that forms has warm and cold air collide. As the warm air moves inward toward the center of low pressure, it rises and cools creating precipitation. This results in extreme weather that can halt an entire region.

SOIL AND NATURAL VEGETATION CONNECTIONS The climate of regions determines whether it has wet-and-dry-climate soils.

The Soil Base Soil consists of four main parts; if one of these components is missing the

material is not considered as soil.

Minerals Rocks become part of soil when weathering into smaller particles of sand, silt,

and clay breaks down the rock. Many of these minerals, such as calcium, phosphorous, and potassium, are nutrients needed by plants for growth.

Bacteria and Organic Materials

When plants and animals die, bacteria in the soil decompose them. As bacteria break down the organic matter, nutrients are released. Decaying organic materials form humus, which provides nutrients and moisture for plants, in addition it gives soil a dark color.

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Air A high humus level helps produce air in the soil because the loose, decaying

materials allow for many air pockets. Creatures that tunnel through the soil also create air spaces. Air is needed by the plants roots in order to flourish.

Moisture Moisture is added to soil via rain, surface or ground water. Moisture is a form

of water, it is used to dissolve nutrients in the soil in order for plants to the use them, and it helps break down (weather) rock and decay organic material.

Leaching and Calcification In areas where there is an extreme amount of precipitation, water is

continually moved down in the soil is causes all water-soluble minerals within the soil to move down along with the water. The minerals moved down so far that the roots of plants could no longer access them. This process is called leeching. On the other hand, when there are limited amounts of precipitation, water from the topsoil evaporates, so water from below is drawn up. As the water from below is drawn up it to be evaporated and it leaves minerals that were dissolved in it. This leaves a layer of topsoil rich in minerals. This process is called calcification because calcium is main mineral deposited. If the mineral deposition is too great it can make a layer poisonous to plants.

Soil Profile The soil profile is consistent of three parts known as the soil horizons; the

following is an example of a typical soil profile:

1. Horizon A: Topsoil • Rich in organic materials especially near surface

2. Horizon B: Subsoil • Combined mineral and organic layer

3. Horizon C: Parent Material • Bed rock or glacial deposits

Vegetation Regions The vegetation in a region is determined by its climate and soil. Relative

amounts of precipitation and temperature influence the types of plants that grow. Natural vegetation refers to the plants that grow in a region without the invention of humans. There are seven vegetation regions within Canada, between two vegetation regions there is a transition zones which have characteristics of both vegetation regions.

Tundra The most northerly vegetation region of Canada is the Tundra. It is situated

above the tree line, which means that trees are unable to grow here. The climate is cold and dry. Most of the tundra has permafrost; only about one meter of this permafrost thaws in the summer, allowing for small shrubs, mosses, and lichens to grow. The lack of vegetation limits wildlife, and population of species.

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Boreal and Taiga Forest Located south of the Tundra is the Boreal and Taiga Forest, it is the largest

vegetation region in Canada. It is below the tree line. Coniferous trees in this region, as it has a larger growing season and more precipitation than the Tundra. The humus layer is very shallow, and the topsoil is grey. Some deciduous trees, such as poplar and white birch are hardy enough to survive in the southern portion of this region.

Mixed Forest South of the Boreal Forest is the Mixed Forest, it contains both coniferous

trees and deciduous trees. This is a very attractive region for the lumber industry. Today very little of this forest remains and the mixed forest is considered a transition zone between the boreal forest and the deciduous forest. The humus created by leaves creates a rich layer of topsoil. Soils in this region are suitable for farming.

Deciduous Forest The only deciduous forest in Canada is in southwestern Ontario. However

very small amounts of this forest remain as most of it has been cleared for farming and urban development. The summers in southwestern Ontario are long and hot, and the winters are mild, which is perfect of deciduous trees. The soil is rich in topsoil, and is not acidic. There is some leeching in the soil however not enough to harm the trees.

Grasslands The Grasslands are located in the southern part of Manitoba, Alberta, and

Saskatchewan. Grass is grown in this dry climate, however some trees grow in river valleys where moisture is available. The limited rainfall and dry climate results in calcified soils, which are bad for crops, however well for roaming animals especially cattle.

Cordilleran Vegetation Cordilleran Vegetation greatly varies due do that fact that it has a wide

range of different weather through the region. Grasses grow in the valleys and coniferous trees grow on the slopes where precipitation is heavier. All types of soils are found in this region.

West Coast Forest Along the west coast there is a temperate rain forest. The heavy precipitation

plus mild coastal temperatures give excellent growing conditions. The trees are more than 1m in diameter, and 50 m in height. The lush vegetation provides for rich topsoil, the high rainfall results in leeching.

Deciduous and Coniferous Trees Deciduous trees are those that lose their leaves seasonally such as petals.

They require a warmer climate in order to flourish. Examples are maple, beech, ask, oak, and birch. Coniferous trees have needles and can survive in colder climates examples include spruce, pine, fir, and cedar.

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Vegetation in Dry and Wet climates

Vegetation in Cool and Warm climates

MAKING THE CONNECTIONS: CANADA’S ECO ZONES Canada has been divided up into many regions based upon its landforms, climate, soil, and vegetation. All these things can be put into one region, called eco zones. The idea of dividing Canada into ecosystem is new. In fact the first map of Canada eco zones was not published till 1986.

Canada’s Eco zones Canada has an almost infinite amount of natural environments, so how many

eco zones are too many and how many is too little. Scientists have decided that 15 eco zones are reasonable. You are required to know three of the test.

Mixed wood Plains: Area is 113 000 km3. Plains and rolling hills, Great Lakes are an important

feature. Cool, short winters (-7o C), relatively long, mild summers (20o C), precipitation 700 mm to 1000 mm growing season 180 to 260 days. Coniferous mixed with deciduous; little vegetation remains. Soils are leeched, wet-climate soils. Urbanization, manufacturing, agriculture, and recreation are human activities.

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Prairie: Area is 441 000 km2. Flat to rolling plains characterize the landform.

Moderately long, cold winters (-15o C), moderately warm summers (18o C), precipitation 250 to 700 mm, growing season 170 to 190. Short-grass prairie in drier areas; long-grass prairie in wetter areas; some trees; little natural vegetation remains. Rich grassland soils, agriculture, urbanization, oil and gas development.

Pacific Maritime: Area is 196 000 km2. Mountains with small areas of coastal plains. Mild

winters (3o C); cool summers (15o C); precipitation 600 to 2000 mm; growing season 200 to 260 days. Varies with elevation; coniferous trees (western red, cedar). Soils of a wide variety of mountain soils. Land used for urbanization, agriculture and fish processing.

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DEMOGRAPHICS Demography is defined as the study of human populations; it is a crucial component of our lives and allows us to prepare for the future.

Use of Rates In demography, rates are used instead of numbers; this is due to the

following:

• Direct number comparisons are meaningless, as they do not account for population.

• Rates narrow the scope of the population being looked at and allow for more comparable results.

Calculating Rates The following shows how to calculate rates, the purpose they serve and how

they are used.

Birth Rate !"#$%& !" !"#$ℎ! !" !"# !"#$

!"#$% !"!#$%&'"( × 1000

The birth rate is used to determine the number of births in relation to the population of a 1000 people, hence it is multiplied by a 1000. Alone it has little significance however if combined with the Death Rate it can make the Natural Increase Rate.

Death Rate !"#$%& !" !"#$ℎ! !" !"# !"#$

!"#$% !"!#$%&'"( × 1000

The death rate is used to determine the number of deaths in relation to the population of a 1000 people, hence it is multiplied by a 1000. Alone it has little significance however if combined with the Birth Rate it can make the Natural Increase Rate.

Immigration Rate & Emigration Rate

!"#$%& !" !""!#$%&!" !" !"# !"#$!"#$% !"!#$%&'"(

× 1000 !"#$%& !" !"#$%&'() !"# !"#$

!"#$% !"!#$%&'"( × 1000

The immigration rate and emigration rate are used to determine the number of immigrants and emigrants in relation to the population of a 1000 people. When combined they make the net migration rate.

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Net Migration Rate !""#$%&'#() !"#$ − !""#$%&'#() !"#$

The Net migration rate is a combined rate that helps predict future outcomes. It shows if people are choosing to move to or from a country. The Net Migration Rate combined with the Natural Increase Rate help make a measurement called the Population Growth Rate. (Note that this rate is over 1000)

Natural Increase Rate !"#$ℎ !"#$ − !"#$ℎ !"#$

The Natural Increase Rate is a combined rate used to show the natural increase in population of a country. It is combined with the Net Migration Rate to form the Population Growth Rate.

Population Growth Rate !"# !"#$%&"'( !"#$ + !"#$%"& !"#$%&'% !"#$

The Natural Increase Rate is used to see the rate of the growth of a country’s population it is calculated by combining the Net Migration Rate, and the Natural Increase Rate.

Compounding When people want to calculate the impact of population growth, they mostly

consider the doubling time, which by the name infers is the amount of time required for the population to double. The doubling time is calculated by the Rule of 70, which is dividing 70 by the population growth rate as a percent. This provides a look towards the future to see how countries must adapt to changes.

Dependency Load The dependency load is section of the population with is dependent upon

others to support them. There are two categories within the Dependency load, one, the Children (up to 15) and two, older adults (65 and over). Depending on which section is greater, places pressures on society to either provide education or pensions and housing.

Population Pyramid Population data is often looked at in a

graphical format using something known as a Population Pyramid. Which is composed of a series of horizontal bars for both the male and female populations. An example is available on your right.

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SETTLEMENT PATTERNS Settlement patterns are the arrangement of where people live in a specific area. Throughout Canada we can see many different settlement patterns, some rural and some urban.

Population Distribution Population distribution refers to the patterns of where people live in a

specific area. There are two types of population distribution patterns and one sub pattern, which are as follows:

• Dispersed: Found in areas where there is a strong agricultural base. • Concentrated: Found in areas where there is economic opportunity and

resource based communities o Linear: Special type of concentrated pattern, found near major

highways and coastal areas.

Population Distribution is different from population density, which is a calculation of how many people live within one square kilometer.

Rural Settlement Patterns Rural Settlement patterns are found in areas with low population density

and a dispersed settlement pattern. Found mostly in the Mixed Wood Plains, and the Prairies.

Long Lot of Southern Quebec The long lots of southern Quebec are developed before the railway and roads

thus they are made in a manner for convenient access to the river for transportation. Land was taxed based on amount of river footage. Rows of long lots were made behind the river lots were made after the river lots were taken.

Concession System of Southern Ontario The concession system was put in place after roads and railways were

already in place. The farms were about 40 to 80 hectares in size, and the roads were built 2 km apart.

Section System of the Southern Prairies The Section system was copied from the United States where there is enough

precipitation to support crops. The land was divided into 9.6 km by 9.6 km sections, then further divided into 36 sections, and finally divided into four more quarter sections. Little precipitation resulted in this system to not be successful, people eventually decided to buy more land to grow crops.

Urban Settlements Over time cities tend to change from rural to urban, this is called

urbanization. This occurs when there is an increase of population and urban functions in the area.

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Manufacturing Manufacturing cities usually form because they are close to a natural

resource that people can easily extract and make into something else. The products made from the natural resources can be sold locally and to others via road or rail.

Transportation Transportation cities are hubs for major methods of transportation, such as

Thunder Bay. They are formed because of their geological location which makes them perfect for all cargo, people and etc. to land and depart from there.

Resource Use Resource based cities have an abundance of natural resources, which are

exploited and used to manufacture goods. Some cities many undergo an effect known as the multiplier effect which is the establishing of an industry in an area, which employs a hand full of people. These people have families and require need services, resulting in more and more industries opening in that area.

Service Center These cities develop because as the name implies they offer a service. This

service is ranked in a hierarchy and requires a certain number of people to support it; this is called the threshold population.

URBAN LAND USE Types of Land Use

Most people live their lives in cities doing things such as travelling, shopping, working, and enjoying the open air. All of these activities require land, which is divided into six major groups.

Residential (40%) Residential areas consist of places where people live; this includes but is not limited to, houses, and apartments. The most important part of residential land is residential density, which is the amount of housing units per hectare of land.

Transportation (32%) It is surprising to see that 32% of our land is spent for transportation this

includes but is not limited to, highways, roads, bicycle trails, bus terminals and parking lots.

Commercial Land Use (5%) Anything regarding the purchasing or exchange of goods and services

accounts for commercial land. Although this type of land does not occupy much area it is crucial as it provides many jobs and is contributes to the economy.

Low Order Products Products that are bought on a regular basis such as chocolate bars,

newspapers, and bread are known as low order products. Low order products have a low threshold population. These products are available at local service centers.

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Middle-Order Products Products that are bought occasionally such as clothing, compact discs, and

calculators are known as middle order products. Middle order products have a medium threshold population. These items can be found in Regional Shopping Centers.

High-Order Products These are products you would buy very rarely such as a home theater system,

and expensive books. These are products that have a high threshold population. You would buy these products in the CBD.

Industrial Land Use (6%) This type of land is an important part of a city or community; it includes

many services from manufacturing to shipping. In addition it is divided into four sub categories:

• Ribbon Industries: Located along shorelines, and railways. Produce noise.

• Central Business District: Oldest industrial area, most are warehouses. • Suburban Business Parks: Modern and elegant, and well landscaped. • Suburban Industrial Parks: Cheap land, one-story buildings with

assembly lines.

Institutional and Public Buildings (10%) This land includes schools, universities, and government offices, and other

institutions in the Public sector. Religious building such as churches, temples, and mosques also account as a portion of this land.

Open Space and Recreational Land (7%) Open spaces and recreational land consists of parks, golf courses, arenas, in

addition they consist of area that have been left untouched in their natural state.

Land Value and Zoning Land Value and Zoning laws allow us to find some services in some areas

while other services in other areas. This is because the value of land in areas such as the CBD is really expensive so services that require large amounts of land usually tend not to locate in the CBD. In addition, zoning laws prevent things such as homes and factories to be built right next to each other.

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INDUSTRIES IN CANADA Types of Industries

There are three types of industries in the world. All products that you buy have come a far away before they were placed on store shelves or delivered to your doorstep. All products go through each industry before they are purchased.

Primary Industries These are industries that extract raw materials from the Earth. Their

purpose is to mine or remove natural resources, and they are usually located in areas with an abundance of natural resources.

Secondary Industries These are industries that are involved in manufacturing, and processing the

raw materials into finished goods, and transport them to stores. Refining metals, and making synthesized materials are all apart of second industries.

Tertiary Industries Tertiary Industries include everything from sales personnel, to people

servicing products. The tertiary industries are here to provide services to the general public.

Basic and Non-Basic Industries The last concept in industries is basic and non-basic. This refers to the

industries that either bring money into the local economy or recycle money in the local economy. Basic Industries add money to the local economy, while non-basic industries recycle money in the local economy.

Location Factors for Manufacturing Manufacturers have many reasons for locating where they do. Different types

of companies have different reasons for locating in various locations. There are seven main factors that influence this decision.

Availability of Raw Materials Manufacturers usually require a steady stream of abundant resources that

they can use to produce a product. This is why they chose to locate near raw materials.

Location of Markets Some companies chose to locate near the majority of their customers; this

allows them to save on transportation costs, to move their products from the factory to the customers. In addition, this minimizes the time required for customers to receive the product.

Availability of Fresh Water and Power Having fresh water and power is a requirement for all companies; this

ensures cheap power and water for cooling, cleaning and manufacturing purposes.

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Labour Supply Companies require a cheap large work force, in order to minimum expenses

and maximize profits. For labour work, companies tend to locate in countries where labour is cheap, while as in Canada we require a more skilled work force which is why some companies locate near universities or colleges where can employ skilled workers.

Transportation Companies that need to transport their products may choose to locate near an

airport or a shipping dock. This results in efficient transportation, and minimizes the time taken for the customer to receive the product.

Political Factors Some governments chose to attract new businesses to locate in their country

with incentives. This makes locating in the country an appealing option. In addition positive relations with governments has a positive effect on the company in general.

Circumstance Every factor except circumstance relates to the requirements of the industry.

Circumstance is the influence of other factors that are very hard to measure, such as investing in potential markets.

TRANSPORTATION Movement of People

From the dawn of time humankind have found ways to move from point A to point B. Today these methods of transportation have changed, and we have a choice of which is more convenient for us.

Automobiles There are approximately 13.5 million cars registered in Canada, and the use

of cars and small trucks has is higher than any other means of transportation. Driving automobiles has increased mobility within Canadian. The use of automobiles has additional benefits such as flexibility as people go places on their own schedule.

Bus Buses operate both intercity and inner-city, meaning they travel from city to

city and within individual cities as well. Inner-city transportation is available in most cities such as the TTC in Toronto.

Rail Travel Rail travel used to once be the most popular method of transportation before

major highways came along, however today it is becoming increasingly unpopular resulting in companies like VIA Rail to lose money every year.

Air Travel The use of airplane in travel has made is very simple to travel long distance

easily. Today this industry is very competitive which forces airlines to be creative with their services.

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Movement of Cargo All the products we buy in our lives have gotten to store by a method of

transportation. Some methods are more preferred over others depending on the goods being transported.

Rail Rail transportation is beneficial for bulk cargo, such as coal, wood, and oil.

This cargo has low value is shipped in large quantities.

Road Transferring cargo by trucks cost less than rail, and is better for lighter

cargo. Intercity trucking has also leaded it to being chosen for lighter cargo over other methods of transportation.

Ship Ships, similar to rail, are suited for cheap heavy bulk cargo such as iron core,

grain, and petroleum. Ship transport has been a major part of Canada’s economy, as we access to large bodies of water.

Air Shipping goods by air is more expensive, but it is used for items have high

value or require next day delivery. It is also used to transport goods to frontier locations where small airports are built.

Pipelines Pipelines are usually used to move gases, and liquids. They are efficient as

they are out of the move of most people. It is usually more expensive then shipping however it’s suitable for materials that have a large supply to last for many years.

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WATER Water is the most crucial elements for human survival, it is considered more valuable than gold in some nations, and however in Canada it is readily available from our taps. Canadians are second largest users of water in the world, under the United States.

Hydrologic Cycle Water is in constant motion around our “blue

planet”. It evaporates our lakes and oceans and turns into an invisible gas in our atmosphere called water vapour. This water vapour condenses and turns into clouds, once the clouds become heavy enough they precipitate in various forms such as hail, rain, snow or sleet depending on the temperature. Once the water hits the surface of the earth it either runs-off into lakes and oceans, or seeps deep within the ground and becomes ground water. Plants use up some of this groundwater that is close to their roots, and release it via their leaves in a process called transpiration.

Lakes and Wetlands Lakes and Wetlands account for a large portion of Canada fresh surface

water. Our lakes were gouged out by ice glaciers and are fed by rivers and springs. Wetlands are another word for swamps, marshes and bogs, which all provide freshwater.

Rivers and Drainage Basins Canada’s water drains from five drainage basins, which are separated by

watersheds (areas of high land). The water that flows through a drainage basin is called the discharge rate.

1. Pacific Ocean 2. Hudson Bay 3. Arctic Ocean 4. Atlantic Ocean 5. Gulf of Mexico

Groundwater Water that seeps deep enough into the ground enters the water table.

Groundwater levels fluctuate less than surface water and impurities are filtered by the soil.

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WATER USES Water use is classified in two different forms, in stream use, and withdrawal use.

• In stream Use: Water is used without removing it from a water body (i.e. fishing, hydroelectric power generation)

• Withdrawal Use: Water is used by removing it from the water body (i.e. manufacturing, and agriculture)

WATER ISSUES Pollution There are three main types of pollution, physical, biological and chemical.

• Physical: Visible pollution such as garbage gabs, and other plastics. • Biological: Bacteria and virus that enters bodies of water by sewage. (20%

of Canadian cities don’t treat their sewage) • Chemical: Most harmful, yet not visible and odourless, comes from

pesticides and herbicides.

Loss of Wetlands Canadian Wetlands are disappearing at alarming rates to agriculture and

housing. This results in the water table being lowered and animal habitats lost.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT If we continually waste fresh water, one of the most precious resources, which we have. It will result in mass amount of problems for our future generations. We must all learn how to proper manage our fresh water consumption.

ACID PRECIPITATION Formation

Acid precipitation is formed by sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide being released into the atmosphere. In the atmosphere they mix with water vapour and form nitric and sulphuric acid, and precipitate to the earth.

Effects of Acid Precipitation Aquatic Life and Terrestrial Life are affected by acid precipitation. In lakes

and river acid precipitation causes acid shock killing fish eggs. In addition acid precipitation removes a protective layer of plants making them susceptible to viruses.

Controlling Acid Precipitation You can reduce sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide by reducing the amount of

energy you use with your home, in addition to reducing your driving.

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CLIMATE CHANGE Greenhouse Effect

The greenhouse effect, based on its name is an effect is similar to the events in a greenhouse. When sunlight hits the glass windows of a greenhouse it is converted to heat energy. This heat energy remains inside the greenhouse and cannot escape, due to the glass. A similar situation occurs in our atmosphere, except instead of glass we have greenhouse gasses that trap the suns heat in the earth. The main greenhouse gases are Carbon Dioxide, methane, ozone, nitrous oxide, and water vapour.

Carbon Cycle Carbon is cycled through the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere and

biosphere. It is transferred from the atmosphere to carbon sinks (i.e. trees, other things that absorb carbon), and is released back into the environment by carbon sources.

Impact of Global Warming The impact of global warming, predicted by scientists is that our average

temperature would go up by 1o C to 3.5o C in 100 years. The effects on the poles would be much greater. This would result in sea levels rising by 1m bringing many countries under sea level. For Canada sea levels will not be much of a problem however we will receive more rain resultant in flooding, and have shorter winters.

What can we do? Everyone has a role in what we must do to stop global warming. For starters,

we must reduce the amount of carbon we release. In addition promote carbon sinks, which absorb carbon dioxide from our atmosphere.

ENERGY Energy sources are divided into two main categories:

• Conventional Energy Sources (Oil, Natural Gas, Coal, Hydro, and Nuclear) • Alternative Energy Sources (Solar, Wind and Biomass)

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Conventional Energy Oil and Gas

Oil and Gas are substances that were formed millions of years ago, and are the remains of plants and animals the sea floor, and as time passed sedimentary rock covered them. Locating Oil and Gas is an expensive time consuming process. Once oil and gas is found it is drilled and then recovered.

Hydro-Electricity (58%) Hydro-Electric power can be produced any where there is a lake or river. It has many benefits such as being cheap to operate, no air pollution, and its renewable. However is the plants are expensive to build, and lots of transmission lines must be built.

Thermal-Electricity (28%) In thermal electric plants coal, or natural gas is burned to produce

steam, which turns a turbine, which causes a generator to turn. These plants can be built anywhere so shorter transmission lines are needed, and its less expensive compared to nuclear and hydro. However the fuel costs are expensive and oil and natural gas are non-renewable and release greenhouse gases.

Nuclear-Electricity (14%) Similar to Thermal Electricity however it uses nuclear fission to produce steam. They can be built anywhere so less transmission lines are required, operating costs are low, abundant supply of uranium and no air pollution. However construction costs are very high, and waste product is radioactive.

Alternative Energy Solar

Solar energy is radiated energy from the sun, it is used for heating, and producing some electricity. Photovoltaic cells are used to directly convert sunlight into electricity. The resource is renewable and release no air pollution, however it is expensive an inefficient.

Tidal The moon’s gravity pulls up ocean waters and tides are used to

produce electricity. Totally renewable and is not harmful, however it is not economic and efficient.

Wind Wind energy is converted by windmills into mechanical energy, which

is converted to electricity. It is renewable, and they are many human side effects caused by the rotation of the windmill.

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Biomass Biomass refers to plant material or other biological material that

burned and produces steam to produce electricity. It releases the same amount of greenhouse gases as cutting down a tree.

Geothermal This is thermal energy from below the earth’s crust, which can heat

water into steam, which turns a turbine driving a generator. It releases no emissions however is expensive to construct.

ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT An ecological footprint is the amount of space required to support one’s activities. It is measured by converting all human activities to equivalent land area, basically the amount land needed to support those activities.

Type of Land There are five type of land which are classified as follows:

• Energy Land: Amount of land required to eliminate the Carbon dioxide released by our energy use via photosynthesis.

• Degraded Land: Formerly productive land that is converted to urban area and highways

• Crop Land: Amount of land required for growing crops. • Pasture Land: Amount of land required for animals grazing. • Forested Land: Amount of land required for trees.

What this means? The average ecological footprint for Canadians is 4.27 ha of productive land.

If everyone were to live as a Canadian we would require two additional earths. Canadian’s must reduce their ecological footprint. We must start becoming more cautious of the way we spend our resources.

How can we reduce our ecological footprint? There are two solutions to this problem, one the technical solution, and two

the behavioural solution. The technical solution is that we invest time and money into technology, which can allow us to keep our same way of life while reducing the impact on Earth. On the other hand the Behavioural Solution is to realize that we must change the way we live and decide to live in a more ecologically responsible manner.

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CGC1D - Exam Review