Budismo y Constructivismo

8/19/2019 Budismo y Constructivismo

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Inherent

Self

Invented

Self

Empty

Self:

Constructivism Buddhism and

Psychotherapy

Spencer A. McW illiams

Constructivist an d Buddhist app roaches to counseiing an d psycho therapy

share increasing popuiarity as weii as simiiar epistemoiogicai assumptions

an d understanding of hum an d ysfunction an d Its ame lioration. These ap -

proaches can be seen as consistent with postmodern psychoiogy wh ich

is distinguished from a reaiist or foundationaiist view. This articie provides

an overview of these 2 modeis and describes some of their impiicatlons

for psyc hop athoiogy an d psychotherapy inciuding exampies of specific

therape utic ap proaches draw n from eac h perspective that might mutuaiiy

inform practitioners who wish to app iy this perspective to a higher view of

the hum an situation.

Investigate the nature of the mind and it will

disappear.

Because of the emerg ence of thought,

you surmise that it has an origin and call that the

mind.

When you inquire to see what it is,

you find that there is really no such thing as

mind.

When the mind has vanished

you realize eternal Peace.

—Ramana Maharshi, as cited in Greenblatt,

2001,

p . 110

C

onstructivist and Buddhist approaches to psycho therapy an d counsel-

ing have enjoyed growing recent interest, although historical roots

of both lineages go back more than 2,500 years. This is evident in

recent volumes on constructivist psychotherapies (e.g., Mahoney,

2003;

R.

A. Neimeyer, 2009; R. A. Neim eyer Mahoney, 1995; Raskin Bridges,

2008; Rosen Kuehlw ein, 1996; W inter Viney, 2005) and in an increase

in therap ists using constructivist epistemology (G. J Neim eyer, Lee, Aksoy-

Toska, Phillip, 2008). Concurrently, althou gh Suzuk i, From m , and De

M artino (1960) and Watts (1961) drew attention to the relationship betw een

Bud dhism and W estern psychotherapy nearly 50 years ago, recent authors

hav e more fully elaborated on this connection (e.g., Ande rson , 2005; Dock-

ett, Dudley-G rant, Bankart,

2003;

Epstein, 2007; S. C. Hayes, Follette,

Linehan, 2004; Ka klauskas, N im anh em inda , Hoffman, Jack, 2008; B. D.

Kelly, 2008; Kw ee, Gergen, Koshikaw a, 2006; M agid, 2002; Rubin, 1996;

Segall,

2003;

Watson, 1998).

In this a rticle,

examine these two perspectives and include references that

provide elaboration beyond the scope of this presentation. I first describe

the differences between foundationalism and constructivism and then sum-

marize constructivist appro aches to dysfuncfion and p sychothe rapy. Next, I


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describe comparable assum ptions an d app roaches in Buddhist psychology.

I pro pose that constructivism an d Budd hism sh are substantial com patibility

in their metalevel assumptions as well as their views of the human situa-

tion. Finally, I prov ide ex amples of relevant psyc hothe rapeu tic app roach es.

Buddhists and constructivists agree that people cannot justify beliefs or

statements as true or

correct

The view is that knowledge is evolving inter-

dep end ently w ithin social and pe rson al contexts and is cast in conv entional

rather than absolute language. Thus, rather than attemp ting to present the

definitive explanation of construcfivist an d B udd hist psychology or an inher-

ently absolute account, I present one persp ective on the topic that inevitably

must refiect my history with the subjects and my personal understandings.

Constructivism Versus Foundationniism

The fundamental epistemological issues in construcfivist though t have recurred

in Western and Eastern history over the past 2,500 years, with increasing

interest over the past century. Because explanations invo lve com parison and

contrast, understand ing this perspecfive m ight benefit from considering b oth

sides of the debate. Thus, I app roach constructivist and B uddhist psychology

by first describing the contrasting pole of the dimen sion, founda tionalism.

oundationalism

Foundationalism, also referred to as modernism, realism, or essentialism,

argues for an autono m ous found ation to know ledge. Foun dationalists pro -

pose that reality exists in a particular form independent of human activity,

with a preexisting structure and inherent meaning. By following appropri-

ate methods, this reality remains potentially available to people, awaiting

their comprehension or discovery. Although appearances change, this real-

ity assumes a fixed or permanent underlying essence defining objects and

concepts and proposes that the universe has a specific way that it is on its

own. Thus, only one description or explanation can correctly correspond

to the way the wo rld is itself The history of knowledge describes how

we h ave replaced mist ken descriptions with correct ones. Phenomena, that

which a ppears real to our senses, possess inherent mean ing. Language and

conceptual categories reflect a reality inhe rent in na ture . Platonic philoso phy,

which identifies essence or pure form in abstract concepts, and positivist

science, which assumes that empirical methods discover preexisting truth,

both represent familiar foundationalist perspecfives.

foundationalist view tends to see psychological problems as sy m ptom s

of an underlying disorder, existing as an independent enti ty and ame-


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tional and unrealistic thinking or teaching new social skills and behaviors.

Psychological well-being consists of effective adjustment and adaptation

to the reality of the self and the environment as well as the absence of

psychological disorder.

Rockmore (2004) described how foundationalists propose that one can

know a m ind-ind epen den t wo rld as it is and that a know er possesses cog-

nitive capacities for accessing that world. The author presented a cogent

argument demonstrating that foundationalism has failed because people

have not identified a way to grasp a m ind -ind epe nd en t reality or show that

they can know the world as it is, nor can they prove what representations

of the world actually represent.

onstru tivism

Rockmore (2005) proposed that constructivism serves as the best succes-

sor to failed foundationalism. He suggested that humans only know what

hum ans construct, constrained by hum an limitations. Rather than viewing

objects of knowledge as discovered or revealed, humans construct them in

the process of developing knowledge. They can see knowledge as interpre-

tations of experience, evolving in historical contexts, dependent on human

activity, and révisable rather than fixed. Various perspectives relevant to

psycho therapy share major elements of

this

viewpo int (Chiari

N uzzo , 1996;

Raskin, 2002), including personal construct psychology (PCP; Butt & Burr,

2004; Fransella, 2003), radical constructivism (von Glasersfeld, 1995), social

constructionism (Gergen, 1999; Guterman Rudes, 2008), and po stm ode rn

psyc hology (Gergen, 2001; Safran & Messer, 1997). I label the se var ious

perspectives onstru tivist while recognizing and respecting their differing

em pha ses (Paris & Epting , 2004; Raskin, 2008).

Con structivist perspectives sugges t that hu m an s, collectively and per son -

ally, impose structure an d assign mean ing to phenom ena on the basis of their

needs and experience. Phenomena arise in contexts, change over time, and

lack fixed essence. Ideas , exp lana tions , and beliefs evolve in a social context

and reflect cha nging social conven tion rather than the wa y the wo rld is. H u-

mans use language to reflect on experience, make meaning, and cope with

life.

Because hum an s can not know reality directly, they describe experience

in a variety of ways w ith no objective way of justifying beliefs as u ltima tely

true. Rather than being concerned about the truth of beliefs, they judg e them

by their usefulness in pred icting eve nts and their fit with experience.

Constructivist perspectives view psychological problems within the con-

text of a system of mean ing tha t a pers on creates for organizing and imd er-

standing experience. System dysfunction occurs when constructions create


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onstru tivist

sychotherapy

When meanings that people create to understand and guide their lives fail

to aid effective life negotiation, constructive approaches to psychotherapy

help clients examine and reconsider these und erstan ding s. Therapists chal-

lenge their existing constructions and assist clients in reconstructing their

life story, inventing n ew self-identities, and experim enting w ith alternative

more effective ways of meaning making (Bridges & Raskin, 2008). Psycho-

logical health and w ell-being occur w hen iden tities and interpretation s lead

to effective anticipa tion of even ts and the ability to revise interp reta tions in

light of their effectiveness.

G. J. N eim eyer (1995) describ ed three central features of constru ctivist

therapy: the primacy of personal experience, the importance of novel

enactments , and the role of ' languaging ' in developing new pat terns of

per son al m ea nin g (p. 112). H e view ed clients ' pro blem s as reflecting

their construct ion system and encouraged explorat ion and elaborat ion

of new m eaning s. The therapeu t ic relat ionship serves as a m aintenan ce

lifeline.

Additionally, R. A. Neimeyer (1995, 2009) described several distinctive

features and strategies that characterize constructivist therapies, including

the following:

• Assessing clients by exploring their per son al nar rativ es and l ife

metaphors

• Prom oting persona l develop m ent and m eaning m aking rather than

correction

• Accepting negative em otions as a norm al com pone nt of change

• Em phasizing the indiv idua l's sense of self and core structure s

• Em pathically engag ing in the client's outlook

• Viewing resistance as a reasonable protection of the client's m ean ing-

making system

Bridges and Raskin (2008) emphasized constructivist psychotherapy as a

meaning-based practice concerned with the reality of the client's experience,

and the autho rs pres ented the following exam ples of five clinical strategies

or models of constructivist psychotherapies:

• Enco uraging clients to ado pt new behaviors (fixed role therap y; G. A.

Kelly, 1955)

• Bringing unconscious kno wledge into conscious aw arenes s (coherence

therapy; Ecker & Hulley, 2008)


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• Seeing clients' problem s in terms of langu age and social and cultural

factors (social constructionist therapy; McNamee, 1996)

Bridges and Raskin also em phas ized the importanc e of hon orin g the client's

viewpoint and perspective, regarding diagnoses as the constructs of the

professional rather than characteristics of the client, focusing on changes

in everyd ay behavior, and avoiding overly concrete m an ualiz ing of

therapy processes.

A Perspective on Buddhist Psychology

Many intriguing parallels can be seen between constructivist and Buddhist

appro ache s to know ledge and psychology. Because of its 2,500 year history

of evolution , the term uddhism ca nnot describe or en com pass a single set of

concepts or teachings. As Buddhism spread beyond its origins in Northern

India, it divided into two major lineages. Theravada approaches (found in

India, Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, V ietnam) m aintaine d the original teach-

ings of the historical Buddha; however, Mahayana appro ache s (found in Tibet,

China, Japan, Korea) combined B uddh ist teachings w ith existing philoso phies

(e.g., Taoism) and elaborated them further. The following explication pro-

vides a sum m ary of Buddhist concepts most relevant to constructivism and

psycho therapy and m ost frequently articulated by Western psychothe rapists.

They typically reflect esoteric, transform ative B udd hist appro aches as taught

in monastic settings and as brought to the West by teachers and teachings

from monasteries in Tibet, Japan, Korea, Thailand, Burma, and Vietnam.

These teachings are contrasted with various indigenous, devotional Bud-

dhist religious practices geared towa rd exoteric translation of experience in

conven tional term s (Wilber, 1983). Several psyc hothe rapists hav e pro vide d

more detailed elabo rations of Bu ddhist history, philosophy, and practices in

a context accessible to Western therapists (e.g., Bankart,

2003;

Kwee,

2003,

2006;

Olendzki,

2003;

W atson, 1998), and Kornfield (2008) pre sen ted an ac-

cessible overview of Bud dhist psychology from the Th eravad a p erspe ctive.

The M iddle Way School of B udd hism (Garfield, 1995; M cWilliams, 2009)

serves as a philosophical foundation for the Mahayana perspectives of Tibetan

and Z en Budd hism. It provides an epistemology intriguingly com patible w ith

the constructivist view. This Buddhist position is described as phenomenal

experience in terms of three characteristics:

dependent

origination imperma-

nence and emptiness. Dependent origination, or interconditioning (Benoit,

2004), states that phen om ena do not possess an indep end en t natu re of their

ow n. Events that peop le perceive as things de pe nd on other things for their

identity. Composites consist of parts, gain identity only as an assembly of

parts , and lose that identity wh en taken apart. Identifying a nd ackn ow ledg-


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W ithin the concept of imperm anence is the proposition that no phen om enon

has always existed in its current state or will always exist in that state or

with those qualities. This concept of imperm anence can be seen as reflected

in MacDonald's (2008) dynamicalism, which also describes the universe

as constantly changing. Phenomena come into existence when conditions

supporting their existence occur. When those conditions

no

longer occur,

the phenom ena no longer exist. People cannot distinguish p hen om ena from

the conditions that lead to their temporary existence, nor can peop le find a

perm anent essence that determines their indep end ent identity.

Emptiness, or lack of essence, represe nts a most fundam ental and yet elu-

sive Buddhist concept. Because phenomena exist only in interdependence

on other phenomena and constantly change, people cannot identify an es-

sence or identity to a phe nom enon that exists independently, perm anently,

and constitutes the entity itself. Likewise, peo ple can not isolate a substance

that gives

a

phenom enon identity indepen dent

of its

attributes. Ultimately,

if people attempt to analyze the identity of phenomena, they cannot find

something to point to as the thing itself.

People ma y mistakenly regard this view as nihilistic, sugg esting th at noth

ing exists. Instead it proposes that

o

thing exists on its own. As Garfield

(1995) stated , Ca rving out particular phenom ena for explanation . . . de-

pends more on our explana tory interests and language than on joints natu re

presents to us (p. 113). The world and the phenomena people experience

exist. Howev er, because they canno t point

to an

entity

or

thing

and

identify

it as possessing its own independent, permanent identity, any proposition

suggesting that they know ultimate truth proves incoherent. What could

they know when they cannot find a thing that exists permanently on its

own, with its own identity?

Acknowledging ord inary human asser t ions as be ing dependen t on

social convention, people can see all truth as conventional and relative.

They cannot make assertions about ultimate reality but can know reality

conventionally, on the basis of their experience of phenomena and their

customary ways

of

understanding

and

speaking about them.

The

distinc-

tion between ult imate and conventional reali ty does not p ropose two

separate realities but instead two different w ays that peo ple perceive and

conceptualize phenomena. This was expre ssed from a W estern pe rspective

by Zen practitioner Alan W atts (1961):

Buddhist texts state that

a

things

are

falsely imagined

and

with out reality

of

their ow n. . .

.

Things are relative: they have no self-existence because no one thing can be designated

withou t relation to others, and furthermore because thing is a unit of description—not

a natural entity, (pp.

48^9)


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anticipate future events. Furthermore, they can use conventional reality to

make predictions and coordinate activity w ith others. The historical B udd ha

enco uraged following social conve ntions. He suggested that people sho uld

go along with beliefs and persp ectives that prove useful and den y views that

people in general would agree as incoherent. C onven tional reality from the

Buddhist perspective evolves similarly

to how

G. A. Kelly 1955) descr ibed

cons truing. According to

G.

A. Kelly, and Bu ddhists, people perceive similari-

ties and differences, repeated themes and p attern s,

and

invent w ord labels

to

describe the poles of the contrast dim ensions. Contrasting poles arise together

and depend on each other. For example, good versus bad

light

versus

dark

and up versus

down

describe emp ty phenom ena that do not possess these

qualities inherently and depend on hum an assessment for their existence.

A Buddhist view of conventional reality corresponds to constructivist

persp ectives von Glasersfeld, 1995) regard ing wh y people cannot create just

any reality they wish.

If

they desire

a

viable un de rsta nd ing that effectively

serves human functions, environmental, biological, and social realities will

constrain it. Garfield echoed this view in Buddhist philosophy:

[Conventions] reflect our n eeds , our biological, psychological, perce ptual, and social char-

acteristics, as well as our languages a nd cu stom s. Given these constraints and conv entions,

there are inde ed facts of the matter regarding em pirical claims and regarding the m eaning

of words. But there is no transcendent stand poin t. . . from which these conventions and

constraints can be seen as justified. Garfield, 1995, p. 200

Buddhist View

of

elf

In constructivist ap proaches, self

is

viewe d as a social and perso nal c onstruc-

tion rather than

an

actually existing entity. Buddhist psychology takes this

perspective to the next level by applying the concepts of interdependence,

impermanence, and em ptiness to pe rso n and self McW illiams, 2000,2004a).

A person is viewed as a composite of five parts, elements, or attributes:

physical body, sensations, perceptions and cognitions, volition and predis-

position, and consciousness. Each of these components arises in dependent

relationship with other phen om ena . They continue to evolve and change from

moment to moment and over the course of a hu m an life. Th us, no thing can

be found to point to as the person or a self independent of the constantly

changing body, sensations,

and

thoughts. This view compares favorably

to

social construcfionism Gergen , 1999; Raskin, 2002; Shotter, 1993). Similarly,

Alan Watts 1961) described a Zen perspective on the self, suggesting that

society creates a game that makes each person an independent agent and

then makes that agent responsible for his or her actions.

s

people gain awaren ess

of

these com ponen ts and properties, they tend

to

believe that there m ust be a location, an inherent self, wh ere the com ponents


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existence of a self in dep en den t of their perceptions and actions, the p roblem

vanishe s. They m ay c ontinue to act as a self in socially conve ntional w ays .

Buddhist View of Psychological Dysfunction and Pathology

Buddhist philosophy and psychology arose from practical concerns with

lessening human suffering and dissatisfaction. Viewing phenomena as de-

pen den t, impe rma nent, and em pty and only speaking about a conventional,

constructed reality ha ve practical implications. Psychological problem s arise

by confusing relative, dependent, impermanent, and empty conventional

reality with inherent truth and ultimate reality and treating conventional

beliefs and concepts as ultimately true. Garfield (1995) described this issue

in terms of reification:

We are driven to reify ourselves, the objects in the world around us, and . . . theoretical

constructs, values, and so on because of an instinctual feeling tha t with out a n intrinsically

real

self

an intrinsically real world, an d intrinsically real values, life has no real m eanin g

and is utterly hopeless, (p. 317)

Reifying constructed interpretation s leads to living in a delusion al w orld.

H um an suffering and dissatisfaction stem from attem pts to imp ose per m a-

nenc e and inde pen den t essence out of the fiow of experience, creating w ord s

for experience, and conspiring to agree with each other that the things to

which their w ord s refer actually exist. People s desire to cling to do gm atic,

reified concepts of themselves and the wo rld as a means of creating hope and

meaning actively undermines actually reaching that goal. A reified world

in which events, pheno m ena, and things exist permanently, independently,

and with a fixed essence would not provide any hope for change, progress,

hum an action, hu m an audacity, or active hum an agency as a contributor to

coevolutionary processes (McWilliams, 2008).

But if instead we treat ourselves, others, and our values as empty, there is hope and a

purpose to life. For then, in the context of impermanence and dependence, human ac-

tion and knowledge make sense, and oral and spiritual progress become possible. It is

only in the context of ultimate nonexistence that actual existence makes any sense at all.

(Garfield, 1995, p. 318)

The historical Buddha articulated the foundation of human dysfunction

by enumerating the Four Noble Truths (Bankart, 2003; Kornfield, 2008):

• Life inherently involves suffering, frustration , or dissatisfaction bec ause

we do not always get what we want and we often do not want what

we get.


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• Certain disciplines and me thod s exist to assist us in the process of rid-

ding ourselves of clinging.

Frustration arises when people do not fulfill their desires and strivings

and w hen they are confronted with w ha t they do not we lcom e (R. P.

Hayes,

2003,

p . 161). Peop le try to red uce frustration by efforts to force the

universe to conform to their desires and avoid unpleasantness. However,

the universe continuously refuses to bend to individual will. A Buddhist

metaphor suggests that rather than trying to cover the earth w^ith leather,

people should cover the soles of their feet instead. Adjusting desires and

expectations to what the universe presents, reducing attachment to wishes

and labeling events as aversive, results in a healthy mentality open to pos-

sibilities and alternatives and adaptable to change.

Buddhist psychology describes clinging to desires and creating psycho-

logical dysfunction in terms of three poisons or fires: greed, anger, and

ignorance. Greed or passion refers to the tendency to seek out, cling to, and

desire m ore of objects and experience described as good It leads to pe rpetua l

discontent and attachment to comfort. Anger or aggression refers to the

tendency to try to avoid and eliminate objects and experience described as

bad It generates the experience of aversion to unpleasan tness, inconven ience,

and discomfort an d arrogan ce, envy, and ho lding gru dg es. Ignorance refers

to the tendency to treat impermanent, empty phenomena as real. It leads to

confusion and delusion and ignoring objects and experiences irrelevant to

self-centered interests.

A Buddhist Path: Meditation Mindfulness and

wareness

Bu ddhist practitioners overcom e dissatisfaction by cultivating aw arene ss of

the prese nt m om ent a nd throu gh the process of creating self a nd identity. By

loosening identification with social

roles,

people can see them as a game with

rules based on social convention rather than as the nature of the universe.

Un derstand ing e mptiness and ultimate versus conventional reality requires

moment-to-moment awareness of how people reify constructs and treat

impermanent, empty phenomena as ultimately, rather than conventionally,

real. variety of m editation techniques prov ide vehicles for gaining aw are-

ness of thoughts and experiencing the emptiness of phenomena, with the

goal of liberation from dogmatic clinging to reified concepts, including self

(McWilliams, 2003, 2004b). In contrast to constructivist m etho ds that focus

on inventing mo re effective w orldv iew s, med itation practices focus directly

on aw areness of the process of creating a sense of a world out of im m ediate

sensations. Meditation provides a way to observe separation from the pres-


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Intimate awareness of recurrent thoughts, beliefs, opinions, and identities

generates the experience of a connection w ith all of life and being (Chang &

Page, 1991). From a perspective of no self, meaning derives from imm ediate

physical experience and awaren ess rather than from a constructed n arrative.

Beck (1989,1993) described Zen m ed itation p ractice as paying attention to

the totality

of the

experience

of the

moment. Although this sounds simple,

it requires d isciplined practice because peo ple do not want to pay attention

to the present moment, which they do not always experience as pleasant

or desirable. They tend to filter experience in terms of likes and islikes and

imagine a future tha t will fulfill d esires and expectations. M editation practice

shifts attention from spinning in a mental world to right-here-now aware-

ness of physical sensations and thoug hts. Comfort in life deriv es from living

right-here-now experience w hether or not they like it.

Buddhist practitioners have developed a variety of meditation practices

to further this proce ss, and many approaches hav e found the following four

methods particularly useful (McWilliams, 2000):

• Focusing or concentration techniques, such as following or counting

each breath , help to settle and quiet the mind and develop initial men tal

discipline. Such concentration provides a foundation for practice but,

by itself, tends to close out aw areness of the wider world of experience.

• Observing and labeling thou ghts helps one gain familiarity with favored

thoughts

and

ultimately weak en

and

inte rrupt identification w ith them.

• Experiencing bodily sensations (sounds , touch, tensions, tightness)

helps one to develop awareness of the physical reality of the present

m om ent, which constitutes the only life reality.

• N oting em otional reactivity, by attending to physical responses to

pleasant or unpleas ant experiences, helps one to develop awareness

of physical and men tal reactions to even ts, breaking the identification

and strength of these reactions.

Benoit (2004) sugges ted tha t throug h imagination, people compensate

for an

experienced lack or defect in the self and life's intolerability, crea ting a m eta-

phorical cinema fOm to give illusory

hope.

Ideas come to people of their own

accord. By perm itting mental images, sa}àng to my image-making m ind, Do

what

you

p lease ; . . .

[but I am

going to] watch

you

do ing it' (Benoit, 2004,

p.

300),

people cause the screen to go blank and imagination produces nothing,

leaving pure attention as the remain ing experience. G uidano (1995) described a

similar Movieola technique for self-observation in constructivist psychotherapy.

Several Western writers have desc ribed these me ditation processes

in

term s

easily accessible to those without a background in Buddhist philosophy


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chapters pairing theory and m editative practice with a gra du ated pa th from

rud im enta ry to advanced practices. Miller (1995,1998) likewise pro vide d an

easily accessible introduction to mindfulness, awareness, acceptance, and

com passion practices, using exam ples from Buddhism , Christianity, Juda ism,

Islam,

and

indigenous perspectives.

To summarize,

a

Buddhist perspective

on

psychology, consistent with

constructivist perspectives, proposes that people can never have ultimate

knowledge of phenomena, including self, because of their interdependent,

impe rm anent, em pty nature. They can only describe phen om ena in conven-

tional terms tha t assist in daily living. Lan guage describing a conv entional

self may lead to reification of iden tities and roles, clinging to desires and

beliefs regard ing this delusiona l wo rld and self, and suffering and dissatis-

faction. Overcom ing dissatisfaction requires eliminating attach ment to ideas

and beliefs, particularly self-centered desires.

By

developing awaren ess

of

response s to experience

and

observing thoughts rather than believing them,

peo ple have the op po rtunity to experience psycholog ical effectiveness. Fully

embracing and accepting the experience of the present mom ent, whether it

suits them or not, and acknowledging but not attaching to thoug hts rega rd-

in g the experience bring true joy and happiness.

Buddhist Inspired Psychotherapy

Attending

to the

pro ess

of

thinking

and

feeling, rather than focusing

on the

ontent of thoughts and treating them as real, prov ides a crucial method for

overcoming self-centered attachment. Psychotherapists incorporating Buddhism

in psychotherapy (Magid, 2002; M urgatroyd, 2001; Rubin, 1996; W atson, 1998)

em phas ized process over content. Developing the ability to observe mind and

thoughts allows experiences without clinging or trying to change them and

facilitates see ing through the delusion of a fixed self. In surveys of psychothera-

pists using Bu ddhist practices (Mohan,

2003;

Rothaupt M organ, 2007), the

authors found that these practitioners typically used mindfulness techniques

such

as

awareness

of

breath

and

sensations, observing feelings,

and

other

experiential meditation techniques. Khong (2003a, 2003b) described several

facets of her B uddhist approach to psychotherapy, including the following:

• Engaging in mindfulness practice that encourages clients to label,

acknowledge, experience, and let go of their experiences (Khong,

2003b, p. 48

• Cultivating an at t i tude of direct experience and bare attention to

thoughts and sensations as they arise (Khong, 2003a)

• Emphasizing the difference between modifying mental content and


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contexts and disord ers, including addiction, existential analysis, com mu nity

psychology, anger, posttraumatic stress, health, and depression.

Complementary Psychotherapeut ic Approaches

Psychotherapists interested in pur suin g the synergy between constructivist

and Buddhist perspectives might benefit from examples of approaches to

therapy that emp hasize awareness, mindfulness, an d reducing attachments

to thoughts. This section reviews five therapeutic m ode ls, two identified with

constructivist psychotherapy, one directly inspired by Buddhist psychol-

ogy, and two that combine Buddhist and cognitive behavior approaches.

Althou gh they use differing voc abulary an d techniqu es, they share comm on

assum ptions and address comm on themes and provide well-elaborated de -

scriptions of theory an d m ethodology, rend ering them accessible to W estern

psychotherapists without grounding in Buddhist practice.

Constructivist-Based Approaches

Context centered

psychotherapy CCP).

Building o n Chilean b iologist and

cybernetician Humberto Maturana's theories of autopoiesis and structural

dete rm inism , CCP (Efran & G reene, 1996; Efran, Lu ken s, & Lu ken s, 1990;

Efran & N ash , 2004) includ es a descrip tion of hu m an life as an inhe ren tly

mea ningless drif t to which people add pu rpo se and infer meaning

through language. Participation in this drift occurs without choice, and

thoughts arise without conscious decision. Language processes include

w ords like choice

and free will

and although they affect people's lives, they

do not represent a separate reality. Thus, some words and concepts prove

inaccurate, and effective living benefits from a more accurate understand-

ing of how thought processes work. Some psychotherapists focus on the

content of dysfunctional b ehav iors, althou gh m ore typically they attend to

unde rlying processes and thou ghts. Instead, CCP addresses the psychologi-

cal

context,

the individual 's presuppositions that normally operate in the

back grou nd, in which these processes an d c ontents occur. By labeling and

describing contexts, clients can experience how contextualized thoughts

arise and dissolve away.

CCP distinguishes between

mind

self-centered strategies and survival

mechan isms, and self seen as the recognition of integral connection with

the totality of the universe (Efran

Soler-Baillo,

2008).

The larger per spec -

tive of self views mind as a component of rather than the whole person.

How ever, because protective mental strategies have survival value , they

may d om inate over experience and aw areness . The CCP approach assists


13/23

therapists hav e learned, directly challenging the mind is gen erally a futile

ex erc ise (Efran & Soler-Baillo, 2008, p. 91).

Because language provides

the

basic context

for

human meaning

and

interaction,

CCP

engages clients

in a

conversation focusing

on the

precise

use of words, particularly those that distinguish between mind and self,

and articulates terms

for

addressing

the

contrast

of

the mind 's emp hasis

on

survival with the self's focus on living. The therapis t joins the clien t's self in

an alliance aim ed at taming the client's overactive, overly zealous mind.

Successful therapy creates

a

shift from

the

smaller context

of

mind

to the

larger context

of self

(Efran & Soler-Baillo, 2008,

p.

94).

The

emphasis

on

life's inherent lack

of

meaning, although appearing nihilistic, provides

an

opportunity

for

peop le to create their ow n m eaning . The therapist ackn ow l-

edges predicaments that clients create through linguistic interpretations

but, rather than accepting them

as

real, attempts

to

cultivate aw areness

of

a larger view

and a

variety

of

available so lutions. This helps

the

client gain

awareness of the limiting assumptions they have used. As with Buddhist

m editation, this awareness b rings ab out changes automatically.

Experiential personal construct therapy A w a re n e s s of the p r e se n t m o m e n t

includes no t only the experience of though ts and beliefs bu t also bodily experi-

ences. Experienfial pe rsonal construct therapy (Leitner

Faidley, 2008; Leitner

& Thomas, 2003) elaborates

the PCP

approach

to

therapy

by

incorporating

noncogrütive aspects, including em bod imen t,

and it

emp hasizes

the

v alue of

intim ate relationships

in a

fulfilling life

and the

potenfial threat

or

terror that

such intimacy b rings. Intimate relationships may affirm or devastate central

core constructs that define life and self and that people experience bod ily as

well as cognitively.

This approach views

the

traditional division between m ind

and

body

as

an arbitrary human construction that unnecessarily restricts the utility of

psychotherapy. On the basis of the PCP assump tion of an integral universe,

in which all elements influence all other elem ents, personal m eanings have an

impa ct on bodily system s. Experiential personal con struct therap ists focus on

how psychological meaning-m aking processes manifest

in

the physiological

experience

of

bodily sensations

and

events. Core construing dev elops p rior

to language,

and the

ability

to

trust bodily experiences, through confirma-

tion

and

disconfirmation, evolves along with

the

development

of

preverbal

constructs. As a verbalized m ean ing system develops, initially sensed bodily

confirmations embed more deeply,

but

people tend

to

focus

on

verbal labels

and descriptions rather than on the bod ily experience itself.

The way people experience personal meaning within the body has significant

impHcafions for psychotherapy. Exercises that help clients develop greater bodily

awareness, as well as explorafions about how and w hy they prevent themselves


14/23

bodily experiences, such as relaxafion training and mindfulness training, may

have psychotherapeufic power to the extent that therapy draws a connecfion

between bodily processes and m eaning m aking (Leitner

Faidley, 2008).

Buddhist-Inspired Approaches

Mindfulness based cognitive therapy

MBCT).

MBCT is use d to ad ap t mind fulness-

based stress reducfion (Kabat-Zinn, 2005) to a psychotherapeufic context (Segal,

Williams, Teasdale,

2002;

Teasdale, 1999). Throug h MBCT, one d istinguishes

between metacognitive

knowledge,

as used in cognitive behavior therapies,

which helps clients recognize inaccurate cogrütions, and metacognitive insight,

which assists clients in directly experiencing thou ghts as even ts in aw areness

rather th an reflecting externa l reality. In MBCT, it is assum ed tha t the process

of assigning meaning includes specific meanings, for which one can assess

truth value, and generic meanings expressing abstract patterns of meanings

and sensory experiences, for which one cannot assign truth. These types of

meaning have different therapeutic implications because generic meanings

link with emotions and have broader psychological implications. Change

requires not just intellectual understanding but also experiential learning,

assisting clients to develop a view of thou gh ts an d feelings as ever-changing

even ts and to experience that insight directly with respect to specific thou gh ts

and feelings as they appear in awareness . This approac h focuses on chang ing

an individual's relationship to depression -related though ts and feelings, rathe r

than (as in cognitive therapy) focusing on the content of those thoughts and

feelings (Teasdale, 1999, p . 153).

In developing MBCT, Segal et al. (2002) intended to simply add mind-

fulness-based methods to their preexisting approach to cognitive therapy,

intend ing to im prove their ability to fix clients' problem s. How ever, Segal et

al. found that the appro ach evolved from a fixing orientation to solving a

problem to helping clients come into contact with the process of experienc-

ing the problem without reacting to thoughts and feelings. They used the

decentering technique, which welcomes and allows thoughts and feelings

experienced as bodily sensations. Initially regarding mindfulness practice

as another therap eutic technique, they came to ad op t their ow n mindfulness

practice as essential in the chan ge from their roles as a the rap ists or fixers

to their roles as instructors in mindfulness.

MBCT assists clients to develop the skill of recognizing their tendency

tow ard self-perpetuating patte rns of rum inative negative tho ug ht (Segal

et al., 2002, p. 75). Through MBCT, the focus chan ges from the content of the

thought to the process, by identifying a doing m ode , through wh ich one

focuses on the discrepancy betw een desires and actual experience along w ith


15/23

change , the client accepts and allows thou ghts a nd feelings to pas s th rou gh

awareness. By learning to tolerate the discomfort that normally leads cli-

ents to do something to fix it, clients experience a freshness and freedom.

MBCT for relapse prevention in clients wh o are depresse d has evolved into a

structured eight-session pro cess. In early sessions, clients learn to recognize

the doing mode and its manifestations and to use mindfulness practice to

cultivate the being m ode . Subseq uent sessions teach them to recognize w hen

negative em otions and actions trigger the doing m ode in daily life and how

to disengage and enter the being mode with the emotions. Later sessions

focus on developing a variety of coping strategies and skills.

dentity systems and bridging. Block (2005), a psych iatrist, psych oana lyst, and

Zen practitioner, focused on wha t he called the hum an

dentity

System which

helps develop individual identity and a sense of self W hen dominant, it tends

to evolve into a self-centered, rigid, and exclusive sense of overa ll iden tity a nd

restricts the ability to attend to actual experience. Building on Beck's (1989,

1993) everyday Zen approach. Block emphasized specific thoughts, called

requirements similar to core constructs (McWilliams, 2000), that reinforce a

sense of the self as dam aged or defective. Req uirements dictate how to behave

and feel and how events in the world should unfold in order to meet these

requirements. Unfilled requirements lead to tension, distress, and fear, and

futile activity trying to satisfy these requirements. Story lines and require-

ments about what must occur to repair the damage reinforce belief in this

all-encompassing self-concept, defining the pe rson as incom plete. Identifying

with story lines leads to insensitivity to actual bodily experience.

Block (2005) used the term

bridging

to refer to shifting awareness from the

Identity System to immediate physical sensations, such as sights, sounds,

or boduy sensations; doing so rests the Identity System or places it on idle.

Bridging practice also befriends the Identity System by recognizing and gain-

ing familiarity with its requirements and experiencing how the requirements

restrict experience of

life.

y shifting attention to imm ediate boduy experience,

people force thoughts to take a backseat to sensations, allowing awareness to

expand and the body to relax. Bridging practice does not strive for relaxation,

wh ich would constitute another Identity System requirement. It helps observe

two components of the Identity System, the depressor embracing a negative

story line consistent with damage and deficiency, and

the

fixer which engages

in activities to repair the damaged self

Block (2005) described several brid gin g exercises that are formulations of

Buddhist m editation techniques:

• Tuning in to background s oun ds

• A ttending to bodily sensations


16/23

As with other aw areness practices, in bridg ing, one does not attem pt to alter

these experiences but rather to gain awarenes s of them. specific te chn ique ,

m ind-bo dy m apping , exposes the workings of the Identity System by generat-

ing a w ord -pic ture of the syste m 's activity. It includes variou s m aps , such

as the fixer's to-do list, the de press or 's nega tive thoug hts, a how I w an t to

be

m ap of requirem ents, and so on. Bridging practice, an every day process

integrated into daily living, begins w ith recognizing the Identity System as

it arises (tension, worry, requirements) and attending to immediate sensa-

tions. The practice then progresses to preventing thoughts from becoming

requirements through labeling and then to spontaneous and na tural b ridging

of immediately acknowledging thoughts and letting go. Bridging practice

leads to peace of mind , a less self-centered focus, more fulfilling living, and

creating more meaning and value to existence.

Acceptance

and commitment

therapy

ACT).

Perhaps one of the most fully

elaborated, articulated, and empirically tested psychotherapy approaches

w ith clear parallels to Buddh ist views (S. C. Haye s, 2002b), ACT uses beh av-

ioral terminology. ACT (said as the single word act rests on a contextual and

pragmatic theory of language and cognition (S. C. Hay es, 2005; S. C. Hay es,

Strosahl, & Wilson, 1999). Through ACT, the emphasis is on how verbal

evaluations an d com parison s, useful for solving problems a nd plarm ing for

the future, amplify human suffering by comparing personal experience to

desired or feared events. People attempt to avoid experiences that arouse

upsetting sensations, emotions, thoughts, and so on, but attempts at such

avoidance paradoxically sustain and evoke the experiences and deflect

attention from the immediate environment. Verbal machinations attempt-

ing to explain and understand the situation, as a means of control, further

exacerbate resistance to change and lead to useless rumination and worry.

Using ACT facilitates psychological health, which is defined as living in

accordance with personally chosen values while also maintaining contact

with immediately experienced bodily sensations, thoughts, and feelings.

Its interventions aim to increase acceptance of experience, make personal

choices, and take appropriate action by

• reduc ing the tendenc y to fuse thou gh ts w ith experience;

• weaken ing experiential avoidance ;

• accepting troublesome sensations, feelings, and thou gh ts willingly;

• contacting a sense of self that transcen ds one's ever-chang ing tho ug hts

and sensations;

• clarifying im po rtan t life valu es;

• com mitting to beh aving in accordance w ith those values;

• continuously attending to, acknow ledging, and accepting thoug hts


17/23

experiences, observing self-processes, clarifying meaning and values, and

mo nitoring comm itm ent to actions.

The ACT model includes specific steps for

• challenging clients norm al age nda s for chang e,

• helping them see that attem pts at control create prob lems rather tha n

serving as a solution,

• attacking the arrogance and literality of language practices in the service

of building greater w illingness to accept actual experience,

• shifting notio ns of self from a limiting self-concept to an observe r,

• clarifying valu es,

• und erstan ding the relationship betwee n process and outcome,

• facilitating app lied willingness to com mitted action.

Each of these steps in the ACT process includes a clear theoretical rationale

tied to the overall model of human suffering; an explication of the clinical

focus of the step ; and a variety of exam ples of specific techniqu es, exercises,

metaphors, and dos and don ts, along with relevant clinical case examples

(S. C. Hayes et al., 1999).

rec utions

Although m any therapists embrace an eclectic approach by adop ting methods

from

a

variety of contexts, others have cau tioned abou t

the

potential haza rds

of

lifting techniques independently of a clearly un ders tood theoretical context (S.

C. Hayes, 2002a; McWilliams, 1981; Watson, 1998). Many Buddh ist the rapists

insist that in order to teach Buddhist m etho ds to clients approp riately and ef-

fectively, practitioners should adopt a disciplined practice of their own (Hick

Bien, 2008). As described earlier, Segal et al. (2002) found their ow n prac tice

necessary for training their clients to use mindfu lness techniques in MBCT.

Ideally, such practice should preferably occur under the tutelage of a

well-qualified meditation teacher, who can provide appropriate guid-

ance and assistance. As w ith V ygotsky s conc ept of sc ffolding (Langford,

2005; Schaffer, 1992), a teacher may help the learner achieve the desired

outcomes and preclude erroneous understanding. Furthermore, Buddhist

psychology regards meditation and mindfulness practice as a lifelong,

ong oing process rath er than one tha t leads to a specific goal, level of skill,

or arriving at perfection.

Many approaches describe life span development in terms of levels or

stages that m us t be mastered before evolving to the next stage (Kegan, 1982,

1994;

Wilber, 2000), where identity at one stage evolves into a part of the


18/23

A s Engler (1986) des cribe d it ,

you

have to be somebody before

you

can be nobody

(p . 24). Therapists who ignore this distinction might find that mindfulness

techniques m ay do m ore harm than good in clients with weak self-boundaries.

Concluding Remarks

Buddhist and constructivist psychology can be viewed as comparable and

similar in their focus on liberation from the confinement of attachm ent to self

centered though ts and grasping for an illusory wo rld by culfivating awareness

and clearer perception. These processes sup po rt p eople in achieving a larger

sense of meaning, freedom from automatic responses and rigid identifica-

tions, and m ore flexible ways of addressing ever-changing events. Althoug h

psychotherapy may focus on freedom from particular areas of suffering and

Buddhism addresses a more comp lete liberation from attachment to conven-

tional truths (W atson, 1998), they share the ultimate goal of hum an freedom.

Psychotherapists have effectively applied constructivist- and Buddhist-

oriented methods, whether specifically identified as such or within other

theoretical formulations, to a variety of approaches with a variety of cli-

ent populations. Because of their similar and compatible epistemologies

and views of human dissatisfaction, additional complementary influences

between Buddhist and constructivist psychotherapy can be anticipated

as postmodern psychology continues to evolve toward a greater sense of

spirituality, plurality, and diversity in ways of understanding and address-

ing the human situation.

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