Bristow Instrument Flying new

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Instrument Flying ManualIF/12/1

Combined PAAN Dec 2006

1 INTRODUCTION

Purpose

This Manual is intended to provide pilots with a reference for the techniques requiredto operate an aircraft under Instrument Flight Rules. It is particularly directed to pilotstraining for an Instrument Rating Qualification.

See Appendix 1 for Course details.

Publications

In addition to this Manual, you are expected to read and familiarise yourself with therelevant sections of the following documents:

Operations ManualThe Air Navigation Order (or JAR Ops equivalent)

The UK Air PilotThe Aerad Flight Guide or

The Jeppesen Airways ManualProfessional Pilots' Licences - JAR FCL

Training Aids

Initially, you will receive a number of lectures on the skills and techniques required

which will be punctuated with short practical exercises in a Procedure Trainer. As thecourse a progress, more and more emphasis is placed on practical exercises and, at a

suitable stage, these exercises may be conducted in a Flight Simulator appropriate totype. Finally, your training will be completed in the aircraft under the supervision of a

Company TRI/TRE.


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THE INSTRUMENT RATING TEST

The privileges of the Instrument Rating (Helicopters) are specified in JAR-FCL 2.180.

All applicants for the grant of an Instrument Rating (Helicopters) will be required to pass

a flight test conducted by a CAA Flight Examiner.

Under JAR-FCL 2, the flight (or Skill ) test is divided into six sections, failure in morethan one of which will require a complete re-test. Failure in only one section will requirea re-test of that section only.

The six sections are:

Section 1 DepartureSection 2 General Handling

Section 3 En Route IFR ProceduresSection 4 Precision Approach

Section 5 Non-Precision Approach

Section 6 Abnormal and Emergency Procedures.

The Single-(SE) and Multi-Engine (ME) tests are the same, with the obvious exceptionthat the ME test includes an engine failure procedure, which may be carried out in

Section 4 or 5. However, a ME Upgrade from an existing SE Instrument Rating willconsist simply of:

1. Departure2. One Engine Inoperative (OEI) ILS

3. Go-around from DA/DH.------------------------------------------------4. Non-Precision Approach

5. Unusual positions6. IF Autorotation.

At BHL Aberdeen, items 1-3 will normally be flown in the aircraft, while 4-6 are carriedout in the simulator.


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Limits

The Limits set by JAR are as follows:

Height: 100 feet generally+ 50 ft / -0 ft starting go-round at DH

+ 50 ft / -0 ft at MDH / MAPt

Tracking: 5 on Radio Aids scale deflection on ILS azimuth and glide path

Heading 5 all engines 10 with simulated engine failure.

Speed: 5 kts all engines

+ 10 / -5 kts with simulated engine failure.

Limits (contd)

Additionally you are required to:

- Operate the helicopter within its limitations- complete all manoeuvres smoothly and accurately

- exercise good judgement and airmanship- apply aeronautical knowledge- maintain control at all times in such a manner that the successful outcome of

a procedure or manoeuvre is never seriously in doubt.

The examiner will make allowance for turbulent conditions and for any abnormalcircumstances, but as a candidate your task is to fly as closely as you can to these

standards.


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Conduct of Test

As candidate you should remember that forecast winds. are not actual winds. Evenreported winds will vary with time and position. So while pre-planning is useful, once

airborne you should have a flexible attitude of mind and fly what you find, not whatyou planned.

A successful IRT is as much about organisation as it is about flying. Have a plan forwhere you do checks, when you change Navaids etc. This, too, will not be possible to

stick to exactly, but an existing plan can be modified, whereas no plan meanschaos

Do not have useless information displayed. At best it will distract you at worst

positively mislead you. So when you come to Navaids in a checklist, review yourselections and consider whether they are the best for that stage of the flight. Not just

the ADF and NAV receivers either. Check that the HSI display is appropriate. Forexample, what is the Beam Bar indicating, an ILS or a VOR?

Intelligent use of the checklist, in accordance with the Ops Manual, will assist in theoverall management of the flight. There is guidance on this at the end of Chapter 15

Icing conditions are assumed throughout. Make regular checks for icing every 1000 ftwhen changing altitude or every 2 minutes otherwise.


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2 ABBREVIATIONS

Many abbreviations will be found in the documentation to be studied and some will beself evident. The following list is not intended to be complete but will help the

candidate in the familiarisation process.

aal Above Aerodrome LevelA/D AerodromeADR Advisory Routeagl Above Ground LevelApp ApproachARA Airborne Radar ApproachASR Altimeter Setting RegionATA Actual Time of ArrivalATC Air Traffic ControlATIS Automatic Terminal Information ServiceA/W AirwayBB Back BeamBCP Break Cloud ProcedureCat. CategoryCh ChannelC/L Centre LineCLNC ClearanceCON Consol Beaconcont Continuousc/s CallsignCTA Control Area

CTR Control ZoneDA Decision AltitudeDEP DepartureDH Decision HeightDME Distance Measuring EquipmentDOC Designated Operational CoverageDT or DCT Direct TrackD.THR Displaced ThresholdEAT Expected Approach TimeELEV ElevationETA Estimated Time of ArrivalETD Estimated Time of Departure

FAF Final Approach FixFAP Final Approach PointFAT Final Approach TrackFATO Final Approach / Take Off areaFL Flight LevelFM Fan MarkerFPM Feet per MinuteFSD Full Scale Deflection


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ABBREVIATIONS (cont'd)

GP Glide PathGS Glide Slope

h Pa Hecto PascalIAF Initial Approach Fix

IAS Indicated AirspeedIF Intermediate Approach Fix

IFR Instrument Flight RulesIGS Instrument Guidance SystemILS Instrument Landing System

IM Inner MarkerIMC Instrument Meteorological Conditions

Kt KnotsL Locator Beacon (low powered NDB)

LLZ ILS LocaliserLMM Locator/Middle MarkerLOM Locator/Outer Marker

MAP Missed Approach Pointmb MillibarMDA Minimum Descent Altitude

MDH Minimum Descent HeightMkr Marker

MM Middle MarkerMNR Minimum Noise Route

MOCA Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude

MORA Minimum Off Route AltitudeMSA Minimum Safe Altitude

MSL Mean Sea LevelNDB Non-directional BeaconOCA Obstacle Clearance Altitude

OCH Obstacle Clearance HeightOM Outer Marker

PAR Precision Approach RadarPF Pilot FlyingPNF Pilot Not Flying

QDM Magnetic Bearing to FacilityQDR Magnetic Bearing from Facility

QFE Altimeter will read Height Above Ground DatumQNE Standard Altimeter Setting (1013.2mb (H Pa) 29.92 insQNH Altimeter will read Altitude Above Sea Level

RMI Radio Magnetic IndicatorROD Rate of Descent

RVR Runway Visual RangeR/W Runway


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ABBREVIATIONS (cont'd)

SCA Safe Clearance Altitude (for definition seeAerad Flight Information Supplement Section AER 16)

SDF Step Down FixSID Standard Instrument DepartureSMAP Standard Missed Approach Procedure

SRA Surveillance Radar ApproachSSA Safe Sector AltitudeSTAR Standard Arrival RouteT. Lev Transition levelTDZ Touchdown Zone

THR ThresholdTMA Terminal Control Area

T/O Take Off

TP Turning PointUFN Until Further Notice

Var VariationVOR Very High Frequency Omni-directional Radio Range

wef With Effect From

This list only covers the more common abbreviations encountered when operatingIFR.


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3 TRACKING

One of the basic essentials of procedural instrument flying is the ability of a pilot toestablish and accurately maintain (within 5) his aircraft on a particular magnetic track

to, or from a radio beacon.

In nil wind conditions, flying along a particular QDM is simply a matter of flying acompass heading exactly equal to the track. The RMI would display the scene asshown below:

In reality nil wind conditions very rarely occur so the heading flown must allow for drift.If the drift factor is a known figure then the heading to fly to maintain a given track is

simply the QDM drift angle, the RMI now displaying, in a southerly wind, the sceneas shown below:

Wind direction and speed, however, are not normally constant figures, so the headingflown will need to vary slightly in order to maintain a steady track. The size anddirection of the heading variations will be dependent upon the variations in windvelocity and the distance of the aircraft from the navigation aid.


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TRACKING (cont'd)

Some simple rules will help the pilot to decide quickly and correctly which way to turn ifa track error becomes apparent:

a. When the RMI needle head is LEFT of the desired track turn to the left (or headLEFT) - see Figure 4-3

b. When the RMI needle head is RIGHT of the desired track turn to the right (orhead RIGHT) - see Figure 4-4

These rules apply only when tracking towards a beacon.

Desired track 090 so turn left Desired track 090 so turn right

It is always preferable to anticipate drift rather than allow an aircraft to drift off track

before making a correction. Anticipation of events can greatly reduce a pilot'sworkload.

Anticipation must become a natural input and, with experience, we will learn thesignificance and end result when corrections which include a level of anticipation areapplied.

For example, the amount of anticipation required will vary dependent upon:

a. Your distance from the overhead of the facility. The closer you are to the station,the faster will be the speed of rotation of the RMI needle.

The angle through which the aircraft has to be turned. i.e. The greater the headingchange, the greater the required anticipation


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Rule of Thumb Suggestion

When tracking towards a beacon, always turn towards the needle head to correct anerror.

When tracking away from a beacon, the head of the needle will continue to point to thenavigation aid and the tail of the needle will point along the desired track. The nil wind

display for a track of 090 is shown below:

If drift is included in the problem the display would possibly be as shown below withthe aircraft tracking 090 but flying a heading of 098 to compensate for a wind from

the right of the desired track.


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Rule of Thumb Suggestion (cont'd)

When a track error develops the pilot will again have to decide quickly and correctlywhich way to turn:

a. When the RMI needle tail is LEFT of the desired track turn to the RIGHT - seeFigure 4-7 below.

b. When the RMI needle tail is RIGHT of the desired track turn to the LEFT - See

Figure 4-8 below.

These rules apply only when tracking away from a beacon.

Desired track 090 so turn right Desired track 090 so turn left

When tracking away from a beacon, turn away from the tail of the needle to correct anerror.

Page 4.8 to this Chapter diagrammatically displays drift angles for an airspeed of 100

knots - however, be flexible. Remember that the wind velocity at altitude may not be

as forecast so you must be prepared to modify your planned figures and "fly what youfind".

Track Interception

A common in-flight requirement is to join a particular track to or from a beacon e.g. tojoin an airway. The quickest method to achieve a particular QDM is to fly an intercept

track at 90 to that QDM. However, there is no progress towards the beacon.

Alternatively, if we make the interception angle too small, the aircraft will not establish

the desired QDM until almost overhead the beacon.

An efficient interception is one which allows the aircraft to make some progresstowards the beacon and also enables it to reach the desired track quickly. We need arule which will assist the calculation of an efficient heading to turn on to when

commencing the interception.


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Intercepting a QDM

In most cases an intercept angle of 30, relative to the QDM which the aircraft isactually on at the moment when the interception commences, provides the most

efficient route. Allowance must be made for wind effect when deciding on the headingwhich will maintain this 30 interception track. Once the heading has been decided,the aircraft should be turned the shortest way round on to the new heading. The

original heading, prior to commencing the interception, is not relevant to thecalculations, only to the direction of the turn.

When looking at the RMI to determine the QDM the aircraft is actually on beforeinterception commences, it is possible to add orsubtract 30 and therefore calculate

the intercept track incorrectly. To avoid this, always choose the 30 on the oppositeside of the RMI needle head to the desired QDM. e.g. If the RMI indicates 060, and

the desired QDM is 090, the intercept track will be 030 (see Figure 4-9)

This technique gives an efficient intercept only within a relatively narrow segment

about 45 either side of the required QDM. It may still be used outside this segmentprovided that, as the QDM is approached, the calculation is repeated until an efficientintercept is achieved.

As the aircraft approaches the desired QDM it will be necessary to anticipate the turnon to the desired QDM. The level of anticipation required will vary dependent uponthe distance from the beacon, wind effect, speed of aircraft etc. Start by anticipatingthe turn by 5 and, as you gain experience, you will learn to judge the turn on to a

finer level.


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Five Steps

We can summarise the suggested technique by listing five steps:

1. Mark desired figure (QDM)2. Look at actual QDM3. Calculate 30 either side of actual QDM

4. Select track furthest away from desired QDM5. Turn shortest way to make good this track

Intercepting a QDR

When intercepting a QDR, there can be less urgency attached to reaching the desiredtrack, as the aircraft is moving away from the beacon. It is therefore possible to make

better progress in the required direction and reach the desired track rather later.

However, there will be specific instances where a greater degree of urgency will beplaced on the need to reach the desired track and each interception should be fullyreviewed in order to satisfy each particular case.

In order to determine the intercept track, apply the 30 angle to the desired QDRfigure. This will provide two possible answers. The correct intercept track will be the

figure that is on the opposite side of the desired QDR to the present reading on the tailof the RMI needle. e.g. If the desired QDR is 090 and the RMI tail reads 140, thenthe intercept track will be 060 (Figure 4-10). Now turn the shortest way to the new

heading. Remember, you have just calculated an intercept track, the heading to flywill have to be corrected for wind effect.


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Circumstances may arise where a greater degree of urgency has to be placed onintercepting the desired QDR - many Standard Instrument Departure routes provide

typical examples. In such cases the angle of 30 used in Figure 4-10 just has to beincreased in order to accelerate the intercept process. We could choose 45 or even

60 to achieve our goal - judge each case and make your calculation dependent uponthe level of urgency. Figure 4-11 shows the same scenario but a greater degree ofurgency has been placed on the intercept: desired QDR is 090, RMI tail reads 140,

apply a 45 angle to calculate intercept track (answer 45).

Four Steps

We can summarise the suggested technique by listing four steps:

1. Mark desired figure (QDR)

2. Calculate 30either side of desired QDR3. Select track which is furthest away from actual QDR4. Turn shortest way to make good this intercept track


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Tracking from Overhead

When tracking to overhead a beacon followed by a turn to establish a new QDR fromthe overhead, it will be necessary to reduce the intercept angle due to the effect of the

aircraft being very close to the facility. In this case, an intercept angle ofapproximately 20 (excluding any drift allowance) will be sufficient, depending on theangular difference between the inbound and outbound tracks.

NB:HSI: Use of Course and Heading Setting Facilities

When a Heading Bug is fitted:i. It should not be used in procedural flying as a wind indicator

ii. It may be used to indicate track or heading.

The Course Set is usually associated with the required navaid.


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Table 4-1 Head/Tail Wind Components

Windspeed - kts

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

10 5 10 15 20 25 29 34 39 44

20 5 9 14 19 23 28 33 38 42

30 4 9 13 17 22 25 30 35 39

40 4 8 11 15 19 23 27 31 34

50 3 6 10 13 16 19 23 26 29

60 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23

70 2 3 5 7 9 11 12 14 15

80 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 8

90 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 4-2 Single Drift Table

Windspeed - kts

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45

10 1 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 4

20 1 2 2 4 5 5 6 7 8

30 1 3 4 5 7 8 9 11 12

40 2 3 5 7 8 10 12 14 15

50 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 1860 2 4 6 9 11 13 16 18 20

70 3 5 7 10 12 15 17 20 22

80 4 5 7 10 13 16 18 21 23

90 3 5 8 10 13 16 18 21 23

Single Drift (degrees)

Note: These tables are intended for ground study rather than to be used in the air.


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Calculation in Flight

While the Drift Tables are useful in pre-flight planning, they are inconvenient to use inthe air. The following method of mental calculation is offered, which will give results

very close to the tabled figures.

First assess the Maximum Drift (MD). This is given by:

Wind Speed (knots)

TAS (miles/minute)

For a helicopter this is simple, as TAS will typically be close to 2 miles per minute, so

the MD is wind speed, expressed in degrees.

Having established MD, we need to know how much of the maximum actually affectsus, on our track relative to the wind. To do this, we use the analogy of a clock face.

60/00

30

Figure 4-13

The segment marked represents a quarter of an hour. By calling the minutes"degrees", we can say 15 off our heading will give a quarter of Maximum Drift.

Similarly 30 gives half MD, 40 gives two thirds MD and so on. Any wind at 60 ormore relative to our heading is considered to give maximum drift.

Example: Hold orientation 164/344Wind velocity 310/25 kts

Step 1: Max Drift = 25 2 = 13

Step 2: Wind Angle = 344 - 310 = 34

34 minutes is about hour so MD = 6 or more practically 7.Answer: Single Drift in the Hold is 7. Compare this with the Table.

A similar method is available for finding the amount of head/tail wind component to usein timing calculations. It is slightly less convenient as the extra step:

"90 - Wind Angle"

is necessary to change from an across track calculation to an along track one. Havingdone this however, the resulting angle is used on the clock face in the same way to

obtain head or tail wind component.


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The Holding Pattern


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Definition

A predetermined manoeuvre which keeps an aircraft within a specified airspace whileawaiting further clearance. The shape and terminology associated with the standardpattern are shown in Figure 5-1.

a. All turns are to be made at rate 1 (3 per second) or at a bank angle of 25,whichever requires the lesser bank. (The bank angle for a Rate 1 turn = IAS x1.5 divided by 10).

b. All holding patterns are orientated to the RIGHT unless otherwise instructed byATC, or, as established at certain holding points.

c. Outbound timing commences abeam the holding fix. If the abeam position cannotbe determined, start timing when turn to outbound leg is complete.

d. The outbound leg will be flown for 1 minute (still air) unless otherwise instructedby ATC.

e. If the outbound leg length is based on a DME distance, the outbound legterminates as soon as the limiting DME distance is attained.

f. Figure 1 is a representation of a still air holding pattern - the 30 offset angle atthe end of the outbound leg can only be correct in a still air scenario.


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Corrections For Wind Effect

Due allowance will be made by the pilot in heading and timing to compensate for theeffects of known wind.

Timing Corrections

In determining the length of the outbound leg, a correction factor of one second forevery two knots of wind component should be applied to the ABEAM or ON HEADINGtime.

Example:

If the wind in Figure 1 had been 090/20 the time for the outbound leg would be 1minute 10 seconds from abeam.

If the wind had been 270/20 the outbound leg would be 50 seconds from abeam.

Drift Corrections

In an East/West orientated hold with a wind velocity of 360/20 the drift for theoutbound/inbound legs is approximately 10. If no correction for drift is made for thetwo 180 turns the hold will be shaped as in Figure 5-2.

To allow for the wind effect during the two turns an additional allowance of single driftfor each turn is added to the drift on the outbound leg, making a total application ofTREBLE DRIFT on the outbound leg. Assuming a wind velocity of 360/20 theresultant shape of the pattern will be as shown in Figure 5-3.


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Drift Corrections (cont d)

By the same principle, if the wind velocity is 180/20, the shape of the hold will be as inFigure 5-4.


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Drift Corrections (cont d)

It should be noted that the application of treble drift does not always produce acorrectly shaped hold. In particular, when wind direction is within 30 of the

QDM/QDR a drift figure of between double and treble will result in a correctly shapedpattern.

As conditions will seldom be exactly as forecast, a certain amount of trial and error willbe necessary before establishing the correct headings and times to fly.

During a Flight Test the primary goals of the Holding Pattern are:

a. To establish and track the QDMb. To time the outbound leg for one still air minute, adjusting the timing with

knowledge of actual conditions.

Warning: Application of drift on the outbound leg does not normally exceed 45 i.e.an accurate hold cannot be expected in winds requiring such large drift corrections.

Much of the workload in the hold can be reduced by using a good routine such as thefollowing. Upon arrival over the holding fix:

T - Time (Stop clock - check time - restart clock abeam)T - Turn (Rate 1 to outbound heading)T - Talk (Transmit to ATC - ref Page 7.2)T - Torque (Descend if appropriate and when cleared)

Some differences of technique will be necessary if holding on a VOR. Read Chapter13.


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4 THE HOLDING PATTERN - ENTRY PROCEDURES

The entry into the holding pattern shall be according to the magnetic heading beingflown at the holding fix, in relation to the three entry sectors shown in Figure 6-1. A

zone of flexibility of 5 exists on either side of the sector boundaries.

The three sectors radiating from a facility are devised by:

a. Extending the QDM through the facility and

b. Drawing a line at 70 through the facility. For a right hand hold (STARBOARD) -subtract 70 from the QDM. For a left hand hold (PORT) -add 70 to the QDM.


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Entry Procedures

Sector 1 Procedure - Parallel Entry

Having reached the holding fix the aircraft is turned on to an outbound heading whichwill parallel the QDR. The outbound leg is flown for 1 still air minute before turning intothe holding side to intercept the QDM orreturn directly to the holding fix.

NOTE: An examiner will need to know which technique is being applied.

Figure 6-2 shows an example of a Parallel Entry.


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Sector 2 Procedure - Offset Entry

Having reached the holding fix, the aircraft is turned onto a heading to make good atrack making an angle of 30 from the QDR on the holding side. That heading is flown

for a maximum of one still air minute before turning to intercept the QDM of the hold.

NOTE: The outbound track is not necessarily a QDR.

Sector 3 Procedure - Direct Entry

Having reached the holding fix, the aircraft is turned to follow the holding pattern.

However, as the aircraft can be anything up to 110 off the QDM on arrival at theholding fix, considerable errors can be built into the procedure. It is necessary tomake adjustments to the normal hold procedure if the aircraft crosses the holding fix

displaced from the QDM by 30 or over. We will consider the problem from the non-holding side and from the holding side.


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Entry Procedures (cont d)

Non-holding Side Procedure: If the aircraft arrives at the holding fix displaced by 30or more from the hold QDM, it will be necessary to maintain the heading flown at the

holding fix for 5 seconds for each 30 of displacement before turning onto theoutbound heading. Timing is taken from abeam or, if this is not possible, from ONHEADING. Figure 6-4 shows an example of an aircraft approaching the facility at 90

to the inbound track. The heading flown at the facility will therefore be flown for aperiod of 15 seconds before turning to follow the holding pattern.

Holding Side Procedure: An aircraft can cross the holding fix at anything up to 70displaced from the inbound track and must of necessity initially turn outside the still air

holding pattern. Thus, if a Rate 1 turn was flown onto the outbound leg heading, theresultant hold would be flown inside the still air pattern. To compensate for this, the

Rate 1 turn is stopped at 90 to the QDM/QDR for a period of 5 seconds for each 30displacement at the facility. In Figure 6-5 the turn is stopped for 10 seconds due to theaircraft's heading of 210 at the facility


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Entry Procedures (cont'd)

The assessment of timing corrections and application of treble drift remains as for anormal hold.


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As with all instrument procedures, the use of a "routine" or "aide memoir" can be agreat help. The following examples may be of use:

Example 1 - To Join a Right Hand Hold

Assume the aircraft heading is 360 and the holding pattern is right hand with anoutbound leg of 243 (QDM is 063). Look at the compass card. As it is a right handhold, imagine a line across the card drawn at 70 to the RIGHT of the heading index to

the centre of the card. The card is now in 3 sections, number them as you would forhold entry sectors. The section that the hold outbound heading falls in is the type of

join required. In Example 1, a Sector 3 Direct Entry is required.


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Entry Procedures(cont'd)

Example 2 - To Join a Left Hand Hold

Draw a line across the card 70 to the LEFT of the aircraft heading. Hold entry sectorsare again numbered (the smallest must always be Sector 2 and the largest Sector 3).The outbound heading falls in Sector 1, therefore a parallel entry should be flown.


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Example 3 - Aircraft Equipped with an HSI

This method is relatively easy to follow. Use the beam bar to lay along the line drawnat 70 to the aircraft heading and use the heading bug to lay on the outbound headingof the hold. Imagine a line drawn from the heading index to the centre of the HSI and

read the entry procedure off the heading bug.

REMEMBER: It is your heading at the facility which will determine your joining

procedure.


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5 RADIOTELEPHONY PROCEDURES

It is important, particularly during IFR operations, to adhere to accurate and standardR/T phraseology. When visual separation of aircraft is not possible, your safetydepends upon strict adherence to correct procedures.

Procedures

Read back: The following ATC instructions must be read back in full and concludedwith a transmission of the aircraft Callsign.

En Route ClearancesAltimeter SettingsFrequency ChangesHeading InstructionsLevel InstructionsSpeed Instructions

SSR Operating InstructionsClearance to enter or cross an active runwayClearance to Take-Off or LandVDF Information

Acknowledgement: If an ATC transmission simply requires an acknowledgement, thetransmission of the aircraft identification with no other word/phrase, is the correctprocedure.

Transmission of Time: When transmitting time by radiotelephony, only the minutes ofthe hour are normally required. However, if there is any possibility ofmisunderstanding, the hour is to be included.

Position Reporting: Position reports must be passed under the followingcircumstances:

On reaching the limit of ATS clearanceWhen instructed by ATCWhen operating helicopters in the North Sea Low Level Radar Advisoryand Flight Information areas of responsibilityAt compulsory reporting points.

The initial call after changing radio frequency shall contain only the aircraft

identification and flight level.

Unless otherwise instructed, a standard position report must contain the followingelements:

Aircraft Identification e.g. Exam 37Position and Time Glesk 23Flight Level or Altitude FL 80Next Position and Estimated Time PTH 52


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NOTE: It disrupts ATC if the order of such reports is not closely adhered to, and thelikely result will be a request for repetition

The Holding Pattern: Aircraft need only make calls to ATC on initially passing over the

beacon when joining the hold and when leaving the hold to continue en-route, or tocommence an instrument approach. No other calls whilst holding are required, unless

requested by ATC.

Table 7-1 Example

1st Pass Last Pass

G-BHDCPS

4000 feet

Entering the Hold

G-DCLeaving the Hold

Or

Beacon Outbound

Instrument Approaches: A standard list of Radio calls is difficult to list due to thevariety of types of Instrument Approach that are liable to be encountered. A number of

examples are shown below but do remember to always make the call that ATC hasrequested.

Table 7-2 Radio Calls

LOCATION RADIO CALL

Commencing the Initial Approach

Completion of the Initial Approach

Interception of Glidepath on ILSApproach

Overhead Final Approach Fix

Missed Approach

1. "Beacon Outbound" or2. "Outer Marker Outbound"

1. "Base Turn Complete" or

2. "Procedure Turn Complete"3. "Localiser Established"

1. "Fully Established" or2. "ILS Established"

1. "Beacon Inbound" or

2. "Outer Marker Inbound" or3. "4 DME" (or other DME fix designated)

1. "Going Around

Changing Altitude: Each time a climb or descent is commenced, ATC must beinformed that the aircraft is leaving its present level or altitude, and again informedwhen the aircraft reaches its assigned level or altitude.


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NOTE: During Instrument Approaches this information need not be passed unlessspecifically requested by ATC.

Summary

The efficient use of radiotelephony depends to a great extent on the user. Over theyears we tend to develop bad habits, so, to ensure we maintain a high standard of R/T

discipline, the following points should be remembered:

Listen out before transmittingThink before transmitting - know what you are going to sayAvoid the use of excessive courtesies and verbosity

Listen to the reply - do not assume it will be the expected acknowledgement:If in doubt about a clearance - recheck.


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6 APPROACH PROCEDURES

The design of an instrument approach procedure is, in general, dictated by the terrainsurrounding the airfield, the performance of the aircraft and the type of operations

contemplated. The type and siting of navigation aids in relation to the airfield will beinfluenced by these factors and also by any relevant airspace restrictions.

An instrument approach procedure may have up to five separate segments:

Arrival: Initial: Intermediate: Final: Missed Approach:

These segments begin and end at designated fixes but may, under some

circumstances begin at specified points where no fixes are available. e.g. Theinterception of final approach may originate at the point of intersection of the

designated intermediate approach altitude with the normal glidepath.

Each segment of an approach procedure can be briefly defined as follows:

Arrival: The part of the route from the point where an aircraft departs its en route

phase and is cleared to an initial approach fix. The arrival route ends at the initialapproach fix.

Initial: This segment commences at the initial approach fix (IAF) and ends at theintermediate fix. During this phase the aircraft will adhere to the published track

guidance and descent profile information.

Intermediate: This is the segment during which the aircraft speed and configurationshould be adjusted to prepare the aircraft for final approach. The segment beginswhen the aircraft is on the inbound track having completed its course reversal and

ends at the Final Approach Fix (FAF).

Where no FAF is specified the Intermediate Approach Segment becomes part of the

Final Approach Segment.

Final: This segment begins at the FAF and ends at the Missed Approach Point(MAP).

State Minima

After commencing descent in a procedure, it is possible that some, or all, subsequentcharted altitudes/heights will be designated "State Minima".Note: AERAD and Jeppesen charts do not always make this clear.

Where a state minimum is designated, it has a tolerance of -0 feet.

Reference to the appropriate AIP will give the required guidance by use of the term"descend to not below". The term "not below" means State Minimum.


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APPROACH PROCEDURES (contd)

If the term "not below" is omitted the altitude/height in question is not a State Minimumi.e. "descend to" and has a tolerance of 100 feet.

If in doubt, treat Intermediate and Final Approach segment heights/altitudes as a

StateMinima

Missed Approach

During this phase you are faced with the demanding task of changing the aircraftconfiguration, attitude and altitude. For this reason Missed Approaches are kept as

simple as possible. The segment commences at the MAP and will provide protectionfrom obstacles throughout the manoeuvre.

Instrument approaches are divided into two categories, Precision and Non-precision.The Precision approach provides the pilot with guidance in both plan and profile e.g.

ILS or PAR. The Non-precision approach provides guidance only in plan with advisoryheights provided in written or spoken form. e.g. NDB, VOR or ARA.

All approaches will follow the basic format previously discussed but there are manypossible designs due to the variety of navigation aid positioning in relation to the

airfield. Appendix A shows a variety of possible designs.

In the diagrams the segments are shown as:

A to B = Arrival

B to C = Initial* C to D = Intermediate

* D to E = FinalE to F = Missed Approach

* In the case of Example 3 there is no FAF so there is no intermediate approachsegment. Therefore:

C to E = Final

Missed Approach Point

If the required visual reference is not established a missed approach must be initiatedat once in order for protection from obstacles to be maintained. The point at which theMissed Approach is initiated will vary dependent on the type of procedure flown.

Possible examples are:


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Missed Approach (cont d)

1. Overhead a navigational facility

2. A specified distance from the Final Approach Fix3. A fix (e.g. using DME)

4. The point of intersection of an electronic guide path with the applicable DecisionHeight.

Figure 8-1


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The Instrument Landing System (ILS)

The ILS is the primary approach aid at all major airports. The ground installation is

constantly monitored by ATC and the CAA carry out regular calibration checks. Thereare various categories of ILS and these are fully described in Chapter 9.

The system comprises of three main elements:

The Localiser (LOC or LLZ) which provides tracking guidance along the extendedcentre line of the runway.

The Glideslope (GS or GP), which provides vertical guidance towards the runwaytouchdown point, usually at a slope of approximately 3 to the horizontal.

Marker Beacons, which provide accurate range fixes along the approach. On someILS approaches, Locator Beacons (low powered NDB's) and/or DME fixes may be

substituted for Marker Beacons and, in other cases, used in conjunction with MarkerBeacons.

Serviceability of the system can be checked by confirming the correct morseidentification is heard and that the red warning flags adjacent to the LOC and GS

indicators are not in view. Some aircraft have a built in test sequence so that theaircraft equipment can be fully tested before flight.

The cockpit display will take the form of a deviation indicator with horizontal andvertical needles displaying glideslope and localiser information. Although the left/right

indications appear similar to those for a VOR, it is vitally important to appreciate that

the left/right indications for a Localiser are only relevant to the published centreline ofthe approach and are only in the correct sense when flying towards touchdown. MostCompany aircraft now use a HSI (Horizontal Situation Indicator) and, with Localiserand Glideslope information superimposed on the RMI, the left/right indications will

always read in the correct sense, regardless of whether the aircraft is flying towards oraway from the airfield.

Always select the track of the ILS final approach on the course set in order to interpretthe correct sense, regardless of flying to or away from the field.

The technique of flying an ILS beam will come easier if you can imagine flying down a

cone towards its narrow end. Both needles become progressively more sensitive asthe approach nears the touchdown point so the risk of over-correcting is high. Whencorrecting Localiser or Glideslope errors, remember, "Small is Beautiful"!


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The Instrument Landing System (ILS) (cont d)

The segments of an ILS approach are built up as described on Pages 8/39 and 8/40

but it is also possible for ATC to provide Radar Vectoring in order to position an aircrafton final approach. In such cases ATC will pass instructions on heading and

altitude/height to fly -these must be read back and then accurately flown. ATC willultimately advise the aircraft to adopt a "Base Leg" heading (at an angle to the finalapproach of between 30 and 45) and the pilot then mon itors his Localiser indications

and completes his own turn on to the final approach.

If you require a full technical description of the ILS there are many excellent text books

available and the Training School will also be able to provide a fuller technical brief.

The Non-precision Approach

Any approach procedure which does not provide the pilot with electronically derived

glidepath information is classified as non-precision approach. Examples of such aprocedure are:

NDB approachVOR approach

Localiser only approachAirborne Radar Approach (ARA)

All of these approaches provide the pilot with the means to display the aircraft's trackelectronically by a RMI needle, Track Bar or verbal instructions from ATC. The

altitude/height of the aircraft in the procedure is determined by reference to a chart or

from advice passed from ATC.

Because of the greater demand on interpretation of approach limits, the minimumheight to which a non-precision approach may be flown will always be higher then that

for a precision approach. The lowest height to which an aircraft may descend in anon-precision approach is known as the "Minimum Descent Height" (MDH). Under

no circumstances can an aircraft descend below this height unless visual criteria forlanding have been achieved.

For the purposes of the Initial Instrument Rating test the examiner will require you tofly a non-precision approach. This will normally be a NDB Approach, but he can

substitute a VOR approach if no suitable NDB procedure is available. The Localiseronly and ARA procedures will be covered during training but will not be part of the IRT.

Pictorial examples of typical plan views of non-precision approach paths may be foundon Page 8/3, Chapter 12 also provides guidance on the interpretation of a non-

precision approach.


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The Non-precision Approach (cont d)

Procedures for use by Helicopters: The capabilities of helicopters can mean that the

criteria designated for a particular approach segment can be easily exceeded. Pilotsmust be aware of the following situations when carrying out a procedure designated

for Category A aeroplanes (see Page 9/1 ).

Departures

Straight departures: It is important that helicopters cross the Departure End of theRunway (DER) within 150 metres laterally of the runway centre line.

Turning or omni-directional departures: Straight flight is assumed until reaching a

height of at least 394 feet above the elevation of the DER. For a turn designated at analtitude/height, the turn initiation area begins at a point located 600 metres from thebeginning of the runway. However, when it is unnecessary to accommodate turns

initiated as early as 600 metres from the beginning of the runway, the turn initiationarea begins at the DER and this information shall be noted on the departure chart.

Final Approach

The minimum final approach speed considered for Category A aeroplanes is 70 knots(IAS). A slower speed can result in the helicopter leaving its protected area during

final approach and also risk a reduction of obstacle clearance in the missed approachsegment. Therefore, speed should be reduced below 70 knots only after the visualreferences necessary for landing have been acquired.

Rates of descent must be limited in accordance with the recommended profile in orderto avoid losing obstacle clearance protection.

CALCULATION OF APPROACH MINIMA

Before investigating the method used to calculate approach minima, we must beaware of how both aircraft and approach aids are categorised.

Aircraft Categories

There are five separate categories of aircraft. The performance of an aircraft has adirect effect on the airspace and visibility needed to perform the various manoeuvresassociated with an instrument approach procedure. The most significant performance

factor is aircraft speed and categorisation is based on 1.3 times stall speed in thelanding configuration.

Category A Less than 91 knots IASCategory B Between 91 and 120 knots IAS

Category C Between 121 and 140 knots IASCategory D Between 141 and 165 knots IAS

Category E Between 166 and 210 knots IAS


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ILS Categories

ILS ground installations are divided into three separate categories dependent upon thequality and accuracy of the transmitted signal and the standard of the associated

approach and runway lighting.

Category 1: Provides guidance down to a height of not less than 200 feet

above the optimum point of touch down.

Category 2: Provides guidance down to a height of not less than 50 feet

above the optimum point of touch down.

Category 3: Provides guidance down to the surface of the runway. This ILScategory will normally require the aid of ancillary equipment withinthe aircraft.

Values of OCA/OCH are published on each approach chart for each relevant category

of ILS.

Under current regulations BHL aircraft may only use OCA/OCH values

annotated against Category 1 ILS, even though the ground installation may be

of a superior category.


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Calculation of Decision Height/Minimum Descent Height

1. Obtain the stated OCA/OCH from the relevant approach plate for Category Aaircraft and, if applicable, Category 1 ILS.

2. If this figure is not to the nearest 10 feet, round up.

Check that the figure is not less than the following basic minima, below which landingsare not permitted.

Table 9-1 System Minima for Non-precision Approach Aids

Approach Aid System Minimum (ft)

ILS (No Glide Path - LLZ) 250

SRA (terminating at nm) 250

SRA (terminating at 1 nm) 300

SRA (terminating at 2 nm) 350

VOR 300

VOR/DME 250

NDB 300

VDF (QDM and QGH) 300


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Calculation of RVR

Table 9-2 Onshore Precision Approach Minima - Category 1 ILS

DH (ft) Facilities /RVR

Full

(1)

Intermediate

(2)

Basic

(3)

Nil

(4)

200 500 m 600 m 700 m 1000 m

201-250 550 m 650 m 750 m 1000 m

251-300 600 m 700 m 800 m 1000 m

301 and above 750 m 800 m 900 m 1000 m

Table 9-3 Onshore Non-Precision Approach Minima

MDH (ft) Facilities /RVR

Full

(1)

Intermediate

(2)

Basic

(3)

Nil

(4)

250-299 600 m 800 m 1000 m 1000 m

300-449 800 m 1000 m 1000 m 1000 m

450 and above 1000 m 1000 m 1000 m 1000 m

Notes:

1. Full facilities comprise FATO/runway markings, 720 m or more HI/MI approach

lights, FATO/runway edge lights, threshold lights, end lights and FATO/runwaymarkings. Lights must be on.

2. Intermediate facility comprise 420-719 m HI/MI approach lights, FATO/runwayedge lights, threshold lights, end lights and FATO/runway markings. Lights must

be on.3. Basic facilities comprise FATO/runway markings,


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Calculation of RVR

Table 9-4 Calculation of Airborne Approach Minima

Minimum Descent Altitude Missed Approach Point

RADALT { DAY

{

NIGHT

BARALT { DAY

{

NIGHT

200 feet

300 feet

400 feet

500 feet

}

}

} 0.75 nm

}

}

NOTE: 1: If SINGLE PILOT add 100 feet to MDA with a minimum of 1 nm DecisionRange.

NOTE: 2 MDH. Must be no lower than 50 feet above deck elevation.

Calculation of Minima at RAF Airfields

Aerad do not publish OCA/OCH information on approach charts for military airfields.In order to obtain the relevant minima at a military airfield refer to the "Green Pages" in

Aerad titled:

UK Operating Minima - RAF Airfields.

Single Pilot Limitations - Onshore

As per Two Crew Limitations except a minimum of 800 metres is to be applied on all

approaches. However, if a suitable autopilot is used coupled to the ILS, then two crewlimitations apply for ILS approaches.


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7 ALTIMETER MANAGEMENT

When under test, candidates are reminded that barometric altimeters in both RHS andLHS are their responsibility throughout the flight.

Great care must be exercised in the setting of altimeters and any change of settingmust be cross-referred to ensure accuracy. A systematic approach to altimeter

checks will greatly reduce the risk of an incorrectly set subscale.

The configuration for the various stages of a flight can best be shown in tabular form.

Table 10-1 Flight Configuration

CONFIGURATION HANDLING

PILOT

NON-HANDLING

PILOT

Before Take-offAfter Take-offClimb

Transition AltitudeEn route (below transitional alt)

En route (above transitional alt)Initial ApproachFinal Approach

Missed Approach

QNHQNHQNH

1013QNH (reg)

1013QNHQNH

QNH

ZEROQNHQNH

QNH Reg/AreaQNH area

QNH Reg/AreaQNHQNH

QNH

NOTES:

1. Providing the aircraft has been cleared to climb to a Flight Level, 1013 mb maybe set below the Transition Altitude.

2. The term QNH used in the table means Airfield QNH unless otherwise

specified.3. The term Reg. QNH is the pressure setting obtained from the UK system of

Altimeter Setting Regions as set out in the United Kingdom AIP Section RACPage 2-1.

4. The term Area QNH is the pressure setting for a particular sector giving themost accurate measurement of actual altitude. This setting should be updatedat least every 50 nm.

Altimeter Checks

Altimeter Checks are to be conducted in accordance with the aircraft checklist andOperations Manual Part A. Details of Altimeter checks are included in this Manual at

IF/14/1.


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Altimeter Checks (contd)

Whenever an altimeter setting is changed, a formal comparison between altimeters

should be carried out to ensure that the readings and the differences (if any ) betweenthem, are logical. For this purpose, use the following Rules of Thumb;

a. On the same mb setting, all altimeters should read within 60 feet of each

other.b. On different mb settings comparison should be made using the simplified form

of 1mb = 30 feet.

If these routines are carefully followed, an incorrectly set mb subscale will immediately

be detected.

BHL Pilots must also familiarise themselves with the relevant section of the OperationsManual.

Radio Altimeters

Regulations covering the use of Radio Altimeters are published in the OperationsManual, Part A Section 8.3.

Pre-flight checks of altimeters must be completed in accordance with Chapter 14 ofthis Manual. Providing they are satisfactory, it can be assumed that the Pilot Flying's

altimeter is accurate for IFR flight reference.


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8 REVERSAL PROCEDURE

During the flying of an instrument approach, it is normally necessary to complete acourse reversal turn in order to establish your final approach. The types of manoeuvre

employed are specified for each approach procedure and must be strictly adhered to.

The recognised manoeuvres each have their own airspace characteristics and to

remain within the airspace provided requires careful interpretation of the chartedprocedure and strict adherence to the directions and timing specified. The individual

manoeuvres are:

Procedure Turn (45)

This consists of a specified outbound track and timing from the radio facility, a 45 turn

away from the outbound track for 1 minute, followed by a 180 turn in the oppositedirection to intercept the final approach track.

Procedure Turn (80)

This consists of a specified outbound track and timing from the radio facility, an 80

turn away from the outbound track, followed by a turn of 260 in the opposite direction,to intercept the inbound track. This manoeuvre is an alternative to the 45 procedureturn unless specifically excluded. However, if a choice exists, it is recommended that

the 45 procedure is used due to the small radius of turn of helicopters.


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Base Turn

This consists of a specified outbound track and timing from a radio facility, followed by

a turn to intercept the final approach track.

Racetrack Procedure

A racetrack procedure consists of a turn from the inbound track through 180 fromoverhead the facility. Outbound timing commences from abeam the facility and maybe for 1,2 or 3 minutes followed by a turn in the same direction to establish the final

approach track.

As an alternative to timing, the outbound leg may be limited by a DME distance or an

intersecting radial. Racetrack procedures are used where sufficient distance is notavailable in a straight segment to accommodate the required loss of altitude and when

entry into a procedure (or base) turn is not practical. They may also be specified asalternatives to procedure (or base) turns in order to increase operational flexibility.


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Racetrack Procedure (cont'd)

Aircraft are expected to enter a racetrack procedure in a manner comparable to thatprescribed for entering the hold, with the following considerations:

Offset Entry: The time on the 30 offset track shall be limited to 1 minute 30 secondsafter which the pilot is expected to turn to a heading parallel to the outbound track for

the remainder of the outbound time. If the outbound time is only 1 minute, the time onthe 30 offset track shall also be 1 minute.

Parallel Entry: The aircraft shall not return directly to the facility without firstintercepting the inbound track when proceeding to the final segment of the approach

procedure.

Entry to Reversal Procedure

Unless the procedure specifies particular entry restrictions, reversal procedures shallbe entered from a track within 30 of the outbound track. However, for base turns,where the 30 entry sector does not include the reciprocal of the inbound track, the

entry sector is expanded to include it. Racetrack entry procedures should be treatedas for joining the hold.


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General Information

a. Due allowance for the effects of known wind will be made by the pilot in both

heading and timing to achieve correct tracks.

b. Times and/or distances to be flown from the radio beacon to commencement ofturn will be shown on the chart.

c. Reversal procedures must be flown on the same side of the approach path asshown on the chart. The turns are designated LEFT or RIGHT accordingly,

dependant upon the direction of the initial turn.

NOTE: Users of Aerad approach charts should be aware that all reversal proceduresare taken to be 45 Procedure Turns unless otherwise designated.


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RACETRACK PROCEDURES

Chapter 11A, Reversal Procedures gave an outline of the definition and rules applying

to Racetrack Procedures (RPs). This is sufficient for general purposes and puts them intheir proper context as a form of Reversal. This Chapter is intended to provide moredepth (a) for those who are interested and (b) because they are becoming more

common in published procedures.

Racetrack Procedures are generally poorly understood, despite having been inexistence for several years now. Yet understanding how to apply them can allow you tocarry out a much more expeditious approach, benefiting the crew, the passengers,

ATC and (of course) the Company. At the same time, there are some disadvantagesand traps to be aware of.

For BHL pilots, the most readily available source of information on RacetrackProcedures is the Aerad Flight Information Supplement. This describes RPs, at page

AER 68, para 2.4 as a new type of Intermediate Procedure . As the source for this isPANS-OPS Vol1, dated 1993 they are not that new!

Essentially, Racetrack Procedures allow you to use Hold Entry techniques to fly a

course reversal pattern so as to put the aircraft onto the Final Approach Track (FAT)without needing first to enter the hold. In other words, you are Beacon Outbound on

the joining leg.

Identifying A Racetrack

On a chart, a Racetrack is an oval shape like a Hold. In fact, a Hold can be the smallestkind of Racetrack. They can also be elongated to more than 10 miles. On Aerad charts,they are easily identifiable by the thick Intermediate Approach line, but note that in the

AIP they only carry a thick line where they are the Main Procedure . Some Racetracksare extensions to holding patterns which act as Alternative Procedures and so do not

carry the thick line.


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Identifying A Racetrack(cont d)

A better way to identify a Racetrack is that its inbound leg (a) lies on the Final ApproachTrack AND (b) includes the Final Approach Fix (or Point). Obviously, a one minute Hold

at 2000ft, based on a beacon on the airfield and aligned with the FAT will not serve asa Racetrack as there would be insufficient space to descend.

The examples below show how Racetracks vary in size. A standard one minute patternat Aberdeen, and a 12.1 nm pattern at Glasgow. But both conform to the conditiondescribed.

Aberdeen ILS/DME 16 Glasgow ILS/DME 23

Fig.11A 1

It should be noted that the Holdat GLW could not be treated as a Racetrack, becausealthough the Inbound Track aligns with the FAT, it does not include the FAF and would

therefore not allow room to descend. It is only the extension to the hold which is aRacetrack, whereas in the Aberdeen example a Racetrack is formed without an

extension to the hold because the FAF is included.


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Entry Procedures

The chief advantage of RPs is they allow arrival from any direction, rather than havingto be within 30 of an outbound leg. Entry sectors and join patterns are the same as

those for the Hold. The same allowances are made for wind and approach angle.

Parallel. An important limitation is imposed on parallel joins. The FAT must be

achieved before the FAF. There is no question of going direct to the beacon as in aparallel join to a Hold. This obviously makes sense, as the aircraft must be stable ontrack before commencing the final descent.

This shows up a disadvantage of RPs. Take the case of Aberdeen, illustrated above.

The short (1 min) parallel leg only allows enough room to establish if the wind isfavourable. Failure to achieve it will result in a short notice entry into the holdinconvenient to ATC and wasting time.

In the case of Glasgow, the FAF is at 8.9d (ILS). The parallel leg has to extend far

enough to allow the FAT to be achieved by 8.9d. However, the parallel cannot extendbeyond the limit of the procedure, which in this case is 12.1d. This leaves 3.2 nm,which is just enough room to achieve the FAT in normal wind conditions.

In UK, the AIP advises against (but does notprohibit) using Sector 1 to enter a RP

(ENR 1-5-4, 3.14) because of this very problem. However, in many cases overseas(and increasingly in UK) the procedures are drawn to allow all entry sectors to be used.

Offset. As described in Ch.11A, the time on the Offset leg of a Sector 2 join is limited to

1m 30s. This is the same as the maximum time on an offset join to a Hold, above14000 ft. At these altitudes turning circles are very large. The length of the Offset legsets the displacement of the aircraft from the FAT so that it has room to turn on to it.Therefore, for helicopters, the 1m 30s rule may be disregarded. Timing will always be

1 minute (still air) at helicopter speeds and altitudes. After that, the aircraft is turned toparallel for the remainder of the time, or the appropriate DME limit.

Direct. The difference between RPs and Holds in a Direct entry is that Outbound timingstarts abeam the facility, or on attaining the outbound heading, whichever is the later.

(PANS-OPS Vol1 Ch 3, para 3.3.3.5. My italics).


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Outbound Leg

The chief disadvantage of RPs is that in almost all of them there is no track guidanceon the outbound leg. This is always a problem with a procedure which uses an

extension to the outbound leg of a hold, as it is not tracking directly to or from a beacon.In the case of the Glasgow example, drift errors may be quite large by the end of theoutbound leg, leading to further difficulty in achieving the FAT in the short space

available (see above). For this reason, the preferred option for an approach shouldalways be a Base Turn or a Procedure Turn where these are specified as a main oralternative procedure.

On the subject of drift, it is particularly important to remember that a 1 minute Racetrack

requires 3x drift, a 2 minute racetrack requires 2x drift and anything over 2 minutesrequires single drift on the outbound leg.

Air Traffic Considerations

Racetrack Procedures fit best into a Procedural environment, in which ATC are notconcerned with how you get into a Procedure, only with clearing you for the various

stages. In a Racetrack, you are Beacon Outbound when you cross the beacon to startthe joining leg, be it parallel, offset or direct. Base Turn Complete is when you

establish on the FAT (or Localiser Established in the case of an ILS).

In a radar environment, RPs are more problematical. Modern controllers, unless they

are based at a Procedural airport, have little training in Procedural methods. The

parallel join especially, will cause some confusion as they watch the manoeuvre onradar. It is also unlikely that an RP will be more expeditious than a radar pattern. Theonly occasions on which it should be necessary to fly RPs in a radar environment aretraining flights. In this event it is well to brief ATC on your intentions, and to pick a quiet

time for the flight.

Summary

Advantages: RPs allow omnidirectional arrivals and so save time.

Disadvantages: Timing point different from Holds

Parallels mustestablish FAT/LLZ before FAF/FAPNo track guidance on O/B leg, with drift a problem on longRPs.

Not suitable for Radar environment


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APPROACH PLATES

Approach Plates are amended weekly. You mustnot use out of date plates. If photocopies are used,they must be up to date and unmarked for testpurposes.

Proficiency in reading Terminal Charts (also known as Plates ) is an essential part ofIFR operations. There are many publishers of approach charts, using different nationalAIPs as their source documents, and with their own layout and conventions. Thiscompany uses Aerad charts in Europe, but Jeppesens and other types elsewhere inthe world. Differences are relatively easy to identify if one has a good knowledge of

one type as a basis for comparison. Therefore, the following chapter (12A) contains adetailed guide to the Aerad product, which is the first one pilots taking IFR training withBristow will meet.

Chapter 12B indicates the more important differences to be found in Jeppesens. It isnecessary to understand 12A before studying 12B.

AERAD

The Aerad Flight Information Supplement contains a section (Pages AER ) on Aeradcharts; their specification, legend and definitions. In year 2000, Aerad made major

changes to the appearance and content of their charts. The AER pages are the placeto find detailed information on both Pre- and Post- 2000 formats. What followsdescribes the newer format.

Each aircraft contains an Aerad Flight Guide, which is a volume of charts appropriateto its area of operations. These charts are arranged in alphabetical order of airfieldsand each airfield s charts are in order of chart identifier.

The chart identifier is a 2 or 3 digit code describing the kind of information to be foundin it. This allows charts to be kept in a standard order and therefore easily located foruse or amendment.


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The meanings of the first letter of the identifier are as follows:

A Aerodrome briefing and advisory notes. Temporary charts.B Special Procedures

C Noise AbatementD Aerodrome chart

E Taxi chartF Ramp chartG Standard Instrument Departures (SID) Outbound Routes. Departure TerrainH Arrival or Standard Arrival (STAR) Inbound Routes. Arrival Terrain.K Terminal. Radar Procedures. Terrain clearance.M ILS Approaches (incl. Localiser-only)N VOR ApproachesP NDB ApproachesQ VDFT Helicopter ProceduresV Visual

This letter is followed by a number showing the place of that chart within its group.Finally, on plan diagrams which extend beyond the immediate vicinity of the airport aletter, either M or C will be shown. This indicates the method of showing terrainclearance, either by MSA Contour Envelopes (M), or Contours (C). BHL has optedfor the MSA Contour Envelope system, so the final letter will be M . This system isdescribed more fully at Page 12A/10.


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AERAD (contd)

Looking at a particular aerodrome the first page one finds is coloured green and hasthe identifier AH1 or AH2 with no suffix, because it is text only. This page contains

the helicopter minima details for all the approaches at that aerodrome in variousconditions of runway lighting. The example below is for Dundee. Note that as Dundee

only has Basic approach lighting (see page IF/9/3), RVR minima can only be found onthe columns headed Basic , or No ALS as Dundee is not equipped with a longerApproach Lighting System.

Fig 12A -1


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AERAD (contd)

The next plates are those with identifiers A,B or C, and are self-explanatory testinstructions or advice. Even so, some aspects of these are worth noting carefully.

Plates A: These are printed on yellow paper as they show Temporary or sometimes

Trial Procedures. These should not be flown without careful study of the notes, asthey may be only for use by authorised crews or under very particular conditions.

Plates B: These are Special Procedures relating to such matters as; details to begiven when requesting Start Clearance, general rules applying to Arrivals orDepartures (for which there is no room on SID or STAR plates), or restrictions ontraining flights.

Plates C: A straightforward description of Noise Abatement Procedures, usually justtext, but occasionally a chart or diagram is provided. A point to note is that noiseprocedures may apply to arriving as well as departing traffic. Fig 12A 2, Plate C1 forAberdeen is typical.

Fig 12A - 2


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AERAD (contd)

After this, we come to the charts themselves. These all start with a strip of informationat the top which sets the context for the chart. To understand what is meant by this,

compare the top strip of a D chart (Fig 12A 3) of a small airfield, with that of an Mfor an international terminal (Fig 12A-4).

Fig 12A - 3

The aerodrome strip, shown above, contains the information you need when readinga ground map of the airfield. Elevation, Variation and the co-ordinates of theAerodrome Reference Point are shown and, as always, the chart date and identifierare at the right hand end of the strip. Only one frequency, Tower, is relevant at thisstage, so only that frequency is shown.

Fig 12A - 4

In the ILS plate, elevation and variation are still relevant, but additionally TransitionAltitude and Transition Level information can be found, as well as the frequency and

ident of the main Navaid used in that approach. During the course of the approach,several RT frequencies will be used, so they are shown on the lower line of the strip.

So, the information contained in the top strip will vary according to the way that plate isto be used.

Let us now look at the graphical part of each type of chart in detail.

Plates D: The Aerodrome Chart. Used for reference, orientation and groundmanoeuvring (unless a separate Taxi Chart is provided). A map of the Runways,Taxiways, Aprons, Buildings and Lighting, with any significant topographical featuresout to an appropriate distance beyond the aerodrome boundary. It is orientated to

True North and has Lat / Long marks around the edge and a Feet / Metre scale on theplan. Threshold co-ordinates can be found here, and underneath the map aretabulated runway data.


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AERAD (contd)

Notes relevant to Ground and Visual Circuit operations appear at the foot of the page.

Again, Inverness provided a good example of the type, shown at Fig 12A 5.

Fig 12A - 5


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AERAD (contd)

Plates E: Taxi chart. This is self-explanatory and shows all aprons, taxiways, holdingpoints, etc. Some detail, or amplifying notes, may be in text form.

Plates F: The Ramp chart shows aprons in more detail and displays individualparking stands. At larger aerodromes there may be considerable text informationamplifying parking details plus co-ordinates for each stand for GPS / INS purposes.

As these charts (E and F ) are orientated according to layout, rather thangeographically, they also carry a True North symbol.

Fig 12A 6


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AERAD (contd)

Note: All the following charts have a vertical dimension. Bold type refers to Altitudes(QNH) and normal type to Heights (QFE).

Plates G : Standard Instrument Departures (SID). A SID allows what is often a

complex procedure to be given a short, simple name, so that it may be easilyreferred to on RT and studied before take-off with less possibility of

misunderstanding. Therefore, because departure details are not spelt out in theclearance, SID charts demand maximum familiarity and understanding. The chartis divided into four sections: Title Strip, Plan View, Notes, and Narrative

Title This conforms to the description of title strips already given.

Plan View The plan view of an SID may cover a very large area, so is not drawn to

scale, nor does it show topographical features. The departure tracks are shown inheavy print, with the SID name appropriate to that track in a box beside it.

Significant Navaids are given by standard symbols, including frequency, Identletters, the Morse code for the Ident, and co-ordinates.

An MSA circle is shown, giving an MSA calculated out to 25nm usuallyfrom the Aerodrome Reference Point (ARP), but exceptionally from adesignated Navigation aid. No other terrain avoidance information isgiven.

Of critical importance are the altitudes shown in boxes at various stages

for the SID. These have an underline for not below , a line above fornot above , and a line above and below for at the stated altitude. Inaddition, a reverse type (white numbers, black background) lozengeshape contains the altitude considered to be the first potential altitudebust . All these altitudes have to be strictly adhered to unless otherwisecleared by ATC.

Notes Self-explanatory amplifying notes.

Narrative This is a most important section of the chart, as it contains a narrativedescription of the procedure to be followed. Careful study of this sectionwill usually clarify the Plan View and help to avoid any pitfalls it may

contain.


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AERAD (contd)

Edinburgh Plate G1 is illustrated and shows most of the points referred to. Note

especially the relative ease of understanding the narrative section at the very bottomof the chart.

Fig 12A - 7


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AERAD (contd)

Plates H : Arrivals or Standard Arrivals (STARs). Standard Arrivals are more relevantto the busier airports and are mainly designed for fixed wing aircraft, typically

describing a procedure that covers over 100nm. Like SIDs, for this reason they arenot drawn to scale, nor do they show topographical features.

There are, however, Copter arrival procedures at some airfields. These are quiterare, and at the time of writing still in the Pre-2000 format, so no detailed descriptionwill be offered here. It is sufficient to say that they are in Plan diagram format, and arestraightforward to understand.

Plates K: Radar Procedures. These are shown as plan diagrams, or tabulated data,or a combination of both. Be aware that the RVR minima given are JAR OPS 1,that is fixed wingminima. Radar Procedure minima for helicopters are found onthe green page AH1, already referred to.

Plates M to P: Now we come to the Approach Charts proper. These are alldivided into four parts, as follows:

Title StripPlan ViewProfile ViewMinima and Notes

Title As described already with the addition, in brackets after the name of theapproach, of the aircraft categories covered by that chart. Some charts

cover all categories, some only one. It is a common error to use chartsfor the wrong category.

Plan View The chart is drawn to scale (1:500 000) and has a standard 10nm rangering around the ARP. It shows topographical features and an MSA circlelike the other charts, but additional terrain clearance information isprovided in the form of MSA contours . The Aerad Flight InformationSupplement refers to them as Safe Clearance Altitudes , and it isimportant to recognise that these are notMSA s in the sense of includingrelief data 5 miles beyond the position marked. The altitudes arehowever, calculated according to standard MSA clearance above terrainand obstacles. The figures shown are Safe Altitudes in 100s of feet, and

may be used for reference and terrain awareness in the procedure.

Onto this background is laid the plan of the procedure itself, showing relevantNavaids with Ident letters, the Morse code for the Ident, and Co-ordinates, Tracks, significant DME ranges and any other informationthere is space for. Such information is shown in the notes if it wouldclutter the map too much.


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AERAD (contd)

There are too many differences of detail in chart conventions to cover everything here,and continuing study over the years is necessary for full familiarity. However, there

are a couple of general points, which should be noted to make things easier.

First, pay careful attention to the thickness of the Track lines. Thin lines show Holdsand Initial Approach tracks. Thick lines show Intermediate and Final Approach tracks.Dashed lines show Missed Approach Procedure tracks. Other tracks are shown byvarious other kinds of line (such as that marking the arc procedure in Fig 12A 8).This knowledge can be used to avoid pitfalls such as that contained in the Aberdeen34 ILS, shown below:

Fig 12A- 8


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AERAD (contd)

It is worth following this potential pitfall a little further, as it illustrates the level of care

needed for correct interpretation of the charts. The problem is expressed in thequestion. Why can t I arrive overhead the ATF, fly a Parallel or Offset join and once

established on the inbound QDM, continue on the localiser to land?

Study of the track lines shows that the sequence of the procedure is:Initial Approach Fix (ATF) followed by Initial Approach Track to abeam the beacon,then Intermediate Approach Track, then turn right back to ATF, then Final Approachon the ILS from the Final Approach Point at 7 miles.

ATC will assume when sequencing aircraft for approaches, that they will follow thisprocedure. Naturally, if there is no other traffic, they may allow short cuts but pilotsmust be aware of the basic procedure as that is what they mustfollow in the absenceof specific clearance to do otherwise.

Holds. Note that , whereas procedures are drawn at 180kts, Holds are drawn at 220kts. They therefore appear to cover much more ground than would be the case inhelicopter. Entry sectors are shown by pecked lines. Minimum altitudes for the holdare shown, but be aware that these are sometimes lower than the altitude for startingthe approach procedure. This is because the lowest altitude is reserved for aircraftwhich are returning to the hold from a missed approach.

Arcs. Altitude information around an arc can be confusing, as it has changedsignificantly from the pre 2000 format. Altitude boxes are now shown against the

radial which marks the start of each segment of arc. Like any other fix altitude, theyindicate the altitude that applies at that point. So, in Fig 12A 8, on the 20 DME arcaltitude must be notbelow 3200 ft passing the 189 Radial, at2500 ft by the 174 LeadRadial and so on.

Notes. Look out for black spots containing white numbers. These refer to explanatorynotes, which can be read in the lowest strip of the chart. They often contain vitalinformation.


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AERAD (contd)

Profile View

Fig 12A - 9

This is self-explanatory, but it often clarifies parts of the plan view, which may beunclear. The FAF or FAP is easier to find on the profile as are many of the verticalelements of the approach. Although the eye is naturally attracted to the plan view, theprofile should not be under-rated. It will always contain a reverse type block showingthe first potential altitude bust .

A couple of Frequently Asked Questions concern some of the abbreviations used inthis part of the plate.

QFU is the magnetic orientation of the runway.MEHT is the Minimum Eye Height at

the Threshold. Using any visual glidepath indicator(e.g. PAPIs, VASIs, etc) when you are showing onglidepath this is the lowest height you can be as

you cross the threshold.RDH is only shown on ILS plates,

and stands for Reference Datum Height, which isthe height of the ILS Glidepath above the threshold.

Note also that you can find here the millibar correction to apply to the QNH in order

to obtain the QFE.

Minima and Notes


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Fig 12A 10

AERAD (contd)

The Minima (Decision Height or Minimum Descent Height) are shown, according toaircraft Category. A minimum RVR is also shown, but as for Plates K , BEWARE, asthis is a JAR OPS 1 (i.e. Fixed Wing) figure. The only place to find the correctfigure is on the Green Page, Plate AH1, which is calculated for helicopters underJAR OPS 3.

The columns referring to Circling Minima may be ignored, as these do not apply tohelicopters.

Note 1 in the above example is a good illustration of how important it is to pay carefulattention to this part of the plate.

Those notes numbered within a black spot refer to similar numbered spots on thegraphical parts of the chart.

The example above is unusual, in that it shows Advisory Altitudes / Heights in a tableat the right of the section. These apply to non-precision approaches and thereforeshould not, strictly, be shown here.

The foregoing describes Plates M to P , Approach Charts generally. More specificnotes on each type is given below.

Plates M, ILS procedures. Figures 8 to 10 above are taken from an ILS plate Note

the Localiser arrow showing the Localiser QDM.

The point where the Intermediate Approach intercepts the glidepath and becomesFinal Approach is designated Final Approach Point (FAP). This does not have quitethe same meaning as Final Approach Fix (FAF) in a non-precision approach, as itdoes not mark a point where an immediate descent may be made to the next NotBelow height.

Note the GP Altitude / Height figures shown at 4 miles and 1 mile in Fig 12A 9.They do not have underlines and are, therefore, notNot Below heights. The purposeof these fixes is to allow you to verify the glidepath / altimeter relationship (ICAOPANS OPS document). In other words, if you are on glidepath, that is what the

altimeter should read. If it doesn t you may need to check the pressure setting, theinstruments, off flags and so on. A 1 mile fix is really too late for any practical use, buta check should be made at any earlier fix.


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AERAD (contd)

Plates N, P and Q. These are for non-precision approaches, N for VOR, P for NDB,and Q for VDF procedures. These contain the standard information already

described, plus the Final Approach Fix and the Missed Approach Point (MAPt) both ofwhich are only required for non-precision approaches.

Fig 12A - 11


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AERAD (contd)

A non-precision approach, by definition has no glidepath signal. Therefore, wherethere is a DME associated with the approach, guidance is provided in the form of a

table which relates distance to height (or altitude) to define a nominal, constant slope,approach. That is its only purpose, and it is advisory. Although BHL policy is to followthis nominal glidepath , the legal position is that descent on the final approach islimited only by the MDH and any inter

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Bristow Instrument Flying new