Biofuel Crop Decision-making Tool

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A Biofuel Crop Decision-making Tool for SADC

Version 3.0

GTZ ProBEC

2 October 2007



Summary

The development of biofuel industries offers multiple advantages for SADC countries.These include development of new areas of agricultural potential, new manufacturing

opportunities, export opportunities, improved energy security and improved airquality through the reduction of the burning of fossil fuels.

These opportunities arise from high and rising crude oil prices, scientific innovation in

technology, and in some instances, market mechanisms introduced through theKyoto Protocol.

However, despite these opportunities, the development of a biofuel industry faces

many challenges which have been documented elsewhere.

This document is a decision-making tool that assists planners and project managers

in SADC countries to evaluate dryland biofuel crop options, AT A DESKTOP LEVEL,the agricultural segment of the biofuel value chain.

This tool supports strategic decision-making and supports the decision-maker to

formulate business case or opportunity statement for investment in biofuel cropproduction at a farm level, in SADC. Following this, business planning may proceed.

The tool is designed with a view to achieving compliance in biofuel development with

sustainability criteria, indicators and standards. Biofuel ventures have large social,

economic and environmental footprints, both for current and future generations. Asustainable biofuel venture therefore requires a stable market, a suitable physical

environment, a socio-economically stable agricultural opportunity and a cropportfolio managed such that environmental risks are internalised.

The decision-maker must explore three areas of information, (a) the marketopportunity, (b) the agricultural opportunity and from the information gained from

these, (c) select the most appropriate crop(s).

Market opportunity analysis informs the decisions of investment through:

Determining country specific policies, and conditions as it relates to biofuel

production;

Establishing whether biodiesel of bio-ethanol (or both) strategies should

be pursued;

Determining the nature and extent of value added productionrequirements beyond farming;

Establishing important market parameters such as size, growth and price;

and

Determining the opportunities and constraints associated with by-products.

Agricultural opportunity analysis informs decisions of investment by:

Describing the nature, extent and location of the existing agriculturalsector; and

Prioritising crops based on expected biofuel yield.

Decision-makers are led in a step-wise manner through these decision-making steps.



LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

a annumAEZ Agro-ecological zoning as applied by the FAOASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

CDM Clean Development MechanismCI Compression ignitionDIN Deutsches Institut für NormungDNA Designated National Authority

ha hectareIEA International Energy AgencyEN European Standards

FAME Fatty Acid Methyl Ester

FAO Food and Agriculture OrganisationFSC Forest Stewardship Council

GTZ Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) GmbH

ha HectareICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics

ISO International Organisation for Standardisationmm millimetre (rainfall)

NGO Non-Governmental Organisationppm parts per million

R&D Research & DevelopmentSABS South African Bureau of Standards

SADC Southern African Development Community

SG Specific GravitySME Small and Medium Enterprise

STI Science, Technology and InnovationTE Trans-Esterification

UN United Nations

UNCCD United Nations Convention on the Combating of DesertificationUSD United States Dollar

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIN

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DIN



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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Summary ........................................................................................................ 2 List of Abbreviations ......................................................................................... 3 Table of Contents ............................................................................................. 4 How to use this Manual ..................................................................................... 5 1 STEP 1: Conduct a literature survey on biofuel, with particular reference to thecountry of interest ............................................................................................ 6

1.1 An introduction to biofuel ....................................................................... 6 1.2 What is bio-ethanol? .............................................................................. 8 1.3 What is biodiesel? ................................................................................. 9 1.4 The economics of a biofuel value chain .................................................. 12 1.5 Country approaches to biofuel .............................................................. 13

2 STEP 2: Align the biofuel project to country policy and design for sustainability 15 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 15 2.2 Conduct a policy field analysis .............................................................. 16 2.3 Establish a project support network ....................................................... 16 2.4 Achieve institutionalisation ................................................................... 16

3 STEP 3: Prioritise the appropriate biofuel pathway ....................................... 18 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 18 3.2 Analyse the potential biofuel market in the country ................................. 18 3.3 Identify biofuel buyers ......................................................................... 21 3.4 Technology and the economy of scale considerations ............................... 22

4 STEP 4: Prioritise the appropriate crops ....................................................... 23 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................... 23 4.2 Biofuel crop options ............................................................................. 23 4.3 Identify biofuel those crops in Table 7 currently farmed ........................... 24 4.4 New crops: Conduct a rapid assessment of new crop suitability................. 25 4.5 Other considerations............................................................................ 28

5 STEP 5: Prioritise the appropriate crops ....................................................... 32 5.1

Categorise the potential crops .............................................................. 32

5.2 Calculate potential biofuel yield ............................................................. 32 5.3 Calculate potential biofuel value for each crop ........................................ 33

6 STEP 6: Develop the business case for the project ........................................ 34 References .................................................................................................... 35 7 Appendix 1: Choice of species .................................................................... 37

7.1 Preface .............................................................................................. 37 7.2 Crops for the bio-ethanol pathway ......................................................... 40 7.3 Crops for the biodiesel pathway ............................................................ 48



HOW TO USE THIS MANUAL

This Manual describes the logical flow and interrelationship of elements that affectthe formulation of a business case or opportunity statement for investment in biofuel

crop production for any SADC country.

Users of this Manual require access to the Internet to extract country informationrequired for decision-making.

STEP 1 of the Manual provides a brief introduction to biofuel and first generationbiofuel technologies. Users of this Manual should study as much additional literature

as possible on various biofuel. Such literature is available through the Internet.

STEP 2 has guidelines on determining what relevant country policy requirements

need to be met in a biofuels initiative, institutional opportunities and how this may

be achieved.

STEP 3 enables the user to prioritise the biofuel pathway most appropriate to theopportunities at hand.

STEP 4 sets out a procedure to prioritise the appropriate crops.

STEP 5 shows how to make the final crop selection.

STEP 6 develops the business case for the initiative.

Following this, business planning for a dryland biofuel agricultural project mayproceed.



Box 1. What is a biofuel economy?

A biofuel economy is an integrated,domestic agricultural and energymarketplace where the role players(farmers, producers, buyers) can sell andbuy the commodities associated withbiofuel production profitably. It is however,

also possible to profitably produce biofuel(especially biodiesel) for niche marketopportunities, in the absence of a fully-functioning biofuel economy.

STEP 1: CONDUCT A LITERATURE SURVEY ON BIOFUEL, WITH

PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THE COUNTRY OF INTEREST

AN INTRODUCTION TO BIOFUEL There is a growing awareness among countries worldwide that the global energy

economy should move steadily from its present excessive dependence on fossilhydrocarbon energy to hydrogen energy. This is the preferred path to a renewable,

carbon-neutral economy with, ideally, zero emissions. The main drivers for thisimperative include:

limited life of global fossil-fuel stocks

security of domestic energy supply

volatility of international fossil fuel prices

environmental legislation to reduce polluting emissions

improvements in energy efficiency

science and technology advances

In aspiring to a hydrogen-energy economy, every country has to develop uniqueroadmaps that integrate and align their unique resources, constraints and

opportunities.

This requires a systems approach that integrates natural and human resources,financial resources, technology, and market opportunities in a coherent strategy for

advancing to the new energy economy, signposted by the objectives to be achieved

on the way.

Large, energy-intensive economies such

as the USA, Brazil, China, India,Germany and others are in a position todirect and lead the development of

energy supply strategies and establish

domestic biofuel economies (see Box 1)through subsidy-driven macro-economicinterventions, new fossil-fuel energy

technology development (such as

further oil exploration and coal andnatural gas beneficiation), and the

development of renewable energy

industries.

Countries of the Southern African Development Community have much smallereconomies and do not have the same economic resources to establish a subsidy-driven biofuel industry. If they choose to address exports to the North, they facechallenges in that their biofuels products would have to compete in price with

subsidised (low) prices in the European and American markets. SADC countries must

therefore take a market-driven approach appropriate to the sectors that they wish tosupply.



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Countries in the region each face their own problems of logistics and locationaleconomics: biofuels projects must be fitted to local costs and prices, not the national

or regional averages.

Furthermore, every SADC country has unique development imperatives, resourcesand constraints, all of which have to be considered in the development of a

successful biofuel industry. Biofuel industry development plans must therefore bealigned with the country‘s system of policies and strategies for development.

Two biofuel technology pathways are of interest: bio-ethanol and biodiesel 1. These

pathways are distinguished by the biomass sources used as raw material, namelynatural sugars (or their precursors) in the case of bio-ethanol, and plant oils in thecase of biodiesel (see Figure 1).

The appropriate pathway should be selected to be as far as possible compatible with

existing agricultural commodity markets and liquid fuel markets in a country.

Each pathway has different technology requirements. Both bio-ethanol and biodieseltechnologies are mature, first-generation technologies that are easily accessible (not

proprietary protected). Bio-ethanol technologies have higher economies of scalethan biodiesel technologies, requiring larger capital investment.

The appropriate biofuel technology pathway should therefore be selected beforecrops are selected.

1 Other emerging biofuel technology pathways include the lignocelluloses and algae pathways. These areemerging technologies, often referred to as second generation technologies, and do not form part of thescope of this manual. In future, as these technologies mature, this tool may be expanded to includethese.



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Figure 1: The bio-ethanol and biodiesel technology pathways

WHAT IS BIO-ETHANOL?

Bio-ethanol is a liquid fuel, manufactured from natural sugars and starches and iscompatible with conventional petrol. Bio-ethanol can therefore be used to fuelspark-ignition (SI) engines.

Sugarcane and starch crops such as maize, sorghum and cassava are typical cropsthat can be converted to bio-ethanol through a series of processes which produces

sugar from starch (saccharification), and bio-ethanol from sugar (fermentation).

Wood fibre is also a potential source of bio-ethanol.

The natural sugars derived from sugar or starch-producing crops can be converted to

bio-ethanol and used to substitute petrol in spark-ignition engines. The figure above(Figure 1) describes the value chain associated with the natural sugar technology

pathway.

Crops such as sugarcane, maize and others yield the raw material required for bio-ethanol production. Sugar products include sugar, molasses and bagasse. The

hydrolysis and fermentation processes, although indicated as separate activities in

the figure below (Figure 2), take place in a dedicated processing plant. It isimportant to note that each of the products generated at the various processingsteps in the bio-ethanol value chain, may be sold into various product markets.

Farmersgrowing oilseed

crops

Oilseed

Biodiesel

BiodieselProducers

Oilseedmarkets

Retail sales

(small businessand householduse in diesel

vehicles,kerosene

stoves, dieselgenerators)

Own use in

diesel vehicles

Wholesale sales

(blending atdiesel depots)

Farmersgrowing sugar

and starch

crops

Produce

Ethanol

EthanolProducers

Sugar andstarch

commoditymarkets

Retail sales

(household usein ethanol-gel

stoves)

Wholesale sales

(blending atpetrol refinery)

Conversions atpetrol filling

stations

The biodiesel technology pathway The bio-ethanol technology pathway



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Figure 2: The Bio-ethanol Value Chain

Bio-ethanol is compatible with petrol, although the blending process is more

complicated than for that of blending biodiesel with diesel (see below). Bio-ethanolblends are expressed as E (% of bio-ethanol blended into mineral petrol).

Bio-ethanol has the following characteristics:

Bio-ethanol contains no harmful nitrogen or aromatics.

The energy content of bio-ethanol is 30% less than that of mineral petrol.

Therefore, although fuel efficiency of bio-ethanol is similar to mineral

petrol, the fuel economy, power and torque may be approximately 10%lower, depending on the blend used.

Blends above E2 provide are severely hygroscopic, and requires dedicatedmanagement.

Various International Fuel Standards exist for bio-ethanol as a liquid fuel(ASTM D4806-98, EN 14214, SABS 1935).

Drinking bio-ethanol is heavily taxed in most countries. To render bio-

ethanol unfit for human consumption, and remove the food tax, it isdenatured by adding bio-ethanol (which is toxic) or other chemicals which

affects taste and colour.

WHAT IS BIODIESEL?

Biodiesel is a liquid fuel, manufactured from plant oils, recycled cooking grease oranimal fats, or biomass for cellulosic biodiesel, and is compatible with and blends

Wholesale,niche/retail liquid

fuel buyers

M a r k e t

By-products buyers or own usewithin plant (e.g. energy)

Household liquid

energy buyers

Commoditymarketsbuyers

Hydrolysis /fermentation

Farmer

growingsugar and

starch crops

Produce

Pulped fibrous by-products

Ethanol

Logistics

P r o d u c t i o n

Chemicalsuppliers /Importers

RolePlayers

Products Processes

Legend

Ethanol Producer



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easily into conventional mineral diesel. Biodiesel can therefore be used to fuelcompression-ignition (CI) engines.

Biodiesel is easily blended into conventional mineral diesel. Blends are expressed asB (% of FAME blended into mineral diesel), for instance, a blend of one part biodieselwith 100 parts mineral diesel is known as a B1 blend.

Plant oils, derived from oil-rich seed crops, may be converted to products that drivecompression-ignition engines as partial or full replacement for heavy fuel oil or

conventional mineral diesel. These liquid fuels may be used to drive automotive

engines, water pumps or diesel generators.

This technology pathway also yields various by-products for non-energy markets.

The figure below (Figure 3) describes the biodiesel value chain. Oilseed crops (suchas palm, sunflower, soya, Jatropha curcas and others) yield seed, which, after an oil

expelling or extraction process, yield plant oil and seed cake.

The plant oil forms the raw material for a chemical engineering process termedtrans-esterification. This process yields fatty acid methyl ester (FAME)2, which, when

used as a substitute for or additive to mineral diesel, is commonly known as ―biodiesel‖. Biodiesel may be sold into various liquid fuel markets, for automotive orhousehold use, or electricity generation. It is important to note that each of the

products generated at the various processing steps in the biodiesel value chain, maybe sold into various product markets. Tallow, the fatty cattle waste product

originating from abattoirs, may also be used as a trans-esterification raw material.

The level of vertical integration of the value chain may vary. On the one hand, it ispossible to conduct all the value chain activities on farm. In the biodiesel economies

of Europe, seed storage, seed crushing and trans-esterification are conducted byintegrated biodiesel plants.

Biodiesel has the following characteristics: It contains no harmful nitrogen or aromatics, and less than 15 ppm

sulphur.

Biodiesel is biodegradable and should not be stored for longer than 6

months without the use of anti-oxidation additives.

The energy content of biodiesel is between 0-10% less than that ofmineral diesel. Therefore, although fuel efficiency of FAME is similar to

mineral diesel, fuel economy, power and torque may be somewhat lower.

Mixtures above B2 provide excellent fuel lubricity, especially in low

sulphur fuels.

In addition to the South African SABS standard SANS 1935:2004, various

International Fuel Standards exist for FAME as a biodiesel (ASTM PS 121,

EN 228) (CIC Report 2006 a).

2 FAME is produced using methanol as a reaction agent. When ethanol is used instead of methanol, theproduct is fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE).



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Figure 3: The Biodiesel Technology Pathway

Wholesale,niche/retail liquid

fuel buyers

M a r k e t

Seed cakebuyers

Household liquid

energy buyers

Oilseedbuyers

C h e m i c a l

P r o

d u c t s b u y e r s

Oil extraction(mechanical or

chemical)

Farmergrowingoilseed crop

Oilseed

Seed cake

Vegetableoil

Trans-Esterification

process

Glycerine

Biodiesel

Oil buyers

90%

10%

Logistics

P r o d u

c t i o n

Chemicalsuppliers /Importers

RolePlayers

Products Processes

Legend

Biodiesel Producer



THE ECONOMICS OF A BIOFUEL VALUE CHAIN

A biofuel economy requires securityof supply of raw material, andcannot solely rely on agricultural

surpluses. It follows that wildlyfluctuating oilseed prices will bedetrimental to the sustainability ofa biofuel economy. A biofuel

economy therefore requires adedicated and stable localagricultural sector to supply crops

harvests at stable prices (see Box

2).

A biofuel producer requires a stable margin to produce at feasible levels. The biofuel

economy is constrained by agricultural input prices on the one hand (the supply side)and energy prices on the other hand (the demand side). Modelling done by CICInternational has shown that a biofuel producer requires a margin of at least US$

0.30 per litre for financial feasibility (2007).

The value of the seed cake in the biodiesel value chain is of primary importance in

assessing the economics of this value chain. Because of the relatively low ratio of oil

to oil cake in oil seed, a biodiesel industry is often referred to as a secondary orwaste product industry as the revenue obtained from the seed cake (especially in thecase of soy) is much larger than that obtained from the oil. A biodiesel economy

therefore requires a strong and stable market for seed cake.

A sustainable domestic biofuel economy requires an extensive public private

partnership to guarantee the biofuel producer margin. The agricultural sector and

the energy sector share common characteristics. Both sectors sell commodityproducts and are:

Exposed to global commodity price cycles;

Strongly regulated by Government and; and

Vertically integrated in the private sector.

To achieve a successful biofuel economy a country therefore has to align the efforts

of Government and its agents, and the private sector, to guarantee a biofuelproducer margin of at least US$ 0.30 per litre.

It is possible to manufacture biofuel for niche markets in the absence of a domestic

biofuel economy. This includes for instance biodiesel for own use or selling to smallbusiness and households and bio-ethanol gel for selling to households.

Box 2. A biofuel economy requires asustained and reliable supply of raw

material at stable prices.

Germany, for example, which produces nearly40% of world biodiesel, has based its largebiodiesel economy of approximatelyUS$3,000 million per year on a rapidlygrowing canola (rapeseed) production sector.A biodiesel economy is therefore a rural andagricultural job creator, based on theproduction of oilseed crops such assunflower, soy, canola or others.



COUNTRY APPROACHES TO BIOFUEL

International approaches

Before the large-scale production of crude oil products, bio-ethanol and plant oilswere some of the most cost-effective fuels available. With current escalating crude-

oil prices and refinery costs, biofuels once again are becoming cost-effectivealternatives to crude-oil based liquid fuels.

Although a number of small businesses globally have managed to manufacturebiofuel at competitive prices using waste products such as spent cooking oils and

tallow, national strategies for biofuel production have been driven by national needsfor energy security and independence. Agricultural development, balance of

payments concerns and changing WTO regulations on agricultural subsidies and

environmental legislation have also played important roles in various countrystrategies.

The major economies are increasingly including biofuel into their energy portfolios

(Table 1). This requires large-scale planting of dedicated biofuel crops. The countries

that lead the world in biofuel production (Brazil and the USA in bio-ethanol andGermany in biodiesel), have furthermore combined biofuel economy developments

with large-scale agricultural development initiatives and consume large quantities ofagricultural products to support rural economic development. Most countries are

rapidly developing bio-energy strategies, most notably the EU, India and China.

Table 1: Salient features of various country bio-energy strategies

Country Brief DescriptionKey developmentimperative

Institutional Interventions

Brazil

25-year-old sugarcane-based bio-ethanol industry,

biodiesel industry nowemerging

Agriculture development, fuel

security

Early years: considerablestate grants, tax concessionsand assistance throughPetrobras.

Current: fast tracking of flexi-fuel vehicles, regulation of thebio-ethanol fuel blendbetween 20-26%

USA

20-year-old maize-basedbio-ethanol industry,biodiesel industry nowemerging

Agriculture development, fuelsecurity

US 14 c/litre taxconcession/import tariffprotection

Germany10-year-old canola-basedbiodiesel industry

Agriculture development,environmental considerations

Fuel tax concession onbiodiesel = +-US 25 c/litre

India

Industry underestablishment, both bio-ethanol and biodiesel, verylarge Jatropha curcasinitiative

Rural development andpoverty alleviation, fuelsecurity and environmentalconsiderations

Government-ledimplementation programmewith large R&D, projectdevelopment and fiscalsupport

Australia

Industry not yet

established, mostlyconsidering the bio-ethanolpathway

Agriculture development, fuelsecurity, environmental andhealth considerations

Government-ledimplementation programme

Malawi25-year-old-sugar-cane-based bio-ethanol industry,plantings of Jatropha

Agriculture development, fuelsecurity

Government-ledimplementation programme

South Africa

Industry not yetestablished, consideringbio-ethanol and biodieselpathways

Job creation40% fuel tax concession onbiodiesel (= +-US 7 c/litre)



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A rapid survey of these country strategies shows that correct public policies are vitalfor successful bio-energy development. Promotional activities, fiscal support such as

budgetary grants (funded implementation and R&D programmes, subsidies) and taxconcessions form integral parts of country strategies to support the development ofbio-energy industries. The private sectors in these countries are responding stronglyto these initiatives.

SADC approaches

Aside from the 25-year old bio-ethanol plant in Malawi, the industry as a whole stillfinds itself in what may be described collectively as a feasibility phase.

SADC commissioned a study on the feasibility of the production of biofuels in theSADC region, completed in August 2005. This study concluded in favour of regional

biofuels development and set out a number of policy recommendations (see

Appendix 4).

Press reports reflect strong interest among some governments and private-sector

role players in establishing biodiesel and/or bio-ethanol manufacturing industries

within the SADC region. Diverse policy initiatives are under way, for example,Mozambique, Namibia and South Africa have recently developed biofuel strategies.

Initiatives are reportedly being investigated in Swaziland, Tanzania and Zambia.

There are a number of initiatives under way in most of the Southern Africancountries. For example, Zimbabwe has had 20 years or more experience in the

agronomy of Jatropha curcas, and new plantings of Jatropha curcas for biodiesel

production in Namibia, Mozambique and Zambia have been reported.

Within the private sector, Sasol and the Central Energy Fund (SA Government) have

reported feasibility investigations into and the commissioning of biodieselmanufacturing initiatives. Large maize farming co-operatives are reported to

considering start-up bio-ethanol plants. A number of large commercial farmers andsmall farming co-operatives produce biodiesel from sunflower, soy and canola seed.



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Box 3. The Namibian Bio-oil Energy Roadmap is a good example of alignment of biofuelprojects with national policies (NAB 2006).

―The Roadmap is a strategy to achieve the desired contribution of a bio-oil energy industry toNamibia‘s Vision 2030, including the objectives and activities that must be achieved on the path tothis Vision. However, as the future is by nature uncertain, these objectives and activities take theform of a schematic plan. This provides the Namibian Bio-oil Energy Committee (NABEC), who willbe tasked with the implementation of the Roadmap, the flexibility in decision-making that will berequired during the roll-out of the Roadmap.

The Roadmap aligns with national development strategies, including economic growth, povertyreduction, food security and energy supply goals. It plans for an energy-intensive economy into theforeseeable future with a large dependence on electricity, liquid fuel and other household energysources and a crude oil price remaining at US$60-70/barrel.

It assumes that sustainability, biodiversity protection and the eco-tourist economy of Namibia arenon-negotiable and may not be detrimentally affected by the development of a bio-oil energyindustry. It assumes that despite predicted urbanisation in Namibia, the needs of the ruralpopulation will continue to require urgent attention and that HIV/Aids, especially the fate of Aidsorphans, will dominate rural development issues.‖

STEP 2: ALIGN THE BIOFUEL PROJECT TO COUNTRY POLICY AND

DESIGN FOR SUSTAINABILITY

INTRODUCTION

Biofuel projects should align with the policies of the host country. Such alignment

will achieve optimal use of resources and Government support in the form ofsubsidies, tax incentives, extension services and other support services andincentives that may exist. It will also ensure legal compliance.

The overall purpose of any biofuel project should integrate the host country‘sdevelopment imperatives, existing policy, and government, NGO, aid-agency and

private-sector resources to mobilise technology and take advantage of market

opportunities.

Importantly, biofuel projects should always comply with relevant national and

international environmental performance standards and achieve certification underappropriate standards. Examples are the standards of the Forestry StewardshipCouncil (FSC), the Rainforest Alliance, and the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil

(RSPO). In addition, where relevant, projects would need to comply with the country

sustainability criteria established by the country Designated National Authority (DNA)for Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects.

For biofuels initiatives are now under way to develop analogous performance and

certification standards, including one originating in the European Union.

Box 3 demonstrates this through the examples the Bio-oil Energy Roadmap forNamibia.



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CONDUCT A POLICY FIELD ANALYSIS

The project purpose is determined from a policy field analysis which summarises the

relevant policies and initiatives.

The policies of importance for biofuel projects include:

Specific biofuel policies (Acts, strategies, roadmaps) Fuel standards

Renewable energy policies (Acts, strategies, roadmaps)

Liquid fuel policies

Agriculture policies

Environmental protection policies

Social and environmental sustainability criteria (European Governments)

Various rural development policies.

Copies of these policies may be obtained from the Internet, the relevant Government

Departments or Ministries, Government of national libraries or the Government

printers.

ESTABLISH A PROJECT SUPPORT NETWORK

A biofuel project is by definition of large scale and complex. A good technicalsupport network is important in managing various project risks.

Support for various aspects of the biofuel value chain may exist at:

Special country-specific biofuel project offices

Experimental farms

Farming co-operatives

Agricultural extension initiatives

Relevant Government Departments or Ministries

NGO‘s

Donors

Development agencies

Investors and financiers

Customers and suppliers.

ACHIEVE INSTITUTIONALISATION

Institutionalisation deals with the development and operational framework within

which a biofuel project may be implemented. Proper institutionalisation is one of the

imperatives that will ensure sustainability of biofuel ventures after a biofuel projectfunding cycle has completed.

Various institutional models exist through which the biofuel projects may be rolledout. For each of these models assistance of various degrees of intensity is required.

Examples of such models include for agricultural production:

household or homestead production

commercial farming

Concession farming.



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Examples of such models include for biofuel manufacturing:

small-scale on-farm manufacturing

medium or large scale manufacturing.

Developing the biofuel industries in SADC will of course face major risks because thesystems are not yet commercialised and there is therefore by definition a lack of

know-how. Special measures will be needed to import, develop and institutionalisethis know-how with respect to production systems and environmental management.

Careful planning and implementation of Science, Technology and Innovation (STI)

programmes, coupled with know-how management, and a unified extension systemreaching out through NGO and local management forums are required. To thehousehold, this would be an absolute prerequisite for success.

Government and private sector initiatives are required to establish infrastructure

needed for the programme. Labour (skills and availability) is a concern that has to beaddressed.

Across the world, in both forestry and agriculture, there are good benchmarks for the

design of projects that can achieve sustainability, including with respect toemployment conditions. The essence of these benchmark standards is captured inthe diverse sustainability standards that apply in agriculture and forestry (see section

2.2 above).



STEP 3: PRIORITISE THE APPROPRIATE BIOFUEL PATHWAY

INTRODUCTION

The appropriate biofuel technology pathway is prioritised primarily upon market

conditions and requirements. This is because it is generally easier to build a newindustry on an existing market than having to create a new market.

This section leads the user through important information that will guide in

entrepreneurial decision-making.

ANALYSE THE POTENTIAL BIOFUEL MARKET IN THE COUNTRY

A market is described by the quantity, price and nature of the biofuel manufacturing

opportunity for:

Petrol; in the case of bio-ethanol

Diesel; in the case of biodiesel

Kerosene (paraffin); in the case of biodiesel.

Determine the quantity of the three key liquid fuel markets using IEA

data

Energy statistics for 9 of the SADC countries are available from the InternationalEnergy Agency. The relevant statistics should be extracted as follows:

Click on the URL: www.iea.org/statist/index.htm

Select the country of interest from the drop-down menu entitled

―Countries beyond the OECD‖ (if the country of interest is not listed,

proceed immediately as indicated in section 3.2.2 below)

Select the dataset ―Oil‖

A table will be displayed, from which the following data must be extracted

as shown in the example for Botswana (2007) below (Table 2):

http://www.iea.org/statist/index.htm

http://www.iea.org/statist/index.htm



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Table 2. Summary of the key liquid fuel markets in Botswana for 2007,

showing fuel consumption for petrol, diesel and kerosene in 1000’s of

tonnes. Source: IEA.

Determine the quantity of the three key liquid fuel markets using other

data

Countries not listed on the IEA database are Lesotho, Madagascar, Malawi, Mauritius

and Swaziland and must obtain similar information from their relevant GovernmentDepartment or Ministry. If this information is not readily available, the crude oil

consumption data for these countries, provided by the CIA World Factbook(https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html) may be

used instead.

Patrol, kerosene and diesel consumption may then be determined as demonstrated

in Table 3.

Table 3. Summary of the key liquid fuel markets in Malawi for 2004,showing fuel consumption for petrol, diesel and kerosene in 1000’s oftonnes. Source: CIA World Factbook and calculations.

Determine the market size for the three key liquid fuel markets

This section follows the steps as described in the Tables below.

Convert liquid fuel consumption from tonnes to litres, using a specific gravity (SG)for both petrol and diesel of 0.90 as a guideline.

Gather the most recent fuel prices from petrol, diesel and kerosene from theGovernment of the country of interest. The fuel prices in a country are determined

by international crude oil prices, the currency strength of the country and

government policy, three factors are variable. If this information is not readilyavailable, data may be obtained from the regular GTZ publication International Fuel

Key liquid fuel market Petrol Kerosene Diesel

IEA column title"Motor

gasoline"

"Other

Kerosene""Gas/Diesel"

a Total Final Consumption (1000 tonnes) 335 21 276

Industry 0 3 74

Transport 335 0 191

Residential 0 18 0

Commercial and Public Services 0 0 11

Agriculture / Forestry 0 0 0

Fishing 0 0 0

Other Non-Specified 0 0 0

Non-Energy Use 0 0 0


ii Crude Oil Consumption (bbl/day) CIA factbook

iiI Africa consumption factors 0.29 0.05 0.40

a Total Final Consumption (litres) 67 16 128 = ii * iii *159 *365 / (1,000,000)

5500

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/index.html






20

Prices which may be found at http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/transport/19395.htm .

The table below provides an example for Botswana:

Table 4. Calculation of the key liquid fuel markets in Botswana for 2007,

showing the value of fuel consumption for petrol, diesel and kerosene inlocal currency.

** from http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/malawi/currency.htm

Determine the potential wholesale market size for the bio-ethanol and

biodiesel

Engine warrantees impose limits on the volume of biofuel that may be blended into

conventional fuel. Various international standards specify the maximum limits forthe blending of bio-ethanol and biodiesel into petrol and diesel respectively. This is

approximately 10% for bio- ethanol (E10) and 5% for biodiesel (B5). Using theseratios, the approximate market size for the bio-ethanol and biodiesel may be

estimated:

Table 5. Calculation of the potential wholesale market size for bio-ethanol

and biodiesel in Botswana for 2007.

It is possible to achieve larger market sizes than those calculated by imposing 10%and 5% blending limits as above. This can be achieved if the fuel-to-energyconversion technologies are adapted to run on higher concentrations of biofuel.

In the example of Botswana for instance, it may be possible to substitute thekerosene used by the residential sector, with biodiesel, if the cooking stoves and/or

heaters used are adapted to accommodate biodiesel. This is a market for about

23,000 litres of biodiesel and 135,000 Pula (Table 4).

Plant oils are sold in different markets: high value markets, such as for cosmetics

and special oils command prices in excess of USD 5 per litre; medium value markets,such as edible oils command prices of about USD 1-2 per litre; and biofuels markets,where the oil sells at USD 0.50 per litre3. In the case of bio-ethanol, the liquor

3 At USD 60-70 per barrel crude oil


b Total Final Consumption (litres) 372,185 23,331 306,636 = a (from Table 4) x 1111

c Fuel price (US$ / liter) 0.90 0.90 0.90 country pump price OR GTZ

d Market size (US$) 334,967 20,998 275,972 = b x c

e Exchange rate (Pula/US$) 6.44 6.44 6.44 **

f Market size (Pula) 2,157,184 135,226 1,777,262 = d x e

Liters Pula

g Bio-ethanol market 37,219 215,718 = b, f x 10%

h Biodiesel market 16,498 95,624 = i + j

i Biodiesel market: Kerosene component 1,167 6,761 = b, f x 5%

j Biodiesel market: Diesel component 15,332 88,863 = b, f x 5%

http://www.gtz.de/en/themen/umwelt-infrastruktur/transport/19395.htm




http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/malawi/currency.htm








21

market offers prices higher than those in the biofuels markets but liquor markets arehighly regulated and not open to mass bio-ethanol producers.

Any producer in the field of biofuels therefore faces the challenge that the primaryproduct (seed, cane, other harvest) and often the secondary product (oil, sugar) mayenter diverse markets, some of which would out-price the biofuels market.

The implication with respect to the grower is that a strategic choice is required. Thebiofuels market is large and thus attractive despite the relatively low price. The

grower will therefore need to secure a large volume of sales, to a reliable buyer at

adequate prices in the medium to long term.

Identify niche markets

Niche markets are associated with retail selling opportunities. Examples of such

markets include:

Own use

Electricity generation with diesel

Transport fleets

Farmers House-hold use.

These markets can only be identified through local country knowledge.

Investigate the biofuel auxiliary markets

There are a number of markets into which biofuel by-products and environmentalservices may be sold. These should be investigated.

The biofuel production process yields both liquid fuel and by-products. In the case of

biodiesel manufacturing in particular, finding a market for seed cake is of critical

importance to project viability.

There is also potential for environmental services such as carbon gains and bio-diversity conservation, as well as for the rehabilitation of degraded land. The Clean

Development Mechanism (CDM) is the mechanism available to SADC countries (Non-Annex I countries under the Kyoto Protocol) to access the international carbon

market.

IDENTIFY BIOFUEL BUYERS

Potential buyers must be identified or selected once the potential markets are

understood.

The start-up of large infrastructure-based industries is greatly facilitated by, if not

crucially dependent upon, clients who anchor the business. These may be:

Existing biofuel producers

Local oil companies

Farming operations

Transport operators

Exporters

Retail chains



22

Own use.

The transport distances and costs to potential buyers must not be prohibitive, andmust be calculated.

TECHNOLOGY AND THE ECONOMY OF SCALE CONSIDERATIONS

A number of technology characteristics must be considered when selecting a processtechnology.

Economy of scale is a technology descriptor which incorporates a large set ofcomplex production and price variables, which broadly indicates breakevenproduction levels. Turn-key biodiesel plants for the manufacturing of FAME

(―biodiesel‖) are feasible at moderate economies of scale (about 10 million litres peryear) (Table 6). Turn-key bio-ethanol plants are feasible at higher economies of

scale (about 75 million litres per year) (Table 6).

A related concept is the potential of a technology to be implemented through an

incremental approach as opposed to a turn-key approach. Whereas the turn-keyapproach requires large industrial development, the incremental approach allows for

smaller scale SME development and in some cases even business franchising.Ideally, plant-oil industry development as envisaged here, requires a technology

pathway that lends itself to both the incremental and turn-key approaches in order toensure maximum participation of a wide variety of entrepreneurs, which is the case

for the biodiesel technology pathway.

The technology requirements of growing various crops have to be considered. Theseare dealt with in the sections below and in particular in Appendix 1.

Table 6: Technology Characteristics of the Plant-oil Energy Pathway.

Technology characteristics: Natural SugarPathway

Plant Oil Pathway

Maturity Mature Mature

Proprietary Nature Widely available underlicence or free

Widely available underlicence or free

Economy of Scale of Turnkey Technology 75 million litres/year 10 million litres/year

Cost of Turnkey Plant US$ 70 for a 200 millionlitre per year capacity

US$ 56 for a 200 millionlitre per year capacity

Suitability for small scale applications Not suitable Suitable



23

STEP 4: PRIORITISE THE APPROPRIATE CROPS

INTRODUCTION

Biofuel production may source energy-rich raw materials from the local agriculturalsector or the forestry sector; or may purchase the by-products of other industries; or

may import the raw materials. For the purposes of this Manual, the agriculturalsector provides the resources for biofuel production.

BIOFUEL CROP OPTIONS

A limited number of crops can provide the raw material basis for biofuel production in

SADC (Table 7). This Manual deals with 4 bio-ethanol and 11 biodiesel crops, someof which are Perennial and some Annual. Some of the crops are widely grown andare listed in the FAO Food Group database, others are in earlier stages of

commercialisation and are not listed by the FAO. The steps that follow provide

guidelines on the decision of which of these crops may be more suited to a particularproject.

Although a number of additional crops, identified in Table 8, may be a source ofbiofuel raw material, these crops either command prohibitively high food prices,require temperate climates generally not found in SADC and/or are produced in

insufficient production volumes. Although it is not impossible that these crops may

provide a source of biofuel raw material, it is highly unlikely.

The web site of the Center for New Crops and Plant Products, at Purdue University.

NewCROP provides windows to new and specialty crop profiles (see

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html).

Table 7. Fifteen biofuel crops of potential to SADC. These crops areanalysed and discussed in this Manual.

Biofuel type Name Crop type FAO Food Group FAO Code

Bio-ethanol

Sugar Cane Perennial Sugarcrops 1212.99_a

Cassava Annual Roots and Tubers 0714.10

Maize Annual Cereals 1005

Sweet Sorghum Annual Cereals 1007.00

Biodiesel crops

African Oil Palm Perennial Oilcrops 1207.10_a

Coconut Perennial Oilcrops 0801.19

Castor Perennial Not listed Not Listed

Jatropha curcas Perennial Not listed Not listed

Pongamia Perennial Not listed Not listedRapeseed, Canola Annual Oilcrops 1205_a

Cotton Annual Oilcrops 1207.20_a

Groundnuts Annual Oilcrops 1202.10

Industrial Hemp Annual Not listed Not Listed

Soybean Annual Oilcrops 1201.00

Sunflower Annual Oilcrops 1206.00

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newCrops.html

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/default.html

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/newCrops.html



24

Table 8. A number of additional crops may potentially be suited to biofuel

production, but hold marginal opportunities as a result of high food prices,

temperate climate or low production volumes. These crops are not analysedand discussed in this Manual.

Biofuel type Name Note

Sisal Small volumes

Bio-ethanol

Wheat Commands high food prices

Rice, paddy Commands high food prices

Barley Commands high food prices

Rye Commands high food prices

Oats Commands high food prices

Millet Commands high food prices

Sugar beet Temperate crop with marginal opportunity

Biodiesel crops

Mustard seed andField Pennycress

Small volumes commands high food prices

Niger Small volumes

Tung-oil Tree Small volumes

Ximenia caffra,Pappea capensis,

Sclerocarya birrea,Manketti nut, Moringaoleifera, Jatrophamahafalensis

Tested in the region but remote fromdomestication; or oil best for high-value

markets

Safflower Small volumes

Sesame seed Oil best for high-value markets

Olives Oil best for high-value markets

Linseed Oil best for high-value markets

IDENTIFY BIOFUEL THOSE CROPS IN TABLE 7 CURRENTLY FARMED

The FAO database, FAOSTAT, identifies crops grown per country and provides time

series of production volumes and prices. It is advantageous if the target countryalready produces crops that may feed either bio-ethanol or biodiesel production.This means that the knowledge, skills and infrastructure required for growing thatcrop already exists in the country. The following steps describe how these statistics

may be accessed, using Malawi as an example:

Go to the URL: http://faostat.fao.org/site/340/default.aspx

In the ―subject‖ field, select Production Quantity

In the ―country‖ field, select Malawi

In the ―year‖ field, select 2003 (+/OR any other years of interest)

In the ―commodity‖ field, select the relevant Crop

Click on the ―Show data‖ button to display Production Quantity data

In the ―subject‖ field, select Area Harvested

Click on the ―Show data‖ button to display Area Harvested data In the ―subject‖ field, select Producer Price

Click on the ―Show data‖ button to display Producer Price data

In the Malawi example used here, both production and price data are only available

for 2003.

http://faostat.fao.org/site/340/default.aspx






25

Table 9. Estimation of the size of the potential bio-ethanol agri-sector in

Malawi using 2003 data from FAOSTAT.

** from http://wwp.greenwichmeantime.com/time-zone/africa/malawi/currency.htm

NEW CROPS: CONDUCT A RAPID ASSESSMENT OF NEW CROP SUITABILITY

In the event where the relevant crops are not yet cultivated in the country ofinterest, the following procedure has to be followed.

Introduction

The class of biophysical environment within which the biofuels project is to be

assessed and planned. This classification will provide a basis for choice of crop and

predictions of crop performance, needed for pre-feasibility assessment of the project.Later, the classification will facilitate the design of research as well as the process oftechnology diffusion.

Descriptors of the biophysical environment must be those generally accepted andemployed for these purposes.

Within the SADC region, these are:

the Köppen-Geiger climate classification, and the FAO/UNESCO soil classification system,

eco-regional classifications, global (FAO) and country.

An outline of each follows below.

Bioclimates: the Köppen-Geiger Climate SystemThe Köppen-Geiger Climate System is the most widely employed and useful global

classification system (Peel et al. 2007).

The SADC region includes the A, B and C climate classes (see Peel et al. 2007).

Within these, the Tropical Rainforest, Monsoon, and Savannah, the Arid Hot Steppe

(in part: NE Namibia, central Tanzania, SW Zimbabwe, for example) temperate HotSummer and Temperate Warm Summer are the main climate types suited to biofuels

production.

The FAO/UNESCO soil classification systemThe FAO/UNESCO system classifies the soils of the world and is the most widely usedin Africa (see http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/ILRI/x5546E/x5546e04.htm). This

Crop Sugar cane Maize Cassava Sorghum

k Production Quantity (tonnes) 2,100,000 1,983,000 1,735,000 45,000 FAOSTAT

l Area Harvested (hectares) 19,350 1,550,000 103,000 60,000 FAOSTAT

m Producer Price (Kwacha) 4,577 13,032 5,990 19,912 FAOSTAT

n Exchange rate (MKW/US$) 143 143 143 143 **

o Size of industry (Million US$) 67 181 73 6 = m/n*k/(1,000,000)

p Yield (tonnes/hectare) 108.5 1.3 16.8 0.8 = k/l

q Income (US$/hectare) 3,474 117 706 104 = o/l*(1,000,000)




http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/ILRI/x5546E/x5546e04.htm






26

section outlines the major soils types of the humid and subhumid zones of tropicalAfrica.

This system encompasses a hierarchy of categories in six levels:

10 orders

47 sub-orders within the 10 orders 230 great groups for the 47 orders (of these, 140 occur within the tropics)

the other three levels, i.e. subgroups, families and series.

Table 10 lists and describes the 10 soil orders in the system.

Table 10. Brief descriptions of the ten soil orders according to theFAO/UNESCO Soil Taxonomy. For additional detail regarding tropical Africa

see http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/ILRI/x5546E/x5546e04.htm .Soil Order Diagnostic description

Alfisols Soils with a clayey B-horizon and exchangeable cation saturation greater than 50% accordingto the standard measure.

Ultisols Soils with a clayey B-horizon and base saturation less than 50%. They are acidic, leachedsoils from humid areas of the tropics and subtropics.

Oxisols Oxisols are strongly weathered soils but have very little variation in texture with depth.Some strongly weathered, red, deep, porous oxisols contain large amounts of clay-sized ironand aluminium oxides.

Vertisols Dark clay soils containing large amounts of swelling clay minerals (smectite). The soils crackwidely during the dry season and become very sticky in the wet season.

Mollisols Grassland soils formed from gravity-transported (colluvial) materials, with dark surfacehorizons and base saturation greater than 50%, dominating in exchangeable Ca.

Inceptisols Young soils with limited profile development. They are mostly formed from colluvial andalluvial (river-washed) materials. Soils derived from volcanic ash are considered a specialgroup of Inceptisols, presently classified under the Andept suborder (also known asAndosols).

Entisols Soils with little or no horizon development in the profile. They are mostly derived fromalluvial materials.

Aridisols Soils of arid region, such as desert soils. [These include the arenosols, the deep free-drainingsands of mainly arid and semi-arid regions and the coasts.] Some are saline.

Spodosols - Soils with a bleached surface layer (A2 horizon) and an alluvial accumulation ofsesquioxides and organic matter in the B-horizon. These soils are mostly formed underhumid conditions and coniferous forest in the temperate region.

Histosols - Soils rich in organic matter such as peat and muck.

Table 11 lists the indicative soil-management problems for each soil type within thehumid tropics, which apply to a large extent also in the other climate regions.

Table 11. Soil-related constraints to intensive agriculture in the humidtropics. see http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/ILRI/x5546E/x5546e04.htm.

Soil Nutrientdeficiency

Nutrienttoxicity

Structuraldeterioration

Compaction Erosion/landslides

Effectiverootingdepth

Oxisols &Ultisols

N. P. Ca Zn Al. Mn Crusting.hard setting

Surfaceand sub-soilcompaction

Sheet/rillerosion

Shallow tomedium

Inceptisols P - - - Gullyerosion

-

Entisols P - Single-grained

- Gullyerosion

Shallow







27

loosestructure

Alfisols P - Crusting.hard setting

Surfaceand sub-soilcompaction

Acceleratederosion

Shallow tomedium

Histosols - - - - - -

Spodosols N, P Al Sub-soilcompaction Sheeterosion Shallow tomedium

Mollisols - - - - - -

Vertisols P - Crackingtrafficability

Sub-soilcompaction

Severesheeterosion

Medium

Eco-regionsFAO and its partners have developed a global Agroecological Zones (AEZ) Framework

that enables information management and transfer, which among other things hasbeen used by IPCC for predicting effects of global change on crop potentials. (See,http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/TAC/X5756E/x5756e0j.htm, Annex I, Agroecological

Zones Framework and Database for the Review of CGIAR Priorities and Strategies).

At the highest level, this system recognizes nine classes, as follows:

1. Warm arid and semi-arid tropics2. Warm subhumid tropics3. Warm humid tropics

4. Cool tropics5. Warm arid and semi-arid subtropics with summer rainfall6. Warm subhumid subtropics with summer rainfall

7. Warm/cool humid subtropics with summer rainfall

8. Cool subtropics with summer rainfall9. Cool subtropics with winter rainfall.

Within SADC, countries classify as follows in this system:

Warm arid and semi-arid tropics (AEZ 1): parts of Tanzania; Southern

Africa: Botswana, Namibia, Swaziland, and parts of Angola, Malawi,

Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and Zimbabwe.

Warm subhumid tropics (AEZ 2): East Africa: Parts of Tanzania; SouthernAfrica: parts of Angola, Malawi, Mozambique, South Africa, Zambia and

Zimbabwe.

Warm humid tropics (AEZ 3): none.

Cool tropics (AEZ 4): Lesotho, and parts of Angola, Ethiopia, South Africa

and Tanzania.

While this and other eco-regional classifications are employed internationally, everycountry in SADC has its own, more highly resolved classification, with variednomenclature. Developers of biofuels projects should refer to these country

classifications to locate their initiatives.

http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/TAC/X5756E/x5756e0j.htm

http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/TAC/X5756E/x5756e0j.htm



28

Determine the biophysical setting within which the intended project area

falls

This is done by identifying, for the project area, the Köppen-Geiger climatic area, thesoil class and the eco-region identity.

To determine the accessing the Köppen-Geiger climatic area, access the

website http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdfs/kottek_et_al_2006_A1.pdf

To determine the soil class according to the FAO/UNESCO system access the

website http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/wrb/wrbmaps/htm/soilres.htm andidentify the soil class. Additional soil information on various African countries

is available at the websitehttp://eusoils.jrc.it/esdb_archive/EuDASM/africa/indexes/idx_country.htm

To establish the eco-region identity, access the website

http://www.fao.org/Wairdocs/TAC/X5756E/x5756e00.jpg

Identify potentially suitable new crops

Select the suitable crop(s) by comparing the climatic and soil crop requirementsspecified in Appendix 1 to the biophysical setting determined in the section above.

This desktop analysis serves to identify whether the potential for planting new cropsexist in a project area. It does not replace a locational assessment, conducted by anexperienced agronomist, which should follow.

OTHER CONSIDERATIONS

FAO crop planning guidelines

Further locational assessment may be done using the FAO Soils Bulletin 73 (FAO

1996). This document can be accessed at the website

http://www.fao.org/docrep/W2962E/w2962e-04.htm#P515_61898 and provides adetailed procedural guideline for assessing land capability and crop potential. This

provides at least indications for biofuels crops, specifically for established crops, butthe system is readily extended if applied with the information contained in this tool.

However, there is usually local knowledge available to refine such assessments.

Soil erosion and biofuels crops

For any crop the potential for increased rates of erosion, compared with the naturalrate, varies markedly, depending on a number of factors. The most efficient way of

drawing inferences about biofuels and erosion is to deduce from experimentally

derived mathematical models the likely relative erosion rates from different biofuels

cropping system.

The most widely accepted model for predicting erosion is the US Soil Loss Equation(USLE; a South African modification is known as SLEMSA). The U.S. Department ofAgriculture Handbook (No. 703 of 1997) describes the revised equation (RUSLE) in

great detail.

The formula is as follows:

http://koeppen-geiger.vu-wien.ac.at/pdfs/kottek_et_al_2006_A1.pdf



http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/wrb/wrbmaps/htm/soilres.htm



http://eusoils.jrc.it/esdb_archive/EuDASM/africa/indexes/idx_country.htm




http://www.fao.org/docrep/W2962E/w2962e-04.htm#P515_61898









29

A = R*K*LS*C*P

where A = estimated average soil loss in tons per unit area per yearR = rainfall-runoff erosivity factor, a measure of the erosion force of specific rainfall.When other factors are constant, storm losses from rainfall are directly proportionalto the product of the total kinetic energy of the storm (E) times its maximum 30-

minute intensity (I)K = soil erodibility factorL = slope length factor

S = slope steepness factor

C = cover-management factor, andP = support practice factorC, the cover-management factor, embodies the effect of cropping and management

practices on erosion rates. It represents the effects of plants, soil cover, soilbiomass, and soil-disturbing activities on erosion. This factor C measures the

deviation for a given crop from a standard cover type, in this case an area underclean-tilled continuous-fallow conditions. The Soil Loss Ratio (SLR) is then an

estimate of the ratio of soil loss under actual conditions to losses experienced underthe reference conditions. If a value for C of 0.15 represents a given cropping

system, it signifies that the erosion will be reduced to 15 percent of the amount thatwould have occurred under continuous fallow conditions. The values for C in Table12 indicate the range that has been found experimentally, from natural forest to

different crop cover types. Thus, the erosion rates for primary forest would be 0.1%of that of ―continuous fallow conditions‖, whereas that of a maize or sorghum crop

would be 30 – 90% of that of the fallow. From this table we see that biofuels cropswould have lowest values of C for tree crops (e.g. coconuts), and highest for cash

crops (e.g. maize).

http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/rfactor.htm

http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/kfactor.htm

http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/lsfactor.htm


http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/cfactor.htm

http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/pfactor.htm

http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/pfactor.htm

http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/cfactor.htm



http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/kfactor.htm

http://www.iwr.msu.edu/rusle/rfactor.htm



30

Table 12. Values of the coefficient C in the USLE equation, for different cover

types, including examples of biofuels crops. From FAO 2004.

Vegetative Cover/Crop Value of C

ForestPrimary forest (with dense undergrowth) 0.001

Second-growth forest with good undergrowth and high mulch cover 0.003

Second-growth forest with patches of shrubs and plantation crops offive years or more

0.006

Industrial tree plantations 0.007 – 0.01

Mixed stands of industrial tree plantations, eight years or more 0.07

Agroforestry tree species

Mixed stands, five years or more with good cover 0.15

Coconuts, with annual crops as intercrops 0.1 – 0.3

Oil palm, coffee, cacao with cover crops 0.1 – 0.3

Grasslands

Imperata or Themeda grassland, well established and undisturbed,with shrub

0.007

Shrubs with patches or open, disturbed grasslands 0.15

Well-managed rangeland, ungrazed for two years or more 0.01 - 0.05Savannah or pasture without grazing 0.01

Grassland, moderately grazed, burned occasionally 0.2 – 0.4

Overgrazed grassland, burned regularly 0.4 – 0.9

Guinea grass (Panicum maximum) 0.01

Annual cash crops

Maize and sorghum 0.3 – 0.9

Peanut, mungbean, soybean 0.3 – 0.8

Cotton 0.14 – 0.6

Diversified crops 0.2 – 0.4

Cassava monoculture 0.2 – 0.8

Cassava with well-established leguminous ground cover 0.01 0.02

This table gives a first approximation of a model to rank biofuels development

options against the alternatives under consideration in the development decision.

The relative effect on soil erosion rates would be linearly related to the estimatedvalue of C for biofuel crop in question, relative to the value of C of the cover type inthe comparison.

Environmental risk

Various aspects of biofuel industries could pose environmental risks. These shouldbe identified and managed.

Because biofuels projects require large areas of land, often in the under-developed

world, the particular environmental risks that such a project will generate include thefollowing:

Loss of biodiversity Impact on water resources

Soil loss.

Such risks need to be addressed both in the design and planning of the project, aswell as in the management of the established enterprise. For management, thesustainability schemes outlined in 2.2 above, and their supporting management

systems (e.g. ISO), provide the best instrument to manage risk in the enterprise.

However, for design and planning, the developer will need to achieve two things: (a)



31

design for success in achieving certification, and (b) design and planning forcompliance with appropriate country regional guidelines and standards (e.g.

biodiversity frameworks and EIAs).

Social Benefits

The assessment of crops should include an appropriate form of social impactassessment. This should at least include a comparative assessment of employmentopportunities. Table 13 provides approximate indications of employment to be

expected from different crop types up to and including harvest of the primaryproduct. However, project proponents should find and use information appropriate

to the particular country.

Table 13. Indicative levels of employment in different skills categories for

different biofuels crop types. Figures are derived for South Africa where

labour intensity is intermediate. Employment levels elsewhere in Africa arelikely to be higher.

Crop type Employment level (employees/1000 hectares) in each skills category

Skilled Semi-skilled Unskilled TotalBio-ethanol field crops4 2 5 15 22

Biodiesel field crops5 2 5 10 17

Sugarcane6 5 25 210 240

Energy PlantationsNormal operations7 Harvesting8 Total

2

2

10

10

88250338

100250350

4 Grain SA5 Grain SA6 SA Sugar Association7 Forestry SA8 Based on coffee harvesting labour rates in South Africa





33

Table 14. Biofuel content per mass of dry product and yield of product per

hectare. These numbers are used to calculate the potential biofuel yield for

each crop. Please see text.

CALCULATE POTENTIAL BIOFUEL VALUE FOR EACH CROP

From the Potential Biofuel Yield volumes calculated above, approximate the potentialbiofuel value for the project by crop. This is done by multiplying the Potential Biofuel

Yield (litres) by the fuel price (Table 4).

Crops can now be prioritised based on its both on its suitability categorisation andpotential biofuel yield.

Biofuel type Name

Yield of dry

product per

hectareSugar Cane 6% per tonne raw cane from Table 9

Cassava 30% per tonne dry root from Table 9

Maize 40% per tonne maize from Table 9

Sweet Sorghum 30% per dry tonne from Table 9

African Oil Palm 30% per tonne fruit from Table 9

Coconut 70% per nut from Table 9

Castor 40% per tonne seed 750

Jatropha curcas 30% per tonne seed 3,000

Pongamia 30% per tonne seed 3,000

Rapeseed, Canola 35% per tonne seed from Table 9

Cotton 15% per tonne seed from Table 9

Groundnuts 40% per tonne seed from Table 9Industrial Hemp 30% per tonne seed 750

Soybean 20% per tonne seed from Table 9

Sunflower 35% per tonne seed from Table 9

Bio-ethanol

Biodiesel crops

Biofuel content per mass of dry

product



34

STEP 6: DEVELOP THE BUSINESS CASE FOR THE PROJECT

The business case for a possible project may now be defined by specifying:

The market opportunity

The nature and extent of existing biofuel initiatives in the country

The extent of the potential agricultural project (in hectares) The list of prioritised crops

The potential biofuel value to be realised.

Project financiers and other investors normally have very specific requirements for

project feasibility assessment. The preceding analyses and assessments provide

information that would be the point of departure for such a business case.

In addition to project finance available from private and institutional investors,

examples of some relevant, new international financial mechanisms are the CDM, the

financial instruments emerging under the UNCCD (United Nations Convention on the

Combating of Desertification) Global Mechanism, as well as bi-lateral instruments

including donor funding.



35

R EFERENCES

FAO. 1996. Agro-ecological zoning guidelines. FAO Soils Bulletin 73. Soil Resources,Management and Conservation Service. FAO Land and Water Development Division

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, 1996

FAO. 1997. White Maize: a Traditional Food Grain in Developing Countries.International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre. FAO, Rome, 1997.

FAO, 2004. Proceedings of the Validation Forum on the Global Cassava DevelopmentStrategy, Rome, 26 - 28 APRIL 2000. Strategic Environmental Assessment. An

Assessment of the Impact of Cassava Production and Processing on the Environment

and Biodiversity. Volume 5. Food and Agriculture Organization of The United Nations.International Fund for Agricultural Development. Rome, 2001. Reprinted 2004.

FAO, 2005. Procedures for weed risk assessment.ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/y5885e/y5885e00.pdf

Fischer, G., van Velthuizen, H., Shah, M. and Nachtergaele, F. 2002. Global Agro-

ecological Assessment for Agriculture in the 21st Century: Methodology and results.International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis Laxenburg, Austria and

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle Terme diCaracalla, Rome, Italy.

Foale, M. 2003. The coconut odyssey: the bounteous possibilities of the tree of life.Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra.

Friesen, D.K. and Palmer A.F.E. (editors). 2001. Integrated approaches to higher

maize productivity in the new millennium. Proceedings of the Seventh Eastern and

Southern African Maize Conference, Nairobi, 11-15 February 2001. Published byCIMMYT and the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, Nairobi.

GTZ. 2005. Liquid biofuels for transportation in Tanzania. Potential and implications

for sustainable agriculture and energy in the 21st Century. GTZ, Eschborn.

Lal, R. 1995. Sustainable management of soil resources in the humid tropics. TheUnited Nations University Press.

Li Guiying, Gu Weibin, Alastair Hicks and Keith R. Chapman. Undated A trainingmanual for sweet sorghum. EcoPort version (revised) by Peter Griffee. FAO Id 172.Available at http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=earticleView&earticleId=172&page=-

2#sectionIndex

Olsen J.K. 2004. An information paper on industrial hemp (industrial cannabis).

Department of Primary Industries and Fisheries, Queensland Government.

Peel, M.C., Finlayson, B.L., and McMahon, T.A. 2007. Updated world map of theKoppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrology and Earth System Sciences

Discussions. Vol 4, 439–473. www.hydrol-ear th-syst-sci-discuss.net/4/439/2007/

ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/y5885e/y5885e00.pdf

http://ecoport.org/ep?SearchType=earticleView&earticleId=172&page=-2#sectionIndex




ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/009/y5885e/y5885e00.pdf



36

Poku, K. 2002. Small-scale palm oil processing in Africa. FAO Agricultural ServicesBulletin 148.

Rajvanshi, A.K., Singh, V. and Nimbkar, N. 2006. Biofuels – Promise / Prospects.Nimbkar Agricultural Research Institute (NARI). Phaltan-415523, Maharashtra.Posted at: http://www.google.com/search?q=Biofuels+–

+Promise+/+Prospects,+Anil++Kumar++Rajvanshi&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8. Posted2006.

Reddy, B.V.S., Ramesh, S., Reddy, P.S., Ramaiah, B., Salimath, P.M. and Kachapur,

R. Undated. Sweet Sorghum – a potential alternate raw material for bio-ethanol andbio-energy. ICRISAT, Andhra Pradesh, India.http://www.icrisat.org/Biopower/BVSReddySweetSorghumPotentialAlternative.pdf

Reynolds, S.G. 1995. Pasture-cattle-coconut systems. FAO, RAP Publication 1995/7

AF298/E.

Theron, J.G. 2002. A framework for the development of new crops industries inSouth Africa. P. 81–85. In: J. Janick and A. Whipkey (eds.), Trends in new crops and

new uses. ASHS Press, Alexandria, VA.

UN-Energy, 2007. Sustainable bioenergy: a framework for decision makers. Available

at ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1094e/a1094e00.pdf.

USDA. 2000. Industrial Hemp in the United States: Status and Market Potential.AGES No. (AGES001) 43 pp, January 2000.

Wani, S.P. and Sreedevi, T.K. Undated. Pongamia‘s journey from forest to micro-

enterprise for improving livelihoods. International Crops Research Institute for theSemi-Arid Tropics, Andhra Pradesh, India.

http://www.icrisat.org/Biopower/Wani_Sreedevi_Pongamiajourney.pdf

http://www.google.com/search?q=Biofuels+%E2%80%93+Promise+/+Prospects,+Anil++Kumar++Rajvanshi&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8



http://www.icrisat.org/Biopower/BVSReddySweetSorghumPotentialAlternative.pdf

ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1094e/a1094e00.pdf



ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/a1094e/a1094e00.pdf

http://www.icrisat.org/Biopower/BVSReddySweetSorghumPotentialAlternative.pdf





APPENDIX 1: CHOICE OF SPECIES

PREFACE

This Appendix specifies the species to consider in a biofuels development initiative inSADC.

This Appendix relies in general on sources in the Handbook for Energy Crops at

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/, but also the database on newcrops at the same URL. However, for each crop certain specific sources are useful,

and these are specified below.

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/

http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/



38

Common name Scientificbinomial

Family Origin Biofuelstechnologypathway(s) towhich fitted

Cropping system FAO AEZ to which fitted

Sugarcane Saccharumspp.

Poacaeae Africa-Eurasia Bio-ethanol Energy plantation, industrial and outgrowers Tropics, subtropics

Cassava Manihotesculenta

Euphorbiaceae

South America Bio-ethanol Field crop Tropics

Maize, corn Zea mays Poacaeae Central America Bio-ethanol Field crop Tropics, subtropics andtemperate

Sweet Sorghum Sorghumbicolor (L.)Moench var

sweet

Poacaeae Africa Bio-ethanol Field crop Tropics, subtropics (andtemperate?)

African Oil Palm Elaeisguineensis

Arecaceae West Africa,occurringbetween Angolaand Gambia

Biodiesel Energy plantation, industrial and outgrowers Tropics, subtropics

Coconut Palm Cocos nucifera Arecaceae Controversial:south Asia, ornorthwesternSouth America.

Biodiesel Energy plantation, industrial and outgrowers,multiple use plantations

Tropics

Castor bean Ricinuscommunis

Euphorbiaceae

SEMediterranean, EAfrica

Biodiesel Field crop or optionally, energy plantation,industrial and outgrowers

Tropics, sub-tropics andtemperate

Physic Nut Jatrophacurcas

Euphorbiaceae

Biodiesel Energy plantation, industrial and outgrowers,multiple use plantations

Tropics, sub-tropics

Pongamia,Pongam Tree,Indian Beech

Pongamiapinnata

Fabaceae India Biodiesel Energy plantation, industrial and outgrowers,multiple use plantations

Tropics, sub-tropics

Rapeseed,Oilseed Rape,Canola

Brassica napusvariety

Brassicaceae Eurasia Biodiesel Field crop Tropics, subtropics andtemperate for non-hibernating form

Cotton Gossypium

hirsutum, Gossypiumbarbadenseand otherspecies ofGossypium

Malvaceae Tropical and

subtropicalregions aroundthe world

Biodiesel Field crop Tropics, subtropics and

temperate

Groundnut Arachishypogaea

Fabaceae South America Biodiesel Field crop or inter-planted in plantations Tropics, subtropics andtemperate

Industrial hemp Cannabissativa L. subsp.

Bio-ethanol andbiodiesel

Field crop Tropics, sub-tropics

http://vasatwiki.icrisat.org/index.php?title=Arecaceae&action=edit


http://vasatwiki.icrisat.org/index.php?title=Asia&action=edit

http://vasatwiki.icrisat.org/index.php?title=South_America&action=edit

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossypium_hirsutum


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gossypium_barbadense






http://vasatwiki.icrisat.org/index.php?title=South_America&action=edit

http://vasatwiki.icrisat.org/index.php?title=Asia&action=edit





39

Common name Scientificbinomial

Family Origin Biofuelstechnologypathway(s) towhich fitted

Cropping system FAO AEZ to which fitted

sativa var.sativa

Soybean Glycine max Fabaceae Eastren Asia Biodiesel Field crop Tropics, subtropics andtemperate

Sunflower Helianthusannuus L.

Asteraceae North America Biodiesel Field crop Temperate, Subtropics

The following sections contain brief fact sheets and pointers to sources of detailed information that may be accessed to make a

choice of species for a project, against the framework of information that would be generated in the steps to follow in this guide.



CROPS FOR THE BIO-ETHANOL PATHWAY

Sugar cane

See also http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/sugar.htm andhttp://www.fao.org/AG/aGL/AGLW/cropwater/sugarcane.stm.

IntroductionSugar cane includes of six species of perennial grasses of the genus Saccharum L., twowild species, S. spontaneum L. and S. robustum Brandes & Jeswiet ex Grassl, and fourcultivated species, S. officinarum L., S. barberi Jeswiet, S. sinense Roxb., and S. edule

Hassk. The four cultivated species are complicated hybrids, and all intercross readily. Allcommercial canes grown today are inter-specific hybrids.

Climate and soilsCane sugar is grown primarily in tropical and subtropical regions. The highest latitudesat which cane is grown is in South Africa, at approximately 30 degrees S. Sugarcanecultivation requires a minimum of 600 mm of annual rainfall, but commercially viable

yields require at least 1200 mm, preferably 1500 mm, if not from rain then fromirrigation. A long growing season is essential for high yields. Optimum temperature forsprouting (germination) of stem cuttings is 32 to 38°C. Optimum growth is achieved

with mean daily temperatures between 22 and 30°C. Minimum temperature for activegrowth is approximately 20°C. For ripening, however, relatively lower temperatures inthe range of 20 to 10°C are desirable. Sugarcane does not require a special type of soil,though intensive cultivation is needed in all cases, which also serves to overcomelimitations in soils such as vertisols. Best soils are those that are more than 1 m deep.The optimum soil pH is about 6.5 but sugarcane will grow in soils with pH in the range of5 to 8.5.

Productivity and yieldsSugar cane yields up to 10 tonnes of sucrose/ha/yr, and 35 tonnes/ha in dry mass.Recovery of raw sugar from cane varies from 11-13 percent. Some current breeding

programmes focusing on biofuel claim substantial increases in yields of both sucrose anddry matter.

By-products of biofuels productionThe most important by-product of sugar production is bagasse, the fibrous residue leftafter the juices are extracted from the cane. It is the main source of fuel in sugarfactories. It can also be used in making paper, cardboard, fibre board, and wall board,

and in future would be available for the lignocelluloses pathway.

Input requirements

a. AgronomicSugar cane production on any scale requires high inputs. Propagation is through stemcuttings of immature canes 8-12 months old, usually called "setts". It takes 12,500 -20,000 setts to plant one hectare. Sugar cane is a perennial crop which usually producescrops for about 3-6 years before being replanted. The first crop is called the "plant crop"and takes 9-24 months to mature. The cane is cut close to the ground because the lowerstem has the highest sugar content and it aids in ratooning, i.e. resprouting after this

first crop. Ratoon crops take about one year to mature. As many as four or more ratooncrops may be produced before replanting is necessary, mostly due to the slow decline inyields. Sugarcane has high nitrogen and potassium needs and relatively low phosphate

requirements, or 100 to 200 kg/ha N, 20 to 90 kg/ha P and 125 to 160 kg/ha K for a

http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/sugar.htm

http://www.fao.org/AG/aGL/AGLW/cropwater/sugarcane.stm

http://www.fao.org/AG/aGL/AGLW/cropwater/sugarcane.stm

http://www.siu.edu/~ebl/leaflets/sugar.htm





Cassava

Introduction

Cassava is a perennial woody shrub, grown as an annual. All plant parts containcyanogenic glucosides with the leaves having the highest concentrations. The plantproducts of cassava therefore need processing before safe human consumption, which is

readily done. The tubers quickly lose quality on harvesting. For additional information,see FAO (2004) and Dunstan Spencer and Associates, Cassava in Africa: past, presentand future.

Climate and soilsCassava is produced between 30o N and S latitude, and up to an altitude of about 1800m asl near the equator. It grows best in a rainfall regime with well-distributed rainfall of

1000-1500 mm per year and a mean air temperature of 25-29°C. It tolerates droughtand low soil fertility, but not frost. It can tolerate semi-arid conditions with rainfall as lowas 500 mm. In Africa, 40-45% of cassava is grown in both the humid and seasonally drytropics, and with 10-15% in the semi-arid tropics. Cassava can grow on a wide range of

soils, with pH from 4.0 to 8.0. In Africa, most cassava is grown on Oxisols, Ultisols andEntisols. It is best adapted to well-drained, light-textured, deep soils of intermediatefertility.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentRecently, breeding programmes have resulted in a diversity of cultivars for differentenvironments and for resistance to diverse pests and diseases. However, each growing

region has its own special clones with farmers growing several different ones in a field.This is a medium-technology crop, with little mechanisation, where experienced farmerscan produce well practising independently, but where support from national orinternational research and extension programmes is ideal.

Productivity and yieldsUnder the most favourable conditions, yields of fresh roots can reach 90 t/ha per year

though average world yields from mostly subsistence agricultural systems are 9.8 t/ha.

By-products of biofuels productionAnimal feed.

Input requirements

a. AgronomicThe cuttings are planted by hand in moist, prepared soil. Typical plant spacing is 1m by

1m. Weeds must be controlled during the first few months. Although cassava canproduce a crop with minimal inputs, optimal yields are recorded from fields with average

soil fertility levels for food crop production and regular moisture availability. Fertiliser isonly applied during the first few months of growth. Plants are ready for harvest as soonas there are storage roots large enough to meet the requirements of the consumer,typically as soon as eight months after planting. Plants are harvested by hand, but

mechanical devices are in development in Brazil.

b. Technical supportThe largest germplasm collection is housed at the International Center for TropicalAgriculture (CIAT) in Cali, Colombia. The International Institute for Tropical Agriculture

(IITA) in Ibadan, Nigeria maintains a germplasm collection for African needs. The largest



national collection is in Brazil under the direction of the Brazilian Agricultural ResearchNetwork (EMBRAPA). All three institutions have breeding programs.

c. Management of pests, diseases and other biotoc factors

Various diseases, such as the mosaic disease, can be problematic. The selection ofhealthy, disease-free and pest-free propagules is essential.

Several pests, including the mealybug (for which biological control agents are available),the green spider mite, require control.



Maize

See also FAO 1997; Friesen and Palmer 2001.

IntroductionThe maize plant is a warm-weather annual grass, deep-rooted but requiring abundant

soil moisture for best development. Most varieties of maize require 100 to 140 days fromseeding to full ripeness of the kernels though some kinds will ripen in as little as 80days.

Climate and soilsMaize is successful under diverse climates, from temperate to tropical, requiringhowever adequate soil moisture during germination, growth and flowering. Good

production is possible on diverse soils, though maize usually requires fertilisation that isappropriate to soil nutrient status and maize variety.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentNearly all the maize now grown in commercial farming in Africa is of hybrid varieties.Seed is obtained by crossing inbred lines, which are obtained by self-pollination throughseveral generations. This results in reduced vigour and yield but increased uniformity in

the inbreds. Properly selected and adapted hybrid corn varieties produce higher yieldsand more uniform plants and ears than the open-pollinated varieties formerly used. Inthe majority of countries, open-pollinated varieties are still the most common type ofseed used, perhaps 60 percent of the total maize area in the developing world. Althoughnational and international breeding programmes have considerably increased the yieldsof open-pollinated varieties over the past, they remain below those of hybrids. Yields ofhybrids, in fact, can exceed those of landraces (open-pollinated varieties) by 30-100percent, with an average of perhaps 40-50 percent. When hybrids have replaced

improved open-pollinated varieties, the yield advantage of hybrids has usually been nomore than 15-25 percent.

Productivity and yieldsMaize yields about 1.0 to 10.0 tonnes per ha per year, rainfed, the latter in climates withannual rainfall of about 1000 mm per year or more. The average maize yield in theindustrialized countries of the world is eight tons per hectare, but in the developingworld less than three; in the SADC region it varies between 0.9 tonnes (for Mozambique)and 2.8 for South Africa, according to FAOSTAT for 2005.


Input requirements

a. AgronomicOverall, maize is a high-technology crop. In developing countries, including those wheremost of the world's white maize is produced, soil fertility management is probably the

most important (and costly) crop-management problem. Within this area, overcomingnitrogen deficiencies through inorganic or organic means, or through improvingnitrogen-use efficiency in maize varieties or hybrids, is by far the most widespread

concern. Also important are correction of soil acidity, and related problems ofphosphorous or zinc availability.A close second crop-management problem in maize production is management ofmoisture stress, best addressed through irrigation though mostly managed through



choice of germplasm, proper tillage, and the timing of sowing, however, moistureavailability over the season is subject to considerable uncertainty when the growing

period begins. In general, the third most important management problem is weedcontrol, perhaps followed by plant density management. Complicating the development

of management options is the possibility that all four general factors mentioned here,soil fertility, moisture availability, weeds and plant density, are likely to interact with one

another. In many instances in developing countries, yield gains from crop managementchanges in maize, both white and yellow, could be greater than those from varietalchange alone.

b. Technical supportThe International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) has a global maize-breeding programme directed at developing countries. CYMMIT is the leading

international source of technology and information on maize. This combines withlocation-specific crop management research and the extension efforts are required todisseminate effective crop management information and maize varietals to farmers,especially small farmers.

In general, however, the greatest constraint to the development and diffusion ofimproved maize hybrids and varieties to farmers is the concomitant development ofefficient seed industries that supply adequate quantities of quality seed at prices thatencourage optimal levels of seed use. A well-functioning seed industry is alsocharacterized by a sufficient variety of products, and seed that is available to farmerswhen and where it is needed. In Africa, firms such as Pannar Seeds have now

established a wide reach across the continent.

c. Disease managementMaize is subject to diverse diseases, requiring intensive management.

d. Management of insects, pollinators, and birdsMaize is subject to diverse pests, requiring intensive management.



Sweet sorghum

See also http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000319.htm; http://www.icrisat.org/text/coolstuff/crops/gcrops2.html; and Li Guiying, Gu Weibin,

Alastair Hicks and Keith R. Chapman. Undated A training manual for sweet sorghum, aswell as the SADC/ICRISAT Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program at

http://www.icrisat.org/.

IntroductionSorghum is a vigorous grass that grows to between 0.5 and 5.0 m in height. It is usually

an annual. The germplasm includes sweet as well as grain types. It probably originatedin Ethiopia and has spread to other parts of Africa, India, Southeast Asia, Australia andthe United States. In common with other Sorghum spp., it can contain lethal amounts

of prussic acid. In sweet varieties, the main use is lies in the sugar content in the stalk.

Climate and soils

Sorghum is adapted to a wide range of environmental conditions from 40°N and S, andis particularly adapted to drought. It grows well in an annual rainfall range of 400-750mm. It is grown in areas which are too dry for maize. The great advantage of sorghum isthat it can become dormant under adverse conditions and can resume growth after

relatively severe drought. Early drought stops growth before floral initiation and theplant remains vegetative; it will resume leaf production and flower when conditionsagain become favourable for growth. Late drought stops leaf development but not floralinitiation. Sorghum is very susceptible to frost, but thick-stemmed, standing, sweetfodder sorghum will retain stem juiciness and sweetness for some time after the leavesare killed. Sorghum can be grown successfully grown on a wide range of soil types. It iswell suited to heavy Vertisols found commonly in the tropics, where its tolerance towaterlogging is often required, but is equally suited to light sandy soils. It tolerates a

range of soil pH from 5.0 to 8.5 and is more tolerant to salinity than maize. It is adaptedto poor soils and can produce grain on soils where many other crops would fail. It isalso tolerant to waterlogging and can be grown in high-rainfall areas. It is, however,

primarily a crop of hot, semi-arid tropical environments with 400 – 600 mm rainfall thatare too dry for maize. It is also widely grown in temperate regions and at altitudes of upto 2300 m in the tropics.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentThere are numerous cultivars in use throughout the world and enquiries about the bestcultivars and varieties for specific conditions should be made to agronomists within each

country. At the global level, ICRISAT is involved in diversification of sorghum breedingpopulations, and ultimately cultivars available to farmers, through the incorporation of

traits and genetic materials that have not previously been used in crop improvement. Itis involved in development of finished cultivars for direct release to farmers in specific

countries.

Productivity and yieldsSweet sorghums yield 25 to 75 tonnes/ha green matter, according to soil fertility andrainfall. The grain sorghums yield 300-2 000 kg grain per hectare in India and Africaunder rain-fed conditions, and 4 500-6 500 kg/ha under irrigation for hybrid types in the

United States and Australia.


http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000319.htm

http://www.icrisat.org/



http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/gbase/data/pf000319.htm



Input requirements

a. AgronomicSorghum requires full seed-bed preparation for good performance.

The seed is often planted by hand hoe and covered, the spacing depending on expectedrainfall. Small hand drills are available as a first step in mechanization; sophisticated

grain and fertilizer drills for precision placement are used in advanced agriculture. Forgrain production inter-row cultivation is frequently used. Where rows are close, weedsare suppressed by the shade of the crop canopy, but thorough seed-bed preparation isneeded before planting to ensure a low weed population. Spraying with a pre-emergence

weed-killer completely controls most weeds. Fertiliser requirements are determined bysoil type and rainfall. A basic dressing of NPK may be required, and the crop usuallyresponds well to additional dressings of nitrogen during growth. A fallowed black clay

may not need fertilizer. Rotation with a leguminous crop can give low-cost fertility build-up, for example, gum arabic (Acacia senegal) in the Sudan.

b. Technical support

The SADC/ICRISAT Sorghum and Millet Improvement Program would be the beststarting point for technical support in the SADC region.

c. Management of disease, pests and other biotic factorsThere are numerous diseases of sorghum. All Sorghum spp. seed should be dusted witha combined fungicidal/insecticidal dust before planting.Grasshoppers would appear to be the worst pest, and feral pigs can cause havoc. Grain

pests include the sorghum midge, Contarinia sorghicola, whose larvae feed on thedeveloping seeds. Bird damage is also important and in Africa the weaver bird, Queleaquelea, causes major losses. The parasitic weed Striga is troublesome. It can becontrolled by using a trap crop of Sudan grass, which is ploughed in after two months'

growth.

By products of biofuels productionAnimal feed.



CROPS FOR THE BIODIESEL PATHWAY

African Oil Palm

See also http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/ac126e/ac126e05.htm andhttp://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3647e/W3647E04.htm. Cultivation of palm oil shouldcomply in planning, design and management with the guidelines, criteria and indicators

of sustainability as established through the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO).See http://www.rspo.org/download_list.aspx?catid=4&ddlID=16 for documents that setout the RSPO system (i.e. the ―RSPO Principles and Criteria for Sustainable Palm OilProduction‖ and the ―RSPO Certification Systems‖).

IntroductionThe African Oil Palm, Elaeis guineensis (Jacq.), has a vertical trunk and the featheryfronds. Every year, 20 to 25 new fronds develop in continuous whorls at the apex of thetrunk. The fruit bunches develop between the trunk and the base of the new fronds.

Although new plantations start to bear at three years, generally the first commercialcrop requires between five and six years. The palms continue to produce for 25 –30

years, though they may be replaced once too high to be harvested. Once a plantationreaches full production, a new inflorescence is produced every 15 days. It weighsbetween 15 and 20 kg and can contain up to 1500 individual palm fruits of between 8 to

10 grams each.The African Oil Palm is a West African species that is a traditional source of vegetable fatand oil, palm wine and some regionally important non-wood forest products. During thetwentieth century the oil palm became an important plantation crop, providing oil from

its mesocarp, and palm kernel oil from its nuts. The oil palm gives the highest yield of oilper unit area of any crop and produces two distinct oils - palm oil and palm kernel oil -both of which are important in world trade. There are two distinct types of oil palm: the

―dura‖ and the ―pisifera.‖ The nut of the dura type of oil palm has a thick and hard shell

while the pisifera type has a small kernel, with no shell, but rather surrounded by amatrix of fibre. When a pisifera male is crossed with a dura female, a ―tenera‖ type offruit is produced; its shell is of intermediate thickness. Currently, it is this type of oil

palm that is most widely grown in plantations.The African oil palm produces two main commercial products: raw or crude oil,approximately 22% of the weight of the fresh fruit bunch, and the palm nuts whichrepresent 4–6%.

Climate and soilsFor optimum annual production the African oil palm requires a minimum of 1600 mm per

year of rain through the seasons, a relative humidity no less than 75%, minimum andmaximum temperature of between 17 and 28°C., a total of 2000 hours of light and soil

depth of 1.0 m.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentSee below.

Productivity and yieldsThe oil palm, which yields about 20t/ha/yr of fresh fruit bunches, is capable of producingbetween three to five t/ha per year of crude oil from the fruit (mesocarp) and anadditional 0.6 to 1.0 t/ha from the palm kernels. Its productivity is influenced by

climate, soil type, genetic factors, maturity, rainfall, fertilization and the harvest period.Modern high-yielding varieties developed by breeding programs, under ideal climaticconditions and good management, are capable of producing in excess of 20 tonnes of

bunches/ha/yr, with palm oil in bunch content of 25 percent. This is equivalent to a yield

http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/ac126e/ac126e05.htm

http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/w3647e/W3647E04.htm


http://www.rspo.org/download_list.aspx?catid=4&ddlID=16





http://www.fao.org/docrep/004/ac126e/ac126e05.htm



of 5 tonnes oil/ha/yr (excluding the palm kernel oil), which far outstrips any other sourceof edible oil.

By-products

When the nut is processed, it yields palm kernel oil and palm kernel meal. The two mainindustrial residues, the oil-rich fibrous residue and the palm-nut shells, are used as

sources of energy to run the factory. The empty fruit bunch is normally incinerated andthe ash is returned to the plantation as fertilizer. In Malaysia an MDF plant based on oilpalm fruit bunches is in operation with a daily production capacity of 55 m3. Palm frondsfrom the plantations are also burnt for heat generation, or used for mulching in the

plantations. Palm oil mill effluents may have a future for biogas generation. In Malaysia,considerable research has begun on more unconventional uses for oil palm stems.Studies range from cattle food to ammonia plastification, from converting stems into

particleboard, cement and gypsum-bonded panels to MDF. The latter is the first of thetechnical processes developed at the laboratory level to be implemented in an industrialscale. In the long run oil palm stems will find their way into industrial utilization even if

just because of the sheer volume of biomass available. However, this will be mainly in

the form of fibre-based panels or reconstituted fibre.

Management and other input requirements

a. AgronomicOil palms are grown on a 25-30 year rotation before being removed and replanted. Atfelling the average palm has reached a height of 12-15 m with a stem diameter at breast

height of 45 cm. An average 30-year old oil palm has a stem volume of about 1.6 m3.After felling palm stems are mostly shredded on the spot, dried, and either left to decayor burnt. Disposal is a cost and decaying stems often leads to insect infestations, withadded expenses. Because the fruits are perishable and lose weight once harvested,

farmers need prompt payment and evacuation of their fruits. The integration of pig

production within the oil palm industry offers a certain degree of flexibility in the entireenterprise.

b. Technical supportThe World Agroforestry Centre provides a global focus for oil-palm research, whileMalaysia has a programme of long standing through the Malaysian Oil Palm Research

Institute. CIRAD in France is another centre of expertise.

c. Disease managementBasal stem rot is a major problem in SE Asia, while oil palm is also prone to soil fungi inthis region, a problem managed through genetics and seedling inoculation. Blast rot orbud rot disease is one example of fungal problems in Africa.

d. Management of pestsA number of insects are potentially damaging to oil palm in various parts of the worldincluding: palm weevils (Rhynchophorus spp.), rhinoceros beetles (Oryctes spp.),weevils (Strategus aloeus, Temnoschoita quadripustulata), leaf-miners

(Coelaenomenodera elaeidis, Hispolepis elaeidis, Alurunus humeralis), slug caterpillar(Parasa viridissima), nettle caterpillar (Setora nitens) and bagworms (Cremastophyschependula, Mahasena corbetti, Metisa plana). The best approach offered is integrated pestmanagement.

e. Palm oil mill effluent and palm oil sludgeDisposal of palm oil mill effluent, the final liquid discharge after extracting the oil from

the fresh fruit bunch, has proved a major environmental problem. This effluent contains





Coconut Palm

For additional sources, see for example, see Reynolds, 1995; Foale 2003.

IntroductionThe coconut palm is a monocotyledon; it has an erect pole-like stem and symmetricalcrown; the trunk is 30-40 cm in diameter sometimes reaching a meter at the base.

Climate and soilsThe coconut grows and produces well in coastal environments between the latitudes ofabout 25 deg N and S.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentThere is a large number of coconut varieties in cultivation, including the ―tall‖ and

―dwarf‖ forms. Many breeding programmes around the world focus on increased yields ofits various products, as well as disease and pest resistance.

Productivity and yields

Oil is extracted by passing shredded and heated copra through very powerful presses.This yields up practically all the oil present, amounting to more than 60% of the dryweight of the feedstock.

By-productsThe residue of 35–40% has around 20% protein and 10% residual oil content, and isknown as organic ‗copra cake‘ or ‗copra meal‘. is feedstuff has found a valuable niche in

the market for cattle feed, for organic beef production, and horse feed. In cattle, itdelivers a similar weight gain to feeds with a much higher protein content. Working andracing horses show sustained energy and tend to lose some weight, which also enhancesperformance. Coconut fibre (or ‗coir‘, from the Malay kayar, for cord) is spun to form

yarn, which in turn is twisted into durable ropes that match ropes. The coconut shellcan be used as domestic fuel. The brittle, high-density, woody material of the shell isrich in hydrocarbons and burns with a fierce heat. With controlled burning, coconut shell

can be converted to high- quality charcoal, which is prized as a feedstock for making theactivated carbon needed in much industrial chemistry. For example, activated carbon isused in the separation of gold fragments from the waste material in pulverised gold ore.The shell is also ground to a fine powder and used both for lubricating paste for rock

drills and as the fuel component in mosquito coils. Polished shell is used to makebuttons and household utensils, including ladles, small bowls and drinking vessels, and agreat variety of ornaments. The trunk is a valuable source of structural and ornamentaltimber.

Input requirements

a. AgronomicCoconut is grown in plantation, either as a single-species crop, or, more frequently, insome form of mixed cropping. This may involve cattle or other livestock, but ofteninvolves intercropping with food crops, such as cassava, sweet potatoes, maize,

sorghum, legumes, or fruit such as bananas.

Seed is recalcitrant, i.e. germination occurs immediately on ripening and no effectivestorage is possible. Seed germinate freely in the nursery. The technology of tissueculture for this species is well advanced, and is appropriately applied in propagation ofselected lines.





Castor bean

See also www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Ricinus+communis (Plants for a future: A

resource centre for edible and other useful plants) and

http://www.dovebiotech.com/pdf/CASTOR%20BEAN%20(RICINUS%20COMMUNIS)%20-%20BIODIESEL.pdf.

IntroductionThe castor bean is an evergreen shrub growing to 1.5 m and more, normally perennialbut sometimes grown as an annual. It is a native of tropical Africa but has naturalized inmoist tropical and subtropical regions throughout the world. The whole plant is very

poisonous, even one seed has been known to be lethal to children, the seedcoatcontaining ricin, an extremely lethal poison. The leaves are only mildly poisonous. Thetoxic principle is water-soluble so is not found in the oil. Disturbance is required for

successful natural stands of castor bean. The species is an intolerant pioneer. Ifdisturbance is not repeated, it will be succeeded in a few years by grass, vines, or trees.Castor bean is competitive and most frequently seen in flood zones, on neglectedfarmland, and roadsides.

Climate and soilsCastor bean though originating in the tropics and subtropics succeeds also in temperateregions, but does not tolerate frost. It requires high temperatures (optimum 20 - 25ºC,over 4.5 - 6 months) and low atmospheric humidity to achieve good yields. It toleratesdrought. Castor prefers deep sandy loam soil with a pH of 6, but it can be cultivated on awide variety of soils with pH range of 5 - 8. It is highly intolerant of water-logging and

requires free draining soils. In general, castor does not tolerate saline soils though somevarieties do.

Level of commercialisation or technological development

There are several breeding programmes around the world, though mainly it seems todevelop varieties for temperate regions. Recent studies and genetic improvements haveincreased the oil content of the castor bean from 24 to 48 percent. The plant has also

been bred to mature at a shorter height mostly for production in Europe. There arebreeding programmes for tropical environments under way in India.


Seed yields of around 1 tonne per hectare have been achieved, with exceptional cases ofup t 5 tonnes per hectare. Castor beans contain from 30 to 60 percent oil. Yields undercultivation vary from 200 to 1,700 kg/ha, depending on variety and site quality horsepastures, and pinch off flowers of ornamental.

By productsThe castor plant has many uses. The seed contains 35 - 55% of a drying oil. As well as

being used in cooking, it is an ingredient of soaps, polishes, flypapers, paints andvarnishes. It is also used as a lubricant and for lighting and as an ingredient in fuels forprecision engines. The oil is used in coating fabrics and other protective coverings, in themanufacture of high-grade lubricants, transparent typewriter and printing inks, in textile

dyeing (when converted into sulfonated Castor Oil or Turkey-Red Oil, for dyeing cottonfabrics with alizarine) and in the production of 'Rilson', a polyamide nylon-type fibre. Thedehydrated oil is an excellent drying agent which compares favourably with tung oil andis used in paints and varnishes. The hydrogenated oil is utilized in the manufacture ofwaxes, polishes, carbon paper, candles and crayons. A fibre for making ropes is obtainedfrom the stems. The leaves have insecticidal and pharmacological properties. Cellulose

from the stems is used for making cardboard and paper.

http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Ricinus+communis

http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Ricinus+communis



The residual cake is highly poisonous and unless processed to remove the poisonscannot be fed to livestock. In some countries the cake is used as a fertiliser.

Input requirements

a. Agronomic

Castor bean is established by direct sowing or from transplants, in rows spaced from 1to 2 m apart with spacing within the rows of about 0.5 m. When grown as an annualcrop, it takes 5 to 9 months from planting to harvest. Adequate amounts of nitrogen,phosphorus, and potassium must be available to produce high yields of castor seed.

Castor beans grow well on slightly alkaline or acid soils. The most important factor infertility level is the supply of nitrogen in the soil. Insufficient nitrogen results in reducedcastor bean yields.

b. Technical supportUnclear: probably mainly from oil firms.

c. Management of pests, disease and other biotic factorsIn Africa there are a great variety of pests, up to 50 species of insect can damagecastor, including grasshoppers, various larvae, and the more serious pests: capsid bugs,green stink bugs, lygus bugs, Helopeltis. Sucking pests cause damage by puncturing,rather than actual sucking. Whether these would also be a problem in Europe isunknown. Diseases seldom do much damage - leaf spot (Cercospora reicinella), Rust(Melampsora oricini) and Alternaria Leaf spot may occur.



Jatropha

Introduction

Jatropha curcas is a small lax tree, reaching a height of 5 m or more. It originates fromCentral America, but has been planted around the tropical world since the fifteenth

century.

Climate and soilsJatropha grows well in subtropical and tropical environments, on a wide range of soils. Itperforms well on degraded land, such as abandoned cropland, and o marginal lands ofTanzania. Successful crop production requires annual rainfall between about 600 mm

and 1000 mm per year, but it performs at least adequately in areas with about 500-550mm per year, and it withstands long drought periods. It also reported to do well in areaswhere the rainfall is only 250 mm, but the humidity of the air is very high.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentJatropha production is evidently largely based upon local landraces though substantial

breeding programmes are under way in India and Central America.

Productivity and yieldsUnder the conditions indicated above, yields of seed range from 2 to 4 tonnes/ha per

year.

By-productsThe press cake is unsuited to animal feed, being toxic, but may be used or sold as anorganic fertiliser or for energy. The foliage and seed are used in traditional medicine.The oil has many uses other than for biodiesel.

Input requirements

a. AgronomicJatropha is grown in hedges or plantation, from easily raised nursery seedlings. In

plantation, initial espacement of about 1000 plants/ha appears to be preferred.

b. HarvestingHarvesting is by hand, and labour-intensive; harvesters can apparently achieve about 30to 100 kg per person per day.

b. Technical supportICRISAT in India, the Tata Energy Research Institute in Delhi, and Indian biofuels firmsare source of information; the BP-D1 Oils joint venture would be a source of advice in

Africa.

c. Management of pests, diseases and other biotic factorsJatropha in southern Africa is subject to defoliation by a small beetle. This may becontrolled by insecticide, though some reports indicate that the population of the beetledeclines quickly if left alone.



Pongamia

See also Wani and Sreedevi (undated) and Streets (1962).

IntroductionPongamia pinnata is a medium-sized evergreen tree with a spreading crown and a shortbole. The tree is planted for shade and is grown as ornamental tree. It is one of the few

nitrogen-fixing trees producing seeds containing 30-40% oil. The natural distribution isalong the coast, estuaries and riverbanks in India and Myanmar. It is also cultivatedalong roadsides, canal banks and open farm lands. It is a preferred species forcontrolling soil erosion and binding sand dunes because of its dense network of lateral

roots. Its root, bark, leaves, sap, and flower also have medicinal properties andtraditionally used as medicinal plants. Pongamia has been cultivated in tropical EastAfrica since at least 1917 (see, for example, Streets 1962 and GTZ 2005).

Climate and soilsPongamia tolerates a wide range of climates and soils within the tropics. It tolerateswaterlogging as well as saline and alkaline soils. It withstands harsh climates (medium

to high rainfall). It can be planted on degraded lands farmer‘s field boundaries,Wastelands / fallow lands and could be grown across the country.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentThere has evidently been no breeding or other development programme for Pongamia. Itis partly domesticated.

Productivity and yieldsThere is no available information on productivity in Pongamia. Its seeds contain 30-40%oil.

By-productsPress cake as organic fertiliser; diverse traditional medicines.

Input requirements

a. AgronomicNo available information; production of seedlings in nurseries for transplanting is

common in India and elsewhere; plantation management as for similar trees is alsoapparently common practice in India and elsewhere.

b. Technical supportThe International Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid tropics (ICRISAT) conducts

research on Pongamia.



Canola

IntroductionCanola is a name applied to edible oilseed rape. This plant belongs to the mustard family

along with 3,000 other species. Close relatives of this crop have been cultivated for foodsince the earliest recordings of man. Rapeseed has been important to Europe since the13th century as a source of food and oil for fuel. Rapeseed production became popular in

North America during World War II as a source of lubricants. Its oil has the property ofadhering well to moist metal, making it an ideal lubricant for marine engines.

Climate and soilsCanola is widely adapted, particularly to the cool extremes of the temperate zones.Canola does best on medium textured, well-drained soils. The crop is tolerant of a soilpH as low as 5.5 as well as of saline conditions.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentThis is a highly bred species, there being for example 12 varieties registered in Canada,where the commercial form of canola was developed during the 1970‘s.

Productivity and yieldsYields of seed range up to about 2.5 tonnes per hectare with oil content ranging from 39to 47%. Average annual yields in South Africa amount to about 1.0 tonnes per ha.

By-productsCanola seed has both high oil content as well as high protein content (about 40% oil and

23% protein) and when the oil is crushed out, it leaves a high-quality, high-protein(37%) feed concentrate which is highly palatable to livestock

Input requirements

a. AgronomicCanola agronomy requires high-level management of its six main growth stages. Much

of the management of this crop is related to the length of time and plant characteristicswithin each of these stages. Stand establishment is very important with canola becauseof its lack of early competitiveness. Seeding into a smooth, firm seedbed helps maintaina uniform seeding depth and even emergence. Seedbed preparation is usually done with

a shallow (4-5 inch) tillage operation. The best weed control practices are tillage,establishment of a good stand, and weed control in previous crops. Timely harvest ofcanola is critical to prevent shattering. When pods first begin to yellow, the crop needsto be checked on a 3- to 4-day schedule. Harvest maturity can only be determined byobserving the colour of the seed. Rapeseed must be handled and stored carefully.

b. Technical supportWithin the region, the Small Grains Institute of South Africa would be the best publicsource of technical support.

c. Disease management

During the germination and the seedling stage it is susceptible to many soil-bornepathogens. In Canada, seed protectant fungicides are often used.

d. Management of insects, pollinators, and birdsMany insects, such as the diamondback moth, may infest canola at various stages of itsgrowth, requiring proper use of insecticides.



Cotton

See also http://www.aec.msu.edu/fs2/cotton/index.htm

IntroductionCotton is grown primarily for fibre, but the oil of the seeds is highly important. Thecotton plant is a rigid herbaceous annual. The seeds consist about half of hull and half of

kernel; the kernels contain 28 to 40 percent oil. Commercial cottonseed containsapproximately 18–24% oil, and 45.5% cake or meal.

Climate and soilsCotton is grown commercially from sea level to 1,200 m, with some perennial formsfound at 1,800 m. A long-season plant, cotton requires a minimum of 180 to 200 frost-free days of uniformly high temperatures, averaging 21–22°C. Full sunlight is critical for

proper development. Where rainfall is less than 500 mm annually, irrigation should bepractised. In the region, it is limited to 30°S and northward. It suited mainly to Sub-tropical and Tropical climates, with rainfall ranging from about 500 mm per yearupwards. It is sensitive in any stage to frost. Heavy rains injure plants. Moderate rainfall

is preferable during vegetative growth followed by a dry period to allow the bolls tomature and be picked. Cotton is tolerant of a wide variety of soils, but thrives best ondeep, friable, moisture-holding soils with good humus supply. Optimum pH is 5.2–7. It isfrequently grown on Entisols and alluvial Inceptisols, though sometimes on Vertisols.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentCotton is a highly developed crop. Reported from the Middle American, South American,

and African Centres of Diversity, upland cotton or its varieties is reported to toleratebacteria, disease, drought, fungus, hydrogen fluoride, high pH, insects, low pH,nematodes, photoperiod, sand, virus and waterlogging. Hundreds of cultivars are known;'Auburn 56', 'Bayou', 'Auburn 623 RNR' and 'Darminii' being resistant to rootknot

nematode, Meloidogyne incognita. Varieties are sometimes classed according to fibrelength, as: Long Staple, 'Acala' cultivars; Medium Staple, 'Deltapine' and 'Coker 100Wilt', and Short Staple, 'Lankart'. Breeding for organic cotton as well as GM cotton for

African conditions is under way

Productivity and yieldsU.S. cottonseed yields are about 800–950 kg/ha per year but in general the yield may

be only 140 kg/ha. A metric ton of cottonseed yields ca 160 kg oil, 450 kg meal, 68 kglinters, 250 kg hulls, and 72 kg trash, waste, and invisible losses. Estimates for India,based on nationwide surveys, indicate as follows:

rainfed: 463 kg per ha per year of seed, 35 of oil, and

irrigated: 2060 kg per ha per year of seed, 155 of oil.

By productsThe meal or press cake left after pressing is a valuable high-protein livestock feed.Input requirements

a. AgronomicCotton is s high-input crop, especially with regard to know-how. See below

b. Technical supportIn South Africa, the Agricultural Research Council Institute for Industrial Crops, and fromindustrial firms.

http://www.aec.msu.edu/fs2/cotton/index.htm






c. Management of pests, diseases and other biotic factorsCotton is subject to a great variety of pests and diseases, especially insects, requiring

intensive management, particularly integrated pest management. GM cotton offers analternative.



Groundnut

IntroductionThe groundnut is an annual herbaceous plant with an unusual habit in bearing its fruit.

The tip of the ovary, bearing from 1–5 ovules, grows out from between the floral bracts,bearing with it the dried petals, calyx lobes and hypanthium, creating a unique floralstructure—the peg. The peg quickly turns down toward the soil and thrusts its tip with its

ovules several centimetres into the soil where the tip turns horizontally and developsinto the pod.

Climate and soilsThe groundnut grows successfully in a wide range of bioclimates, from temperate totropical, and tolerates semi-arid conditions. Suitable for tropics, subtropics and warmtemperate regions, grown from 40°S to 40°N latitude. Growing period 3 1/2–5 months

('Chico' matures in 80 days in South Texas). Frost sensitive. Thrives with 5 dm water inthe growing season with most in mid-one-third of season. Grows on light, friable, well-drained sandy loams, but will grow in heavier soils. Ranging from Cool Temperate Moistthrough Tropical Thorn to Wet Forest Life Zones, peanut is reported to tolerate annual

precipitation of 3.1 to 41.0 dm (mean of 162 cases 13.8 dm), annual mean temperatureof 10.5°C to 28.5°C (mean of 161 cases 23.5°C), and pH of 4.3 to 8.7 (mean of 90cases = 6.5) (Duke, 1981a).

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentAssigned to the South American and African Centres of Diversity, peanut or cultivarsthereof is reported to exhibit tolerance to aluminium, disease, drought, frost, fungus,

high pH, heat, insects, laterite, limestone, low pH, sand, smog, savannah, ultraviolet,and virus (2n = 40) (Duke, 1981a).

Peanut oil can be made on the farm with a sheller, a press, and a little time to let the

gum settle to the bottom of the tank.

Productivity and yieldsYields of nuts range from 2 to 6 tonnes/ha per year for good growing conditions andusing cultivars that are matched to the site. Yields with poorer conditions and cultivarsrange from 400 to 1500 kg/ha.

By-productsThis dry matter from the crop may be used for fodder or fuel or soil enrichment. Haulmsconstitute good fodder, silage or green manure

Input requirements

a. AgronomicThe groundnut is propagated from seed. Seedbed should be prepared, either on the flat,or widely ridged. Seed is often treated with antifungal dressing before planting. Incommercial farming, the groundnut is often grown in monoculture and by mechanizedmeans. But is also cultivated by hand and sometimes in mixed culture. The spacing and

seed rate vary with growth rate vary with growth habit and production methods. Standsof 250,000 plants per hectare are sought in machine-drilled planting. For types plantedby hand, however, much lower seed rates may be used. Weeds are controlled bycultivation and by pre- and post-planting applications of selective herbicides. Responsesto N applied early are common and large in short season cultivars in semi-arid regions ofWest Africa. Phosphorous (P) is added on tropical red earths but less on temperate

sandy soils on which other crops in the rotation receive P fertilizer. Roots and fruits



absorb nutrients. Calcium (Ca) supply in the pegging zone is essential for high yield ofgood quality peanuts in large-podded, alternate types. Seeds produced on Ca-deficient

soil often have poor germination and poor seedling growth. In tropical red soils(Oxisols), addition of S may be beneficial.

b. Harvesting

Although flowering may commence in 30 days, 80–150 days or more are required forfruit maturation. In hand-harvest plants are pulled up and turned over on the ground orstacked or placed on racks to cure. Pods are picked and allowed to complete drying indepths of 5 cm or less on trays, or spread in the sun in the dry season tropics. In case of

fully mechanized harvesting a single operation pulls up, inverts and windrows the plantswhere they remain a few days for preliminary drying. The pods are removed by combinemachines and elevated into baskets attached to the combine or blown directly into

trailing "drying wagons" which when full may be towed to a drying station where warmor ambient air is forced through the load of peanuts. In Argentina the combines pick andshell the pods in one operation so that the crop is marketed as dried seeds instead ofdried pods.

b. Technical support

c. Disease managementThe groundnut is subject to along list of diseases. The best management relies oncorrect choice of cultivar.

d. Management of insects, pollinators, and birdsThe groundnut is susceptible to nematodes, ground beetles, foliage insects and storageinsects. This requires good cultivar choice as well as the use of insecticides.



Industrial hemp

See Olsen (2004) for the Queensland Government Information paper on industrial

hemp (industrial cannabis) 23 February 2007 , athttp://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/hemp/16241.html, and additional sources in USDA

(2000) and Wikipedia.

Introduction

Industrial hemp is a number of varieties of Cannabis sativa L., each intended foragricultural and industrial purposes. They are grown for their seed and fibre content

as well as the resulting byproducts such as oil, seed cake, and fibre. Industrial hemp

has low concentrations of the narcotic, THC. It is a tall, herbaceous annual plant witha deep tap root which grows to a height of up to 5 metres, depending on variety and

growing conditions.

Climate and soilsIndustrial hemp grows well in areas where maize produces high yields. It can be

grown on a variety of soils, but it does best on loose, well-drained loam soils with

high fertility and abundant organic matter. Industrial hemp plants are particularlysensitive to wet, flooded, or waterlogged soil. Plants require plentiful moisture

throughout the growing season, especially during the first six weeks. Hemp also

needs substantial amounts of available nutrients to produce high yields.

Plant Characteristics and Growing RequirementsCannabis sativa is normally dioecious, i.e. the species has separate male and female

plants. Monoecious varieties, with the male and female flower parts on the sameplant, have been developed in a number of countries through breeding and selection.Industrial hemp can be grown as a fibre, seed, or dual-purpose crop. Hemp is a bast

fibre plant similar to flax, kenaf, and jute.

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentOnly a small number of varieties have low concentrations of THC. Several countrieshave ongoing breeding programs. The industry is seeking high-yielding strains thatare low in THC and meet various end-use needs. For example, breeders are looking

for fibre lines that are high in primary fibre yields (for pulping), extra-fine fibres (for

textiles), and cellulose content (for biomass fuel) and for seed lines with various seedsizes (for easier hulling and assorted food uses), special amino acid profiles (forhuman and animal feeds), and specific components in the oil for industrial uses (such

as industrial lubricants). Most commercial varieties require long summer days todevelop, and are not suited to the tropics. Australia has tested tropical varieties fromAsia successfully in Queensland.


In temperate conditions, industrial hemp produces about 1.5 - 2.6 tonnes/ha/yr ofseeds which at an extraction rate of 35% amounts to about 600 - 1000 litres of oilper ha, though the Queensland report indicates that an average of 1.0 tonnes/ha/yr

is more likely in temperate conditions . In addition, fibre yields can amount to about10 tonnes/ha/yr.

By-productsHemp is used for a wide variety of purposes, including the manufacture of cordage of

varying tensile strength, clothing, and nutritional products. The inner two fibres of

http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/hemp/16241.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordage

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tension_%28mechanics%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tension_%28mechanics%29

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cordage

http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/hemp/16241.html



63

hemp are more often used in non-woven items and other industrial applications(such as biocomposites). The seeds are comparable to sunflower seeds, and can be

used for baking, like sesame seeds. Expression of oil from the seed of industrialhemp plants leaves behind a protein-rich, oil-poor seed cake, also referred to as

‗seed meal‘. This seed meal has proven to be an excellent source of nutrition foranimals

Input requirements

a. AgronomicSowing density is a strong determinant of yield, requiring from 10 to 45

kilograms/ha, in a well-prepared seedbed. Industrial hemp is sensitive to droughtand needs ample soil moisture, especially during the first six weeks of its growth. Inaddition, sound agronomic practices for weed management prior to planting need to

be followed to reduce the competitive effect from the weed population early in thelife of the crop.

b. Harvesting

Industrial hemp may be cut by hand or machine. Timing is important, and it appearsthat there is a trade-off between fibre and seed harvested earlier harvests, before

see maturity, maximise fibre harvests.

b. Technical supportUnclear; mainly NGOs.

c. Disease and pest managementIndustrial hemp has a reputation for being resistant to pests and disease, although

the degree of resistance has been greatly exaggerated, with the crop playing host toseveral insects and fungal pathogens. Grey mould, caused by the fungus Botrytis

cinerea, is one of the most significant diseases associated with industrial hemp, andthere are nearly 300 pests worldwide, the most serious of which are the European

core borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) and the hemp borer (Grapholita delineana).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_seed

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seed

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_seed

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflower_seed



64

Soybean

IntroductionThe soybean is a bushy, rather coarse annual herb; stems up to 1.8 m tall,.

Important rotational crop

Climate and soilsThe soybean grows successfully in a wide range of bioclimates, from temperate to

tropical, and tolerates semi-arid conditions. A subtropical plant, but its cultivationextends from the tropics to 52°N. In the US it has its greatest development in the

corn belt. It will not withstand excessive heat or severe winters. A short-day plant.

Requires 5 dm water for good crop. Grows best on fertile, well-drained soils, butdoes tolerate a wide range of soil conditions; pH 6.0–6.5 preferred. Soybean soils

must contain the proper nitrogen-fixing bacteria. When grown on the same land for

2–3 successive years, increasing yields are obtained year after year. Crop suited to adry zone, to a low or mid-country wet zone or under irrigation. Soybeans will browbetter than many crops on soils that are low in fertility, droughty or poorly drained.

Many high latitude cultivars do very poorly in low latitude. Ranging from Cool

Temperate Moist to Wet through Tropical Very Dry to Wet Forest Life Zones, soybeanhas been reported to tolerate annual precipitation of 3.1 to 41.0 dm (mean of 108

cases = 12.8), annual mean temperature of 5.9 to 27°C (mean of 108 cases =

18.2), and pH of 4.3 to 8.4 (mean of 98 cases = 6.2).

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentThis is now a highly bred crop, with GM cultivars becoming prominent. Not known in

the wild. Choice of cultivar for local conditions is especially important, as well asregular rotation for pest and disease control.

Productivity and yieldsAverage yield of beans is about 1.tonnes/ha High-yielding cultivars, adapted to the

locality and grown under proper culture and favourable conditions will yield morethan twice the average yield.

By-productsSeed cake for animal feed.

Input requirements

a. AgronomicPropagated by seed. Seedbed preparation for soybeans is similar to that for corn orcotton, requiring very thorough cultivation to provide a deep loose seedbed.

Important that weeds be destroyed by light disking, thorough harrowing or by use of

cultivators, immediately preceding planting, thus preventing the weeds from getting

ahead of the soybeans. Soil temperatures and day-length determine the best time toplant seeds at or (after corn-planting time in most areas). Careful fertilisation isrequired, the needs varying with the soil and the cropping system. Soybeans are

more acid tolerant than other legumes but may require lime applications on acidsoils. Weed competition is serious, and may reduce yields by 50%. Early cultivation

prevents weeds from becoming established ahead of the soybeans.



65

b. HarvestingAll seeds on a soybean plant mature at essentially the same time. Maturity of the

seed is accompanied by a rapid dropping of the leaves and drying of the stems.Combines management is critical. As seed moisture drops below 12%, germinationdamage because of mechanical injury increases.

b. Technical supportDiverse

c. Disease management

Insects known to attack soybeans include corn earworms, Mexican bean beetles,bean leaf beetles, velvetbean caterpillars, lesser cornstalk borers, stink bugs, andother insects. Insects need to controlled with the proper insecticide. The more

important fungal diseases of soybeans are: Alternaria sp. (leaf spot),Cephalosporium gregatum (brown stem rot), and many more. Virus diseases include:

soybean mosaic, bud blight, and yellow mosaic.

The use of resistant cultivars is the most desirable and ecologically sound method formanaging pests and diseases.



Sunflower

Climate and soilsSunflower grows successfully in a wide range of bioclimates, from temperate to

tropical, and tolerates semi-arid conditions. It is sensitive to drought especially from

20 days before until 20 days after flowering. It grows well on soils ranging fromsands to clays, but requires good drainage. Level of commercialisation ortechnological development. Sunflower is a highly bred species, with cultivars and

hybrids purpose-bred for different environments and requiring continuous breedingto maintain resistance to pests and diseases in different environments. The Center

for New Crops and Plant Products states: ―The development of a cytoplasmic male-

sterile and restorer system for sunflower has enabled seed companies to producehigh-quality hybrid seed. Most of these outyield open-pollinated varieties and are

higher in percent oil. Performance of varieties tested over several environments is

the best basis for selecting sunflower hybrids. The choice should consider yield, oilpercentage, maturity, seed size (for non-oilseed markets), and lodging and disease

resistance.‖

Level of commercialisation or technological developmentThis is a high-technology crop, requiring efficient support especially from the private

sector

Productivity and yieldsSunflower will normally yield about 1.0 to 2.0 tonnes of seed per ha per year under

good management, with seed yielding about 39% to 49% oil at optimum, though

often lower (being prone in this respect to soil moisture regime and other inputfactors).

By-productsAfter pressing for oil, sunflower seeds yield a valuable seed cake for livestock feed.

The crop residues are suitable for silage.

Input requirements

a. Agronomic

This is a crop requiring commercial seed sources, careful mechanised seedbedpreparation, fertilisation, careful timing of sowing, and high attention to pestmanagement,

b. Technical supportA successful sunflower business requires efficient access to commercial seed

suppliers and other agribusiness support services.

c. Disease managementSunflower is prone to several fungal diseases. The best disease management

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Biofuel Crop Decision-making Tool