ASSIGNMENTS

MB 0034

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Set I

1. Explain the different types of research.

According to the intent, research may be classified as:

i) Pure Research

It is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it

in practice, e.g., Einstein’s theory of relativity, Newton’s contributions,

Galileo’s contribution, etc. it is also known as basic or fundamental

research. It is undertaken out of intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It

is not necessarily problem-oriented It aims at extension of knowledge. It

may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing

theory. It lays foundations for applied research. It offers solutions to many

practical problems. It helps to find the critical factors in a practical problem.

It develops many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose the best

solution.

ii) Applied Research

It is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or

policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It seeks an

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immediate and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for

developing a news market or for studying the post-purchase experience of

customers. Though the immediate purpose of an applied research is to find

solutions to a practical problem, it may incidentally contribute to the

development of theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovery of new

facts or testing of theory or conceptual clarity. It can put theory to the test.

It may aid in conceptual clarification. It may integrate previously existing

theories.

iii) Exploratory Research

It is also known as formulative research. It is preliminary study of an

unfamiliar problem about which the researcher has little or no knowledge. It

is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives. It

usually takes the form of a pilot study. The purpose of this research may be

to generate new ideas, or to increase the researcher’s familiarity with the

problem or to make a precise formulation of the problem or to gather

information for clarifying concepts or to determine whether it is feasible to

attempt the study. Katz conceptualizes two levels of exploratory studies.

“At the first level is the discovery of the significant variable in the

situations; at the second, the discovery of relationships between variables.

iv) Descriptive Study

It is a fact finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the

simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory research.

It aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or

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institution or problem under study and also aims at a classification of the

range of elements comprising the subject matter of study. It contributes to

the development of a young science and useful in verifying focal concepts

through empirical observation. It can highlight important methodological

aspects of data collection and interpretation. The information obtained may

be useful for predication about areas of social life outside the boundaries of

the research. They are valuable in providing facts needed for planning social

action program.

v) Diagnostic Study

It is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed

towards discovering what is happening, why it is happening and what can be

done about. It aims at identifying the caused of a problem and the possible

solutions for it. It may also be concerned with discovering the testing

whether certain variables are associated. This type of research requires prior

knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of

the given population, adequate methods for collecting accurate information,

precise measurement of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance.

vi) Evaluation studies

It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of

social or economic programmes implemented or for assessing the impact of

developmental projects on the development of the project area. It is thus

directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an activity and its

performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its

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success. It is concerned with causal relationships and is more actively

guided by hypothesis. It is concerned also with change over time.

vii) Action Research

It is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an

action programme launched for solving a problem for improving an exiting

situation. It includes six major steps: diagnosis, sharing of diagnostic

information, planning, developing change programme, initiation of

organizational change, implementation of participation and communication

process, and post experimental evaluation.

According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

i) Experimental Research: It is designed to asses the effects of

particular variables on a phenomenon by keeping the other

variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining whether

and in what manner variables are related to each other.

ii) Analytical Study: It is a system of procedures and techniques of

analysis applied to quantitative data. It may consist of a system of

mathematical models or statistical techniques applicable to

numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method.

It aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting

relationships.

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iii) Historical Research: It is a study of past records and other

information sources with a view to reconstructing the origin and

development of an institution or a movement or a system and

discovering the trends in the past. It is descriptive in nature. It is a

difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and logical

analysis or recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon

direct observation.

iv) Survey: It is a fact-finding study. It is a method of research

involving collection of data directly from a population or a sample

thereof at particular time. Its purpose is to provide information,

explain phenomena, to make comparisons and concerned with

cause and effect relationships can be useful for making

predications.

2. Discuss the criteria of good research problem.

Horton and Hunt have given following characteristics of scientific research:

i) Verifiable evidence: That is factual observations which other

observers can see and check.

ii) Accuracy: That is describing what really exists. It means truth or

correctness of a statement or describing things exactly as the are

and avoiding jumping to unwarranted conclusions either by

exaggeration or fantasizing.

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iii) Precision: That is making it as exact as necessary, or giving exact

number or measurement. This avoids colourful literature and

vague meanings.

iv) Systematization: That is attempting to find all the relevant data, or

collecting data in a systematic and organized way so that the

conclusions drawn are reliable. Data based on casual recollections

are generally incomplete and give unreliable judgments and

conclusions.

v) Objectivity: That is free being from all biases and vested

interests. It means observation is unaffected by the observer’s

values , beliefs and preferences to the extent possible and he is able

to see and accept facts as they are, not as he might wish them to be.

vi) Recording: That is jotting down complete details as quickly as

possible. Since human memory is fallible, all data collected are

recorded.

vii) Controlling conditions: That is controlling all variables except

one and then attempting to examine what happens when that

variable is varied. This is the basic technique in all scientific

experimentation – allowing one variable to vary while holding all

other variables constant.

viii) Training investigators: That is imparting necessary knowledge to

investigators to make them understand what to look for, how to

interpret in and void inaccurate data collection.

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3. Describe the procedure used to test the hypothesis

To test a hypothesis means to tell (on the basis of the data researcher has

collected) whether or not the hypothesis seems to be valid. In hypothesis

testing the main question is: whether the null hypothesis or not to accept the

null hypothesis? Procedure for hypothesis testing refers to all those steps

that we undertake for making a choice between the two actions i.e rejection

and acceptance of a null hypothesis. The various steps involved in

hypothesis testing are stated below:

Making a Formal Statement:

The step consists in making a formal statement of the null hypothesis (Ho)

and also of the alternative hypothesis (Ha). This means that hypothesis

should clearly state, considering the nature of the research problem. For

instance, Mr. Mohan of the Civil Engineering Department wants to test the

load bearing capacity of an old bridge which must be more than 10 tons, in

that case he can state his hypothesis as under:

Null hypothesis Ho: =10 tons

Alternative hypothesis Ha: > 10 tons

The formulation of hypothesis is an important step which must be

accomplished with due care in accordance with the object and nature of the

problem under consideration. It also indicates whether we should use a

tailed test or a two tailed test. If Ha is of the type greater than, we use alone

tailed test, but when Ha is of the type “whether greater or smaller” then we

use a two- tailed test.

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Selecting a Significant Level:

The hypothesis is tested on a pre-determined level of significance and such

the same should have specified. Generally, in practice, either 5% level or

the 1% level is adopted for the purpose. The factors that affect the level of

significance are:

The magnitude of the difference between sample;

The size of the sample;

The variability of measurements within samples;

Whether the hypothesis is directional or non-directional ( A

directional hypothesis is one which predicts the direction of the

difference between say, means). In brief, the level of significance

must be adequate in the context of the purpose and nature of enquiry.

Deciding the Distribution to use:

After deciding the level of significance, the next step in hypothesis testing is

to determine the appropriate sampling distribution. The choice generally

remains between distribution and the t distribution. The rules for selecting

the correct distribution are similar to those which we have stated earlier in

the context of estimation.

Selecting a Random sample & computing an appropriate Value:

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Another step is to select a random sample(s) and compute an appropriate

value from the sample data concerning the test statistic utilizing the relevant

distribution. In other words, draw a sample to furnish empirical data.

Calculation of the Probability:

One has then to calculate the probability that the sample result would

diverge as widely as it has from expectations, if the null hypothesis were in

fact true.

Comparing the probability:

Yet another step consists in comparing the probability thus calculated with

the specified value for a, the significant level. If the calculated probability is

equal to smaller than a value in case of one tailed test ( and a/2 in case of

two-tailed test), then reject the null hypothesis (i.e. accept the alternative

hypothesis), but if the probability is greater then accept the null hypothesis.

In case we reject Ho we run a risk of ( at most level of significance)

committing an error of type I, but if we accept Ho, then we run some risk of

committing error type II.

Flow Diagram for Testing Hypothesis

State Ho as well as Ha

Specify the level of significance

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Decide the correct sampling distribution

Sample a random sample and workout an appropriate value

Calculate the probability that sample result would diverge as widely as it has

form expectations, if Ho were true

Is this probability equal to or smaller than a value in case of one-tailed test

and a/2 in case of two tailed test

Run the risk of Run

Some risk of

Committing type II error

4. Write a note on experimental design

Professor Fisher has enumerated three principles of experimental designs:

The principle of replication:

The experiment should be reaped more than once . Thus , each treatment is

applied in may experimental units instead of one. By doing so, the statistical

accuracy of the experiments is increased. For example, suppose we are to

examine the effect of two varieties of rice. For this purpose we may divide

the field into two parts and grow one variety in one part and the other variety

in the other part. We can compare the yield of the two parts and draw

conclusion on that basis. But if we are to apply the principle of replication

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Accept HoReject Ho

to this experiment, then we first divide the field into several parts, grow one

variety in half of these parts and the other variety in the remaining parts. We

can collect the data yield of the two varieties and draw conclusion by

comparing the same. The result so obtained will be more reliable in

comparison to the conclusion we draw without applying the principle of

replication. The entire experiment can even be repeated several times for

better results. Consequently replication does not present any difficulty, but

computationally it does. However, it should be remembered that replication

is introduced in order to increase the precision of a study that is to say, to

increase the accuracy with which the main effects and interactions can be

estimated.

The Principle of randomization:

It provides protection, when we conduct an experiment, against the effect of

extraneous factors by randomization. In other words, this principle indicates

that we should design or plan the ‘experiment in such a way that the

variations caused by extraneous factors can all be combined under the

general heading of “chance”. For instance if we grow one variety of rice say

in the first half of the parts of a field and the other variety is grown in the

other half, then it is just possible that the soil fertility may be different in the

first half in comparison to the other half. If this is so, our results would not

be realistic. In such a situation, we may assign the variety of rice to be

grown in different parts of the field on the basis of some random sampling

technique i.e. we may apply randomization principle and protect ourselves

against the effects of extraneous factors. As such through the application of

the principle of randomization, we can have a better estimate of the

experimental error.

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Principle of local control:

It is another important principle of experimental designs. Under it the

extraneous factors, the known source of variability, is made to vary

deliberately over as wide a range as necessary and this needs to be done in

such a way that the variability it causes can be measured and hence

eliminated from the experimental error. This means that we should plan the

experiment in a manner that we can perform a two way analysis of variance,

in which the total variability of the data is divided into three components

attributed to treatments, the extraneous factor and experimental error. In

other words, according to the principle of local control, we first divide the

field into several homogeneous parts, known as blocks, and then each such

block is divided into parts equal to the number of treatments. Then the

treatments are randomly assigned to these parts of a block. In general,

blocks are the levels at which we hold and extraneous factors fixed, so that

we can measure its contribution to the variability of the data by means of a

two way analysis of variable. In brief, through the principle of local control

we can eliminate the variability due to extraneous factors from the

experimental error.

Important Experimental Designs:

Experimental design refers to the framework of structure of an experiment

and as such there are several experimental designs. We can classify

experimental designs into two broad categories. Informal experimental and

formal experimental designs. Informal experimental designs are those

designs that normally use a less sophisticated form of analysis based on

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differences in magnitudes, where as formal experimental designs offer

relatively more control and use precise statistical procedures for analysis.

Informal experimentsal designs:

Before and after without control design

After only with control design

Before and after with control design

Formal experimental designs:

Completely randomized design (CR design)

Randomized block design (RB design)

Latin square design (LS design)

Factorial design

5. Elaborate the ways of making a case study effective.

John Dollard has proposed seven criteria for evaluating such adequacy as

follows:

i) The subject must be viewed as a specimen in a cultural series.

That is, the case drawn out from its total context for the purposes

of study must be considered a member of the particular cultural

group or community. The scrutiny of the life histories of persons

must be done with a view to identify thee community values,

standards and their shared way of life.

ii) The organic motto of action must be socially relevant. That is the

action of the individual cases must be viewed as a series of

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reactions to social stimuli or situation. In other words the social

meaning of behavior must be taken into consideration.

iii) The strategic role of the family group in transmitting the culture

must be recognized. That is, in case of an individual being the

member of a family, the role of family in shaping his behavior

must never be overlooked.

iv) The specific method of elaboration of organic material onto social

behavior must be clearly shown. That is case histories that portray

in detail how basically a biological organism, the man, gradually

blossoms forth into a social persons are especially fruitful.

v) The continuous related character of experience for childhood

through adulthood must be stressed. In other words, the life

history must be a configuration depicting the inter-relationships

between thee person’s various experiences.

vi) Social situation must be carefully and continuously specified as a

factor. One of the important criteria for the life history is that a

persons life must be shown as unfolding itself in the context of and

partly owing to specific social situations.

vii) The life history material itself must be organized according to

some conceptual framework, this in turn would facilitate

generalizations at a higher level.

6. What is non probability sampling? Explain its types with examples.

Non probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the

theory of probability. This sampling does not provide a chance of selection

to each population element.

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Advantages: The only merits of this type of sampling are the simplicity,

convenience and low cost.

Disadvantages: The demerits are it does not ensure a selection chance to

each population unit. The selection probability sample may not be a

representative one. The selection probability is unknown. It suffers from

sampling bias which will distort results.

The reasons for usage of this sampling are when there is no other feasible

alternative due to non-availability of a list of population, when the study

does not aim at generalizing the findings to the population, when the costs

require for probability sampling may be too large, when probability

sampling required more time, but the time constraints and the time limit for

completing the study do not permit it. It may be classified into:

Convenience or Accidental Sampling:

It means selecting sample units in a just ‘hit and miss’ fashion E.g

interviewing people whom we happen to meet. This sampling also means

selecting whatever sampling units are conveniently available, e.g., a teacher

may select students in his class. This method is also known as accidental

sampling because the respondents whom the researcher meets accidentally

are included in the sample.

Suitability: Though this type of sampling has no status, it may be used for

simple purposes such as testing ideas or gaining ideas or rough impression

about a subject of interest.

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Advantage: It is the cheapest and simplest, it does not require a list of

population and it does not require any statistical expertise.

Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it is highly biased because of

researchers subjectivity, it is the least reliable sampling method and the

findings cannot be generalized.

Purposive (or judgment) sampling:

This method means deliberate selection of sample units that conform to

some pre-determined criteria. This is also known as judgment sampling.

This involves selection of cases which we judge as the most appropriate

ones for the given study. It is based on the judgment of the researcher or

some expert. It does not aim at securing a cross section of a population.

The chance that a particular case be selected for the sample depends on the

subjective judgment of the researcher.

Suitability: This is used when what is important is the typicality and

specific relevance of the sampling units to the study and not their overall

representative ness to the population.

Advantage: It is less costly and more convenient and guarantees inclusion

of relevant elements in the sample.

Disadvantage: It is less efficient for generalizing, does not ensure the

representative ness, requires more prior extensive information and does not

lend itself for using inferential statistics.

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Quota sampling:

This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of

accessible sampling units by traits such as sex, age, social class, etc. it is a

method of stratified sampling in which the selection within strata is non

random. It is this Non-random element that constitutes its greatest

weakness.

Suitability: It is used in studies like marketing surveys, opinion polls, and

readership surveys which do not aim at precision, but to get quickly some

crude results.

Advantage: It is less costly, takes less time, non need for a list of

population, and field work can easily be organized.

Disadvantage: It is impossible to estimate sampling error, strict control if

field work is difficult, and subject to a higher degree of classification.

Snow-ball sampling:

This is the colorful name for a technique of Building up a list or a sample of

a special population by using an initial set of its members as informants.

This sampling technique may also be used in socio-metric studies.

Suitability: It is very useful in studying social groups, informal groups in a

formal organization, and diffusion of information among professional of

various kinds.

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Advantage: It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are

readily available.

Disadvantage: The disadvantage is that it does not allow the use of

probability statistical methods. It is difficult to apply when the population is

large. It does not ensure the inclusion of all the elements in the list.

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ASSIGNMENTS

MB 0034

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Set II

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data?

Advantages of Secondary Data:

1. Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and

cheaply. Once their source of documents and reports are located,

collection of data is just matter of desk work. Even the tediousness

of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks to

Xeroxing facilities.

2. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be

covered without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data

extends the researcher’s space and time reach.

3. The use of Secondary data broadens the data base from which

scientific generalizations can be made.

4. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.

5. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the

findings bases on primary data. It readily meets the need for

additional empirical support. The researcher need not wait the

time when additional primary data can be collected.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data:

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The use of a secondary data has its own limitations

1. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our

specific needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those

data may be different; units of measure may not match; and time

periods may also be different.

2. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their

accuracy we need to know how the data were collected.

3. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they

appear in print, because of time lag in producing them. For example,

population census data are published tow or three years later after

compilation, and no new figures will be available for another ten

years.

4. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be

available to all social scientists. Even if the location of the source is

known, the accessibility depends primarily on proximity. For

example, most of the unpublished official records and compilations

are located in the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach of

researchers based in far off places.

2. Explain the prerequisites and advantages of observation.

Prerequisites of Effective Observation

The prerequisites of observation consist of:

Observations must be done under conditions which will permit

accurate results. The observer must be in vantage point to see clearly

the objects to be observed. The distance and the light must be

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satisfactory. The mechanical devices used must be in good working

conditions and operated by skilled persons.

Observation must cover a sufficient number of representative samples

of the cases.

Recording should be accurate and complete.

The accuracy and completeness of recorded results must be checked.

A certain number of cases can be observed again by another

observer/another set of mechanical devices, as the case may be. If it

is feasible, two separate observers and sets of instruments may be

used in all or some of the original observations. The results could

then be compared to determine their accuracy and completeness.

Advantages of observation:

1. The main virtue of observation is its directness: it makes it possible to

study behavior as it occurs. The researcher need not ask people about

their behaviour and interactions; he can simple watch what they do

and say.

2. Data collected by observation may describe the observed phenomena

as they occur in their natural settings. Other methods introduce

elements or artificiality into the researched situation for instance, in

interview; the respondent may not behave in a natural way. There is

no such artificiality in observational studies, especially when the

observed persons are not aware of their being observed.

3. Observations is more suitable for studying subjects who are unable to

articulate meaningfully, e.g. studies of children, tribal, animals, birds

etc.

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4. Observations improve the opportunities for analyzing the contextual

back ground of behaviour. Further more verbal resorts can be

validated and compared with behaviour through observation. The

validity of what men of position and authority say can be verified by

observing what they actually do.

5. Observations make it possible to capture the whole event as it occurs.

For example only observation can provide an insight into all the

aspects of the process of negotiation between union and management

representatives.

6. Observation is less demanding of the subjects and has less biasing

effect on their conduct than questioning.

7. It is easier to conduct disguised observation studies than disguised

questioning.

8. Mechanical devices may be used for recording data in order to secure

more accurate data and also of making continuous observations over

longer periods.

3. Discuss the stages involved in data collection.

The researcher should prepare a mailing list of the selected respondents by

collecting the addresses from the telephone directory of the association or

organization to which they belong. A covering letter should accompany a

copy of the questionnaire. It must explain to the respondent the purpose of

the study and the importance of his cooperation to the success of the project.

Anonymity may be assured.

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There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the

respondents. They are:

Personal Delivery: The researcher or his assistant may deliver the

questionnaires to the potential respondents with a request to complete them

at their convenience. After a day or two he can collect the completed

questionnaires from them. Often referred to as the self administered

questionnaire method, it combines the advantages of the personal interview

and the mail survey. Alternatively, the questionnaires may be delivered in

person and the completed questionnaires may be returned by mail by the

respondents.

Attaching questionnaire to a product: A firm test marketing a product

may attach a questionnaire to a product and request the buyer to complete it

and mail it back to the firm. The respondent is usually rewarded by a gift or

a discount coupon.

Advertising the Questionnaires: The questionnaire with the instructions

for completion may be advertised on a page of magazine or in section of

newspapers. The potential respondent completes it tears it out and mails it

to the advertiser. For example, the committee of Banks customer services

used this method. Management studies for collecting information from the

customers of commercial banks in India. This method may be useful for

large-scale on topics of common interest.

News-Stand Inserts: This method involves inserting the covering letter,

questionnaire and self addressed reply paid envelope into a random sample

of news stand copies of a newspaper or magazine.

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Improving the Response Rate in a Mail survey: The response rate in mail

surveys is generally very low more so in developing countries like India.

Certain techniques have to be adopted to increase the response rate. They

are:

Quality printing: The questionnaire may be neatly printed in quality light

coloured paper, so as to attract the attention of the respondent.

Covering letter: The covering letter should be couched in a pleasant style so

as to attract and hold the interest of the respondent. It must anticipate

objections and answer them briefly. It is a desirable to address the

respondent by name.

Advance Information: Advance information can be provided to potential

respondents by a telephone call or advance notice in the news letter of the

concerned organization or by a letter. Such preliminary contact with

potential respondents is more successful than follow up efforts.

Incentives: Money, stamps for collection and other incentives are also used

to induce respondents to complete and return mail questionnaire.

Follow-Up-Contacts: In the case of respondents belonging to an

organization, they may be approached through some one in that organization

known as the researcher.

Larger sample size: A large sample may be drawn than the estimated

sample size. For example, if the required sample size is 1000, a sample of

1500 may be drawn. This may help the researcher to secure an effective

sample size closer to the required size.

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4. Briefly explain the types of interviews.

The interview may be classified into:

Structured Directive Interview:

This is an interview made with a detailed standardized schedule. The same

questions are put to all the respondents and in the same order. Each question

is asked in the same way in each interview, promoting measurement

reliability. This type of interview is used for large-scale formalized surveys.

Advantages: This interview has certain advantages. First, data from one

interview to the next one are easily comparable. Second, recording and

coding data do not pose any problem, and greater precision is achieved.

Lastly, attention is not diverted to extraneous, irrelevant and time consuming

conversation.

Limitation: However, this type of interview suffers from some limitations.

First, it tends to lose the spontaneity of natural conversation. Second, the

way in which the interview is structured may be such that the respondent’s

views are minimized and the investigator’s own biases regarding the

problem under study are inadvertent introduced. Lastly, the scope for

exploration is limited.

Unstructured or Non-Directive Interview:

This is the least structured one. The interviewer encourages the respondent

to talk freely about a give topic with a minimum of prompting or guidance.

In this type of interview, a detailed pre-planned schedule is not used. Only a

broad interview guide is used. The interviewer avoids channeling the

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interview directions. Instead he develops a very permissive atmosphere.

Questions are not standardized and ordered in a particular way.

This interviewing is more useful in case studies rather than in surveys. It is

particularly useful in exploratory research where the lines of investigations

are not clearly defined. It is also useful for gathering information on

sensitive topics such as divorce, social discrimination, class conflict,

generation gap, drug-addiction etc. It provides opportunity to explore the

various aspects of the problem in an unrestricted manner.

Advantages: This type of interview has certain special advantages. It can

closely approximate the spontaneity of a natural conversation. It is less

prone to interviewer’s bias. It provides greater opportunity to explore the

problem in an unrestricted manner.

Limitations: Though the unstructured interview is a potent research

instrument, it is not free from limitations. One of its major limitations is that

the data obtained from one interview is not comparable to the data from the

next. Hence, it is not suitable for surveys. Time may be wasted in

unproductive conversations. By not focusing on one or another facet of a

problem, the investigator may run the risk of being led up blind ally. As

there is no particular order or sequence in this interview, the classification of

responses and coding may required more time. This type of informal

interviewing calls for greater skill than the formal survey interview.

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Focused Interview:

This is a semi-structured interview where the investigator attempts to focus

the discussion on the actual effects of a given experience to which the

respondents have been exposed. It takes place with the respondents known

to have involved in a particular experience, e.g. seeing a particular film,

viewing a particular program on TV., involved in a train/bus accident, etc.

The situation is analyzed prior to the interview. An interview guide

specifying topics relating to the research hypothesis used. The interview is

focused on the subjective experiences of the respondent, ie., his attitudes and

emotional responses regarding the situation under study. The focused

interview permits the interviewer to obtain details of personal reactions,

specific emotions and the like.

Merits: This type of interview is free from the inflexibility of formal

methods, yet gives the interview a set form and insured adequate coverage of

all the relevant topics. The respondent is asked for certain information, yet

he has plenty of opportunity to present his views. The interviewer is also

free to choose the sequence of questions and determine the extent of

probing.

Clinical Interview:

This is similar to the focused interview but with a subtle difference. While

the focused interview is concerned with the effects of specific experience,

clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations

or with the course of the individual’s life experiences.

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The ‘personal history’ interview used in social case work, prison,

administration, psychiatric clinics and in individual life history research is

the most common type of clinical interview. The specific aspects of the

individual’s life history to be covered by the interview are determined with

reference to the purpose of the study and the respondent is encouraged to

talk freely about them.

Depth Interview:

This is an intensive and searching interview aiming at studying the

respondent’s opinion, emotions or convictions on the basis of an interview

guide. This requires much more training on inter-personal skills than

structured interview. This deliberately aims to elicit unconscious as well as

extremely personal feelings and emotions.

This is generally a lengthy procedure designed to encourage free expression

of affectively charged information. It requires probing. The interviewer

should totally avoid advising or showing disagreement. Of course, he

should use encouraging expressions like “uh-huh” or “I see” to motivate the

respondent to continue narration. Some times the interviewer has to face the

problem of affections, ie. The respondent may hide expressing affective

feelings. The interviewer should handle such situation with great care.

5. Describe the principles involved in the table construction.

There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to

construction of tables. They are:

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1. Every table should have a title. The tile should represent a succinct

description of the contents of the table. It should be clear and concise.

It should be placed above the body of the table.

2. A number facilitating easy reference should identify every table. The

number can be centered above the title. The table numbers should run

in consecutive serial order. Alternatively tables in chapter 1 be

numbered as 1.1, 1.2,1….., in chapter 2 as 2.1,2.2,2.3…… and so on.

3. The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.

4. The units of measurement under each heading must always be

indicated.

5. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed

directly beneath the table and in order to obviate any possible

confusion with the textual footnotes such reference symbols as the

asterisk (*) DAGGER (+) and the like may be used.

6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different

sources, it is ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a

place just below the table.

7. Usually lines separate columns from one another. Lines are always

drawn at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions.

8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.

9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and

“plus” or “minus” signs should be in perfect alignment.

10.Columns and rows that are to be compared with one another should be

brought closed together.

11.Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals

of columns at the bottom.

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12.In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories,

different kinds of type, spacing and identifications can be used.

13.The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological,

geographical, alphabetical or according to magnitude. Numerical

categories are usually arranged in descending order of magnitude.

14.Miscellaneous and exceptions items are generally placed in the last

row of the table.

15.Usually the larger number of items is listed vertically. This means

that a table’s length is more than its width.

16.Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks

should not be used in a table.

17.The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as

possible.

Text references should identify tables by number, rather than by such

expressions as “the table above” or “the following table”. Tables should not

exceed the page size by photo stating. Tables those are too wide for the

page may be turned sidewise, with the top facing the left margin or binding

of the script. Where tables should be placed in research report or thesis?

Some writers place both special purpose and general purpose tables in an

appendix and refer to them in the text by numbers. This practice has the

disadvantages of inconveniencing the reader who wants to study the

tabulated data as the text is read. A more appropriate procedure is to place

special purpose tables in the text and primary tables, if needed at all, in an

appendix.

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6. Write a note on contents of research report.

The outline of a research report is given below.

I. Prefatory Items

Title page

Declaration

Certificates

Preface/acknowledgements

Table of contents

List of tables

List of graphs/figures/charts

Abstract or synopsis

II. Body of the Report

Introduction

Theoretical background of the topic

Statement of the problem

Review of literature

The scope of the study

The objectives of the study

Hypothesis to be tested

Definition of the concepts

Models if any

Design of the study

Methodology

Method of data collection

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Sources of data

Sampling plan

Data collection instruments

Field work

Data processing and analysis plan

Overview of the report

Limitation of the study

Results: findings and discussions

Summary, conclusions and recommendations

III. Reference Material

Bibliography

Appendix

Copies of data collection instruments

Technical details on sampling plan

Complex tables

Glossary of new terms used.

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