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CHAPTER VI

ARCHITECTURE AND TOWN PLANNING

IN KOCHI

The cultural heritage of any country or a region is seen best

exposed and exemplified in its architectural monuments. The ways in

which the buildings are designed, constructed and decorated speak

not only about the technical and artistic capabilities of the craftsmen,

but also of the aspirations and visions of the preceptors for whom the

construction is a medium for thematic expressions. From the single

dwelling to the magnificent edifices, architecture also reflect the

human endeavour in meeting the ever challenging social needs.

Kerala abounds with many such architectural monuments- built and

renovated over centuries representing a panorama of architectural

development. None of these structures is very big in comparable with

rest of India. However, the aesthetic appeal of these buildings mainly

arises from the simplicity of form and functional perfection.

Food, clothing and shelter are the basic needs of human beings.

The successors of the pre-historic man, who lived in caves, are now

staying in most modern houses built of different materials. Decades of

earnest efforts helped man to reach this stage. Development in the

process of construction of houses simultaneously led to the growth of

architectural style and beauty. The aesthetic sense of the people of a

particular area reflected in his dwellings also. Primarily houses are

constructed for providing protection from natural phenomena like rain

and sun-burns. Kochi is not an exception to this generalization.

129

The characteristic regional expression of Kerala results from the

geographical, climatic and historic factors. In the uneven terrain of

this region human habitation is distributed thickly in the fertile

lowlands and sparsely towards the hostile highlands. The

architecture of the region has been of a humble scale merging with

nature. Clustered houses are rarely seen in villages.

The construction and nature of dwelling places in Kochi differ

radically on the basis of economic and social status of the inhabitants.

By around 1600 AD feudalism has taken deep root so that economic

disparity emerged1

1. Balagopal T S Prabhu, Kerala Architecture, in P.J.Cherian (ed.), Essays on the Cultural Formation of Kerala Literature and Architecture, Music, Theater, Cinema in Kerala State Gazetteers (Vol.IV),Thiruvananthapuram, 1999,p.167.

. Cleavage between a few have’s and majority of

have not’s were visible in the construction of the dwellings. The poor

houses were built of mud, whitewashed or coloured red and the roof

thatched with plaited coconut fronds or straws.

The better classes of houses were built of laterite plastered with

lime and the roof tiled or thatched with plaited coconut or palmyra

fronds. Or in other words, while poor people lived in thatched huts,

the feudal lords lived in nalukettu and ettukettu. Further, the arrival of

Europeans into the soil of Kochi leads to drastic changes in the shape

of buildings as well as materials used. The form of buildings with low

walls, sloping roof and projecting canvas was mostly evolved from

climatic considerations for protection from excessive rain and intense

solar radiation. The setting of the buildings in the open garden plot

was again necessitated by the requirement of wind for giving comfort

in the humid climate.

130

It is also noted that Kerala architecture has been traditionally

characterized by its remarkable human scale2. The guiding principle

of the Kerala architecture has been the notion of the subjection of the

self into the total scheme of the universe and it has been manifested in

the buildings in the regional state of Kochi. This principle has been

exemplified in the Hindu temples where the one-to-one relationship of

the self to the almighty is explicitly manifested through the

modification of space. For instance, the sopana mandapa or, the prayer

space in front of the deity hardly accommodates more than a handful

of devotees. It is observed that “this is diametrically opposite to that

of the Christian faith where the glorification of God and the humbling

of the self before the Almighty are stressed through the magnification

of space, a celebration of infinite power”3

Architectural monuments spread across the region of Kochi

could be categorized into three as indigenous, Indo-European and

religious. This categorization is made on the basis of spatial origin and

functional importance. The Indigenous architecture evolved in this

land itself. Some texts do mention these buildings as traditional as

they share the architectural styles of tradionality or of indigenous

origin and development. Buildings belonged to the category of Indo-

European are the synthesized forms of European and Indian styles of

architecture. The European style of architecture has been brought to

the land of Kochi largely by traders and foreigners settled here. The

.

II

2 Angelique, Architectural Impact of 500 years of Colonialism, in Samvada: International Conference on Europe and South Asia: 500 years, Institute of Social Sciences, New Delhi, 1998, p.66. 3 Ibid.

131

religious buildings were established for the purpose of performing

religious rites and rituals.

Certain studies conducted on the impact of colonialism on

architecture noted that the European architecture is notable on account

of two features like a grand imposing public scale for public buildings

and a more unassuming one for the residences of the common man4

4 Ibid.

.

Most buildings built by the British were besides being functional a

public statement of authority. The present Bolghaty palace, formerly

the Dutch Viceroy’s palace in Kochi would illustrate it. In course of

time, this new approach in the architectural style can be seen to have

been incorporated into the traditional architecture resulting in the

fusion of form and style without unpleasing results. Thus we find

buildings like the Hill Palace at Thrippunithura and most post-colonial

public buildings becoming public statements of authority.

The category of indigenous architecture mainly consisted of

buildings primarily for habitation in the traditional societal setting.

Houses constructed for the habitation of royal family, social elites and

people belonged to the lowest stratum of the social landscape are

included in the category of indigenous architecture. The details of

palace architecture, nalukettu and ettukettu styles of architecture and

the features of the dwellings of the other caste groups are included in

the category of indigenous architecture. The second group of buildings

called Indo-European is mainly consisted of the palaces and forts built

by the European powers.

132

The third group of buildings called religious buildings did make

for performing religious ceremonies and worship. The temples,

mosques, churches and synagogues belonged to this category. Each of

these buildings has their own distinctiveness in terms of architectural

features, spatial distribution, and materials used. We are of the

opinion that the royal family played a crucial role in the development

of each building constructed. For the construction of the royal palaces

the royal family provided the necessary resources.

The social elites could make big mansions called nalukettu and

ettukettu primarily because of the land grants they received in return

for their service to the royalty. As we mentioned in the outset the

Indo- European architecture, widely known as bunglows, has largely

owed to the traders and businessmen settled here. Inscriptional

evidences prove that these aliens did receive several trade concessions

and privileges from the rulers of Kochi. In the construction of

religious buildings one can see that the rulers of Kochi had extended

great help to the religious groups like the Hindus, Muslims, Christians

and Jews. Unlike other rulers of Kerala, the royal household of Kochi

was an ‘enlightened household’, hence they could accommodate many

occidental belief systems including spiritual identity in the territorial

landscape of Kochi.

III

As we mentioned in the beginning of the chapter the term

indigenous architecture refers to the styles of building construction

followed by the various sections of traditional Kerala society. In the

development of indigenous architecture the regional identity of Kochi

133

was sufficiently supported by a knowledge system. The indigenous

knowledge of traditional architecture of Kerala is called as Vastuvidya.

One of the important styles in the category of indigenous

architecture is the nalukettu. It is typical upper caste malayalee house.

The Nalukettu is constructed in strict conformity to the tenets of

Tachusastra. The first step in the making of a building, according to

Tachusastra, is the selection of the site. There are certain rules which

govern the selection of a site for constructing a building5

Commonly the houses face the east. It is noted that the house

faces the rising sun. Unlike the houses found in streets in other parts

of India, the Nalukettu, was located in a self-contained compound and

it provided accommodation for the members of the joint family. The

Nalukettu was spatially designed to cater to the needs of a large

number of inmates who comprised the old tarawad under the

Marumakkathayam system. It has been observed that “some of these

houses were so commodious as to accommodate as many as 150 to 200

inmates

. The site was

carefully chosen according to the principles and the foundation stone

was laid on auspicious hour in consultation with the astrologer. The

workers and the astrologer had an important place in the society.

6

The Nalukettu is a quadrangular building consisting of four

blocks with a square (Ekasala) or oblong courtyard in the centre,

known as nadumuttam. With regard to the size of such constructions it

”. Evven a family cremation ground is designed in such

house sites based on Tachchusastra.

5 Kanippayyur Sankaran Nambutiri (Compl.), Manushyalaya Chandrika (Mal.), Kunnamkulam, 2006,p.26 6 A.Sreedhara Menon, Cultural Heritage of Kerala: An Introduction, East West Publications, Kochi, 1978, p.118.

134

has been pointed out that “a combination of two (dwishala) or a

complex of three (thrishala) depending on the needs7

The northern block or vadakkini is divided into two rooms, the

kitchen and dining room. The hall or the middle portions of the

eastern and southern blocks kizhakkini and thekkini respectively, are

open halls where visitors and guests are received and entertained.

Sometimes thekkini is treated as a sacred room with the presence of the

deity. There are verandahs all-round the building and also round the

inner courtyard and in some cases there is attached to the building a

poomukam or open portico in which male visitors are received and

through which entrance is gained to the kizhakkini. By the side of the

kitchen is the well from which water is drawn from it through a

window. “If needed Ekasala may also be provided with an ancillary

”. Dwishala is also

called as Ettuketu and thrishala is named as panthrandukettu. The

architectural features of the Nalukettu style constructions are notable.

The four halls enclosing the courtyard identical to the nalambalam may

be divided into several rooms meant for different activities such as

cooking, dining, sleeping, storage of grains etc. The Nalukettu is

divided into four blocks on the basis of direction and each consists of

number of rooms for various purposes. The Western block or

padinjattini is divided into three rooms, middle of which is the store

room where the valuables and the household deities, if any, are kept

and other two are bedrooms. The main room in this section is used for

attractive functions like wedding.

7 C.Achutha Menon, Cochin State Manual, Thiruvananthapuram, 1995, p.282.

135

building for cattle keeping, barn, bathing rooms near tanks, out-house

for guests, gate house etc8

The position and sizes of various buildings including the

location of the trees and paths within the compound wall where to be

decided from the analysis of the site according to the prescriptions in

the classic texts. This analysis involved the concept of

Vastupurushamandala where in the site (Vastu) was divided into a

number of grids occupied by different deities and appropriate grids

were chosen to house the auspicious structures. The site planning and

building designs were done by concerned sthapathis or the master

builders, who synthesized the technical matters with astrological and

mystical sciences. Of the best preserved examples of this type are the

Mattanchery palace and Hill palace at Kochi

.”

The building is surrounded on all the sides by a courtyard. In

the centre of the eastern yard is the tulasittara. It is a kind of altar or

platform on which a tulasi or a sacred basil plant is reared.

Surrounding the yard is the compound in which fruit trees like mango

and jack and plantations and other vegetables are grown and which is

bounded by masonry walls, or by mud walls with fencing. The

entrance to the compound is gained through a padippura or gate house.

The entire structure of the padippura may also be constructed like a

gopuram of a temple. This may contain one or two rooms for guests or

occasional visitors who are not entertained in the main house.

9

8 Ibid.,p.282. 9 Ibid, p.281.

. We have chosen these

two palaces as typical specimen for nalukettu style since both of these

palaces were closely related to the royal family of Kochi.

136

Among the palaces of India, the palace at Mattanchery has great

importance. It is located at a distance of 12 KM from Ernakulam town.

It is one of the oldest buildings built by Europeans in India in a

predominantly oriental style. It was originally a gift from the

Portuguese in 1557 AD to the ruler of Kochi Vira Kerala Varma10

They had faced serious resistance from the local ruler, the

Zamorin. The Portuguese, having understood the lucrative nature of

trade carried out through the port of Kochi, wanted to ensure the

backing of the ruler of Kochi in their commercial activity. They built

the Mattanchery palace to propitiate the ruler of Kochi. The palace

built and handed over by the Portuguese became the seat of the royal

house of Kochi for hundred years. Later in 1663 it has undergone

extensive repair by the Dutch as it was totally destroyed in the war.

Hence it came to be called as the Dutch palace

. The

Portuguese, pioneer European mercantile community in the Orient,

had faced several handicaps in establishing their commercial

domination over the land.

11

The palace was built in traditional Kerala style. It was a double

storied building with a quadrangular plan. It follows the nalukettu

style. In the centre we find the enshrined the titular deity of the royal

family-Payayannur Bhagavati. Temples dedicated to Siva and Vishnu

are situated in the Southern side of the palace. The entire structural

complex is enclosed by a high wall with entrance on the eastern and

western side. The different wings of the palace in the upper story

.

10 H.Sarkar, Monuments of Kerala, New Delhi, 1992,p.54 11 P.Anujan Achan, Annual Reports of the Archaeological Department of Cochin State for the Year 1102 ME, RAE.

137

contained the coronation and council halls and bed chambers of kings

and ladies. The spacious coronation hall is noted for its carved ceiling.

The ceiling work includes a grid of wooden joints well proportion and

precision, moulded with beautifully encarved panels. The bedchamber

situated in the west of the coronation hall with low wooden ceiling is

covered with murals executed in traditional style12

The next important palace in the regional state of Kochi is the

Hill Palace. The Hill palace was the royal abode of the erstwhile Kochi

royal family. In Malayalam it is known as kunnummal kottaram,

because the palace is situated on a panoramic hill top. Kanakakkunnu

Palace is another name for the Hill palace. From the place, a good

view of the surrounding place may be obtained

. The murals

contain 45 scenes. The lower floor is divided into several small

chambers with a spacious dining hall and a kitchen on one side.

Attached to the eastern wing of the palace in the southern end is a long

portico with a secret opening to the courtyard outside and with

painted walls. On the western side of the palace, there is a large

masonry tank for bathing.

13. It is noted that the

king of Kochi has purchased a property of 51 acres and 75 cents of

land from the Kokkara Namboothiri in 1855 for constructing a

palace14

12 H. Sarkar, Op.Cit.,pp,54-55. 13A Collection of correspondence relating to the British Detachment in Cochin 1850-1900, Govt. press, Ernakulam, 1928, RAE. 14 N.G.Krishnan, Athaghosham: Rajakeeyavum Janakeeyavum (Mal.), in M.K.Sanu (ed.) Kazhcha 2003 (Mal.), Thrippunithura, 2003,p.126

. The early form of the Hill palace was an ettukettu type of

138

residential building complex. “The Hill Palace, the royal mansion of

the erstwhile Cochin rulers was the official residence since 185515

The construction of the Hill Palace complex was completed in

various stages. The building with a Nalukettu style and an adjoining

oottupura (dining hall) was built in around 1855. Historical evidence

suggests that the old palace was built by one Ravi Varma who ruled

over the country from 1853-1864

”.

16. In course of time, the successive

rulers added portions one after another. It is noted that this building

is a palace complex built in accordance with the ancient indigenous

architecture of Kerala. Presently we can see that the total palace

campus is about 52 acres. There are 49 buildings in the palace

complex17

This building complex is consisting of a poomukham, akathalam,

homappura, kshetram, thevarapura, kalappura malika, valiya oottupura and

vilambupura. Poomukham is the front portion of the ettukettu. Akathalam

is the internal hall of the building. Homappura was used as poojaroom.

It is noted that the European engineers designed the northern block of

. The early Rajas of Kochi lived there. It is a spectacular

blending of two nalukettu buildings with an open verandah. In the

inner plan of each nalukettu have four side verandahs with a square

shaped nadumuttam in the centre. The traditional courtyard allows air

and light to circulate and also provides rain water. The inner

verandahs have been converted into living rooms by separating them

with masonry walls.

15 V.Manmadhan Nair (ed.), Hill Palace-Thrippunithura (Mal.), Publication Unit, Department of Archaeology, Thiruvananthapuram, 2004, p.20. 16 S.Raimon (ed.), Perumpadappu Granthavari (Mal.), (Reprint),Thiruvananthapuram, 2005,p.37 17P K Gopi, Thrippunithurayum Hill Palassum (Mal.), Malabar Institute for Research and Development, Vadakara, 2010,p.20.

139

the main building complex and had completed the construction in

1898 during the reign of Maharaja Rama Varma18

The houses of the nambutiris are called as illam-s or mana-s and

they were built by following the model of nalukettu. The houses of the

nambutiris are generally located either on the slopes of hills or on the

. The central block is

treated as the cabinet hall where the king had summoned his council.

The cabinet hall and the adjoining building of the palace were

completed by the abdicated Raja Rama Varma. A unique lift was

imported from England and installed in the cabinet room. It was done

during the reign of Maharaja Rama Varma. The successors of

Maharaja Rama Varma also have made certain improvements in the

palace complex.

A discussion of the architecture of the regional state of Kochi

would be incomplete without a description about of the dwelling of

the people other than the members of the royal family. In the region

of Kochi, like other parts of Kerala, we can find the distinctive

variations in the size, location and materials used for the construction

of the houses. The upper strata of the society did live nicely built

houses. They had extensively used timber in the construction of their

houses. Their houses are known for its magnificent size. A

description about the dwellings of the common people is not out of

context as they constitute the majority of the population. The group

called common people included all caste groups other than the royal

family. It included nambutiris, nairs, low caste people, adiyalar castes

and tribes. Many of these caste groups did live as clusters.

18 Ramesan Thamburan, Genealogy of Cochin Royal Family, p.21.

140

banks of rivers abounding in natural beauty with sufficient water

sources. Their illam-s or mana-s are in the midst of extensive

compounds and they had a big garden where commonly used fruits

were grown. They made tanks in the compound for bathing and wells

were also dug for the use of gardening and for temple.

The mana generally faces to the east and at a distance from it is a

gatehouse provided with a room and open space on both side, and

here the servant remain and keep watch during the nights. It has in

some cases an upper story mainly intended to lodge strangers and

visitors. Between the gate house and the main building there is a wide

open space called mittam or courtyard, with a raised footpath either

paved with brisk or hardened with mud.

Since the mana follows the nalukettu model, it is quadrangular

or square in form with a courtyard in the centre surrounded by rooms

on all sides19

In some illam-s, attached to the kitchen is a large dining hall

which is meant for strangers and visitors. The nambutiris have taken

. On the east or west of the courtyard is a room for the

bachelor members to which strangers are also admitted. Right on the

opposite side and beyond the central courtyard is the arappura, made

entirely of massive woodwork where the valuables of the house are

kept. The two rooms of each side of this are used as the store room

and the bed room. The kitchen is situated on the northern side and

close to it is the well and from which the water is drawn for cooking

and washing.

19 Fred Fawcett, Nambutiris- Notes on Some of the People of Malabar, AES (Reprint), New Delhi, 2001,p.44.

141

special care in the use of rooms for sacred and scholarly uses. They

used some rooms for Vedic studies; worship of family deities and for

performing ceremonies. One or two small buildings situated

detached from the main house are another important aspect of the

dwelling of the nambutiris. These buildings were used as the residence

of the junior members of the nambutiri family. Such arrangements for

the detached lodging of the junior members should be seen in the

context of the prevalence of Samandha system. It has been rightly

noted that “a portion of the building is used as an office or room for

the transaction of the ordinary routine of business20

The nairs constituted an important caste group in the regional

state of Kochi. An analysis of the spatial distribution of the dwellings

of the nairs would reveal that they preferred to reside in the rural land

setting. It has been observed that “they lived in detached houses with

compounds and good gardens

”.

21” The prevalence of caste system with

its characteristic feature called purity and pollution seems to be reason

for such a living. The nairs being an upper caste had to dwell in an

area where the polluted castes could not easily enter in. The

geographic features of the dwellings of the nairs have already been

noticed by some scholars. The nairs preferred to reside either on the

margin of a fertile valley or ravine with bright green fields of rice in

front22

The houses of the nairs did have certain features. The houses of

the nairs are often raised of the ground by laterite or mud walls. Their

.

20 L.K.Ananthakrishna Iyer, Castes and Tribes of Cochin (Vol.II), Higgin Botham Co., Madras, 1912,p.7. 21 Ibid., p.8. 22 Ibid.

142

entrance of the compounds is some distant from the main house and

consist of a door in the centre of a strong gateway which is the first

that attracts one’s attention as dwelling is approached. It is also

essential that a stair or a ladder was there to lead to the courtyard from

the bank of a green paddy field. They posted retainers at the gateway

so as to keep the responsibility of guarding the house and they were

rested in the gatehouse.

It made very clear that the upper caste of nairs might have

expected some menace from others. Permission to build such a gate

house was a rare privilege and it had to be obtained from the local

rulers. The selection of the spot for the construction of the house

deserves special mention. They selected the north-east as the blessed

location for the construction of the house. The south-east corner is

normally reserved as family burial ground. They selected spots for

well, tank, cow-shed, serpent grove and family deity.

The typical nair house is quadrangular, with an open space

called mittam, in the centre. The western portion of it is the granary

and the rest of it is partitioned into rooms. The northern portion

comprises the store room and the kitchen at the western and the

eastern extremities, with the dining room in the middle, while the

western and eastern portions are kept as open halls for gathering on

important occasions23

23 Fred Fawcett, Nayars of Malabar, AES (Reprint), New Delhi, 2004, p.303.

. The houses of the nairs usually face the rising

sun in the west. Nairs generally consult experts and astrologer for

choosing the proper site for constructing house and also for the plan of

the house.

143

The next important collective in the caste hierarchy of Kochi

come the group called Ambalavasis which consisted of nambeesan,

chakkiyar, nangiyar, tiyyadi nambiar, moothathu, varier, pisharodi, marar,

poduval etc. The group of people called variously as Nambeesan, Unni,

Nambi or Nambidi performed the profession of teaching, lamp works,

floral works, theeyattu etc. Their houses are called as Pushpakam,

Madham or Illam. The next important groups in the category of

ambalavasis are the Moothathu or Moosad and Ilayathu. They engaged in

performing rituals for nairs and both of them lived in houses called

Illam-s. The Poduval-s engaged in Sopana Sangeetam and also worked as

accountants. Their houses are called as Pothuvatt. The chakkyars are

engaged in performing koothu. They usually lived in Madhom.

The lowest stratum of the Kochi society consisted of the primary

producing classes. They, like their counterparts in elsewhere,

identified as the pullers of the cart called the society. They were

attached to the field of agriculture. They were exploited by the landed

class and the ruling class. They lived in small huts called chalas and

they were under the mercy of the landlords. They thatched their

houses with coconut leaves, bunches of hey etc.

IV

The Oriental societies have been identified as largely religious

centered in nature. An examination of the society of Kochi during the

period under discussion, we can see that religion had played a crucial

role in determining all social manifestations. As we know, the

dominance of Kochi as a region of commercial importance was the

consequence of flood in the river Periyar in 1341. It resulted in the

144

eclipse of Kodungallur as a port and its place now bestowed upon the

city of Kochi.

Historical records indicate to the fact that Kochi being a

commercially important port city provided enough convenience to the

habitation of various religious groups, who were of commercially

important. The royal family of Kochi which could understand the

commercial importance of various religious groups showed political

pragmatism by providing necessary arrangements to settlements of

different religious groups in the region of Kochi. It is noted that wih

the establishment of security and safety required for the development

of trade, merchants and traders from various parts of the region began

to flock to Cochin. Gujrathis, Chettis, Jews, Konkanies and Marwaries

were also the traders who lived in various parts of the state24

The study of these religious institutions will provide us to have

an understanding about the impact of trans-national contacts

developed out of these relations. The study of the architectural styles

. The

royal family provided necessary arrangements for the construction of

religious buildings for the aforesaid sects.

By the term religious architecture, we mean places or buildings

where worship was carried out by various religious communities. In

the region of Kochi the religious architecture ranges from Hindu

temples to the Jewish synagogue. This section is devoted to the

analysis of the architectural features of various temples, mosques,

churches and synagogue in the regional landscape of Kochi.

24 J. Omana, Economic Development of Cochin (1790-1949), Unpublihsed Ph.D Thesis, SSUS, Kaladi, 2005,p.109.

145

of these centres would reveal the fact that they share various

traditions. For instance, the mosques found in the region of Kochi do

share both Indian and Persian traditions. The churches and the

synagogue in the region of Kochi do represent the confluence of Indian

and European traditions.

The temples in Kerala are large in number. They may be

classified, on the basis of their structural features, as circular,

rectangular, square and apsidal25. In Kerala, temples are built either in

stone or in wood. Generally speaking the basement or adisthana is

built of stone. It is observed that “most of the temples in Kerala carry

puranic stories in wood, stone or paint26

The temples of Kerala are known for their architectural

distinctiveness. The master architects of the past have fashioned the

temples in such a way so as to utilize the spaces for some specific

purposes. A unique edifice of the native temple architecture is the

presence of a large pillared theatre hall. This hall is meant for dance,

musical performances and religious recitals. It shows that the temple

as a social institution gave much importance to the patronage of art

forms

”.

27

The Kerala temples form a class by themselves because of the

materials used in their construction that include timber to a large

. The performers were liberally rewarded by the temple

authorities in the form of gold or cash. In that sense the temples

played as an important platform where the resources were

redistributed.

25 H. Sarkar, Op.Cit.,pp.36-39. 26 N.G.Unnithan,Temples in Kerala, in the Indian History Congress Souvenir, University of Calicut, 1976,p.35. 27 K.R.Srinivasan, Temples of South India, National Book Trust, (Reprint), New Delhi, 2005, p.4.

146

extent. The vast majority has their basis and walls built of granite and

laterite respectively, with the roof of wooden planks or tiles or sheet

metal over timber frame and this form are adapted to suit the high

rainfall of the region28

It has been observed that in Kerala a distinctive style of temple

architecture developed more or less free from the influence of the

Chera style due to initiatives of the rulers of the indigenous states like

Thiruvithamkur and Kochi during the period from 14

. Technically the most important feature of the

temple architecture is the construction method using a dimensional

standardization. The decorative elements are of three types, like

mouldings, sculptures and paintings. Mouldings are seen in the plinth

and in the mandala and sculptural work in the relief, sculpture done on

the outer walls of the shrine and in timber elements (the rafter ends,

the brackets, the timber columns and their capitals, door frames, wall

plates and beams) and metal craft used in sculpturing idols, motifs,

claddings and finials. Paintings were murals which had mythological

and epic stories as their themes.

th to 19th

centuries29

The most important temples in Kochi are the Shiva temple at

Ernakulam, Sree Poornathrayeesa temple at Tripunithura, the

Chottanikkara Bhagavati temple, Vadakkunnatha Temple at Thrissur,

and Koodalmanikyam temple at iranjaiakuda etc. The main

. But we cannot completely rule out the chances for the

influence of the Perumals. The style is unique as it consisted of

sloping roofs, intricate wooden sculptures and panels, use of tiles and

brass ornamentation.

28 Ibid.,p.175. 29 Ambujam Anantharaman, Temples South India, East West Books, Chennai, 2006,p.XI

147

characteristics of the temples in Kochi are the predominance of wood

architecture decorated with ornamental figures in wood, terracotta

and carved stone. The features of the temple architecture could be

found as deseribed in Tantrasamuccaya and it has been detailed by

certain scholars30

The Santhana Gopala Krishna Swami or Sree Poornathrayeesa

temple at Trippunithura and the Vishnu temple at Thrikkakara are

noted for their historical importance. Temples of archaeological

importance also include Kunnathil temple, Siva temple at Ulliyannur

with its inscriptions, Pazhoor noted for its mural paintings and wood

carvings, Thirumaradi and Durga temples. Gosripuram Cochin

Thirumala Devaswom temple is the premier institution of the Gowda

Saraswath Brahmins of Goan origin. Dedicated to Sri Venketeshwara

or Venketachalapathy of Thirumala hills and more than 400 years old,

the construction of the temple was completed in 1569 AD. It is noted

that Sri. Vidyamadom Vijayendra Swamiyar of Kumbhakonam visited

Kochi in 1589 and installed the idol of Lord Venkateswara in the

Tirumala Devaswam Temple

. The Shiva temple at Ernakulam is 385 years old. The

presiding deity of the temple is Lord Shiva and according to a legend,

sage nagarishi installed the idol. It is one of the largest temples of the

state.

31

The site said to be allotted by the Raja of Kochi, situated in a

vast square area of about 5 and half acres, the temple is noted for its

.

30 Jayan Erancheri Illam, Tantrasamuccaya, in Dr.N V P Unithiri (Ed.), Indian Scientific Traditions (Prof. KNN Elayath Felicitation Volume), CUSS-19, Publication Division, University of Calicut, 2003, p.265-269. 31 K.Sadasivan, The Konkanis of Cochin: Their History and Contributions, in JKS, Vol.XVII, Parts 1-4, March-December 1990, Dept. Of History, University of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram, p.145.

148

unique architecture32

The temple which has a close connection with the royal family

of Kochi was the Sree Poornathrayeesa temple at Trippunithura. The

name of Thrippunithura has been argueabley identified as ‘Tropina’ as

mentioned by Megansthanes

. The pagoda type two storied northern

gopurams, the ceilings of which are adorned with paintings of puranic

scenes and epics and the 70 feet high, three storied vimana shaped

eastern gopuram testify to this. The pradista is on a five layer throne

with Venkateshwara and consorts Sreedevi and Bhoodevi on top while

the Utsavamoorthy is in the middle and the Utsava lakshmi is at the

lower layer. Chala gramams are on the lowest layer.

There are four sub temples or shrines inside the main temple

premises dedicated to Hanuman, Garuda, Mahalakshmi and

Vigneshvara. The six feet height idols of Hanuman and Garuda, a

gigantic lingam dedicated to Siva, Pabanasham or temple tank on the

north-east corner, paintings, wooden carvings, pagoda type gopuram,

copper roofed money mandapam etc. are the characteristic features.

This temple contains one of the biggest bronze bells in India.

33

One of the important temples within the territorial landscape

of Kochi was the Vadakkunnathan Temple at Thrissur. It was a

historical fact that the rulers of the regional state of Kochi had

exercised their sway over the present district of Thrissur. The temple

. The exact date of the construction of

the temple is not known.

32 Cochin Thirumala Devaswam Management Scheme, Book No.C-154, RAE. 33 Cited in V V K Valath, Keralathile Sthala Charithrangal-Ernakulam Jilla (Mal), Kerala Sahithya Academy, Thrissur, 2006,p.156.

149

is also called as Tenkailasam, or Sri Mulanatha temple34. Prince Rama

Varma, popularly known as Sakthan Thamburan (1750-1805),

instituted famous Thrissur Pooram at Vadakkunathan temple and it is

observed that he wanted to spread religion and worship among the

people of erstwhile Kochi state35

The origin of the temple is shrouded in myth and it is related

to the legend of semi-divine and semi-human Lord Parasurama who

created 108 Shaiva temples all over the western coast one of which was

Vadakkunathan Temple

.

36. It is noted that the temple is known to have

been in existence from the twelfth century, though its foundations

could have been much older37. The royal family of Kochi had its

headquarters at Trippunithura and they made Thrissur as their second

capital. Elamkulam has opined that the erstwhile state of Kochi had

their northern boundary at Thattamangalam near Chittur and it made

them to establish Thrissur as their second capital38

The name of the temple as Vadakkunathan is essentially

related to the regional state of Kochi. The chief deity is Shiva who is

looking towards the west but he got the name Vadakkunathan, the

Lord of ‘Vatakku’ or north as he acted as the Protector of the northern

regions of the Kochi state. The tantries, temple authorities and the

royal chroniclers used to treat Vadakkunathan as the Lord of the

northern part of the state. Hence, Lord Shiva is more popular as

Vadakkunathan. This temple is a multi-shrine complex, having three

.

34 K.R.Srinivasan, Op.Cit.,p.181. 35 V V K Valath, Op.Cit.,p.250. 36 T.P.Sankaran Kutty Nair, Thrissur Vadakkumnathan Temple, in Pracheena Keralam, April-June, 2006, p.55. 37 K.R.Srinivasan, Op.Cit.,p.181. 38 Elamkulam PN Kunjan Pillai, Studies in Kerala History, Kottayam, 1970, p.160.

150

principal shrines dedicated to Vadakkunatha alias thenkailasanatha,

Sankara Narayana and Rama39

The Vadakkunathan temple at Thrissur is notable for its

architectural uniqueness. The sreekovil of the temple was built during

the late 9

.

th century by Mullappally Namboodiri, a person like Chennas

Namboodiri (who wrote Tantrasamuchaya), was an architect and a

sculptor. It is pointed out that “in the medieval Kerala there are

references to Chathan Suruvan Mullappally and Chuvadan Kantan

Mullappally, the former who lived in the 11th century as architects and

sculptors responsible for the renovation and re-modeling of the

temple40”. Vira Kerala Varma, who ascended the throne of Kochi in

1601 and continued until 1615, is believed to have reconstructed the

Vadakkunathan temple at Thrissur to a great extent. His reign is also

known for the establishment of harmonious relation between the

Vaishnava and Saiva sects which resulted in the tranquility in the

religious life41. South Indian history shares the experience of mutual

conflicts between the Vaishnava and the Saiva sects and it had gone to

the extreme extent of physical assault. But Kerala provides a unique

lesson where both these sects co-existed and consequently Shiva

temples now adorned with the idols of Vishnu. It is observed that the

consecration of Vishnu idols in Shiva temples at Thiruchengannur and

Vadakkunathan was the outcome of this new equation of compromise

instead of conflict42

39 H.Sarkar, Op.Cit.,p.42. 40 Vadakkunnathan Temple Granthavari, a cadjan record kept at RAE. 41 M.G.S.Narayanan, Cultural Symbiosis in Kerala, Trivandrum, 1972,p.72. 42 T.P.Sankaran Kutty Nair, Op.Cit., p.56.

. Administratively the Vadakkunatha temple was

151

placed under the Thrissur Inspector whose headquarter was located at

Thrissur43

The Vadakkunathan temple has four gopurams and of which two

of the portals are open, in the east and the west, which form the entry

to and exit from the temple. The gopuram in the southern side was

constructed in 1780. Due to the ill health of the reigning king of Kochi

Rama Varma (1775-1790), the renovation works were carried out

under the leadership of Saktan Thamburan (1790-1805). It is pointed

out that most of the big structures of the temple, which we see today,

were constructed during the reign of Sakthan Thamburan

.

44. “The first

thing that strikes the eye about the temple is its massive pagoda-

shaped east gopuram45

The next important temple in the erstwhile regional state of

Kochi was Chottanikkara Bhagavati temple. The temple is situated on

the crest of a hillock. The temple has a laterite idol called Rudraksha

sila and was believed to be worshipped by Adisankaracharya,

Vilwamangalam Swamiyar, Kakkasseri Bhattathiri and

”. The temple has a stucco and mortar base

over which elaborate woodwork of rafters and supports form the base

for a three-tiered tiled awning, finally ending in a triangular tiles

paved summit. The temple has a number of low-ceiling prakarams

called chuttambalam. In the temple compound we can find certain

other shrines like the shrines to Goddess Parvathy, Lord Ganapathy,

Lord Sankaranarayana, Lord Rama, Lord Goshala Krishna,

Nandikeswara, Simhodhara, Sastha and Adi Sankara.

43 A Blue Book containing important State Papers relating to the administration of Devaswam in the Cochin State, RAE, p.30. 44 Ibid.. 45 Ambujam Anantharaman, Op.Cit.,p.251.

152

Chemmangattu Bhattathiri46. The most notable aspect of the temple is

its Vimana and it alone brought people’s attention to the temple.

Murals have been made on the walls of the temple. The control over

the temple came to the hands of the Rajas of Kochi in ME 1064

(1888AD) and they further expanded the temple complex in the

present form47

Koodalmanikyam temple at Irinjalakuda is of great importance

in the history of Kochi. Like any other temple, the origin of

Koodalmanikyam temple is also shrouded in mystery. It is believed

that thousands of years ago the entire area now known, as Irinjalakuda

was a dense forest a number of Rishis under Kulipini Maharshi were

engaged in an incessant Yagna ,offering severe penance to please Maha

Vishnu and finally Vishnu pleased to shower his eternal presence in

the region as requested by them

.

48. They further prayed to river Ganga

to bless the land and it is being continued in the form of Kulipini

theertham49. It is the only temple in India which has dedicated to the

worship of Bharata or Lord Sangameshwara.

In terms of its architectural features, the temple has certain

distinctiveness. The impressive gateways, round shaped sanctum

sactorum, the majestic Koothambalam and the carvings in wood and

stone on the walls all attract the attention of students of art and

architecture. The eastern gate way or gopuram

46 G.H.Anantha Narayanan, Sri Chottanikkara Devi Temple, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, Bombay, 2001,p.40. 47 K.R.Vidyanathan, Temples and Legends of Kerala, Bharathiya Vidhaya Bhavan, Bombay, 1982, p.108-110. 48 T.Venugopal, Nalambalam Theerthayathra (Mal.), Kodungallur, 2007,p.23. 49 Ibid.,p.25.

of the temple is an

impressive structure in the typical Kerala style of architecture and it

153

has tiled roof and white washed walls50. The gateways are also

impressive as it embedded with numerous carvings. The gateways on

the East, South and West sides of the temple are also attractive. The

sanctum sanctorium of the temple is round shaped and is covered with

copper sheets. On the Southern courtyard we can find the well-known

Koothambalam, the Natyagruha meant for Koothu and Koodiyattom. The

murals on the walls on either side of the eastern entry to

chuttambalam also deserve special mention. Around the temple we can

find four ponds and the largest one are Kuttan Kulam, located outside

the compound on the eastern side and Kulipini Theertham, which is

located inside the compound51

.

The earliest historical reference to Koodalmanikyam temple is

found in a stone inscription attributed to the Chera king Stanu Ravi

Varman dated 854 A.D, donating vast extends of land for the

Temple. The management of the temple was vested in a body called

the Yogakkars, but this right came to be subsequently vested with the

Thachudayakaimal52. The right to select a person as Thachudayakaimal

is vested in the Maharaja of Thiruvithamkur. But he can exercise this

right only on the request made to him in that behalf by the Raja of

Kochi, who in his turn, is to be moved by the Yogakkars. There are

instances for the intervention of the Rajas of Kochi as well as the

Residents in Kochi in determining the administration of the temple53

50 H.Sarkar, An Architectural Survey of Temples of Kerala, New Delhi, 1978,p.32. 51 T.Venugopal, Op.Cit.,p.24 52 Koodalmanikyam Temple, Statement of the Cochin Government’s Case, Document No. K.58, RAE. 53 Material papers related to Koodalmanikyam Temple and the Thachudayakaimal (1937-40),RAE.

.

154

The proclamation XII of ME 1122 should also be treated as an example

of royal intervention in the day to day activities of the temple54

The St.Thomas tradition does indicate the emergence of

Christians even during the early century of the Christian era. St.

Thomas believed to have landed Muziris in 52AD and built seven

churches across Kerala. But we could not yet recover any

archaeological evidence to substantiate it. In the church architecture of

the land of Kerala, we could identify the blending of European and

indigenous styles. It is noted that “Kerala adapted, by and large, a

temple plan comprising a four-sided sanctuary fronted by a large

pillared hall, which, in the Christian tradition, became chancel and

nave respectively. Similarly, the tower over the sanctuary possibly

soared higher than that of the nave, as in the Hindu temple the sikhara

above the garbha griha has the maximum height”

.

V

The census records and other documents of administrative

importance do underline the existence of multi-religious identities in

the regional state of Kochi. This section is devoted to look at the

architectural and social importance of the non-Hindu centres of

worship in Kochi. The important non-Hindu sects who inhabited in

Kochi during the period under discussion were the Christians, the

Muslims, and the Jews. They contributed to the development of

multi-culturalism of the state.

55

54 Proclamation XII of 1122 of the Raja of Cochin, RAE (See appendix V) 55 H.Sarkar, Monuments of Kerala, ASI, New Delhi, 1992,p.45.

.

155

The Portuguese episode in the history of Kerala has had certain

influence in the church architecture. Their church architecture was a

total deviation from the style which had been followed so far. St.

Francis Church at Kochi was the earliest church built in India in this

new style56. The church has been maintained by the Portuguese (1503-

1663), the Dutch (1664-1804), the British (1804-1947) and the Church of

South India (CSI) (1947 onwards). Studies show that Alfonso de

Aluquerque has the credit of being done initial works related to the

construction of St. Francis church at Kochi57

In 1795 the British could capture Kochi from the Dutch, but still

allowed the latter to enjoy control over the church. In 1804 the Dutch

voluntarily handed over the control of the church to the Anglican

Communion. It is believed that the Anglicans changed the name of

the patron saint to St. Francis. In April 1923, the church has been

declared as a protected monument under the Protected Monuments

. Alfonso de Aluquerque

has got the permission from the Raja of Kochi to construct a fort at

Kochi where he erected a wooden church and dedicated it to

St.Bartholomew. The wooden church was rebuilt by the Franciscan

Friar with bricks and mortar and they erected a tiled roof also. In 1516

the renovation work of the church was completed and it was

dedicated to St. Antony. In 1663 after the capture of Kochi by the

Dutch, they demolished all churches in Kochi, except St.Francis

Church, since they were Protestants. The Dutch reconditioned the

church and converted it as a government church.

56 St. Francis Church was previously called as Santo Antonio, the patron saint of Portugal. See Ibid.,p.46. 57 G. Schurhammer, Francis Xavier, His Life, His Times: India 1541-’45, Rome, 1975,p.405.

156

Act of 1904 and now it is being maintained by the Archaeological

Survey of India58

As stated earlier, the church has certain architectural

importance. The church has been raised on a plan similar to the

earlier types prevalent in Kerala, though in elevation it has discarded

the idea of dominating tower over the church. It is a lofty edifice with

a gabled-timber framed roof covered with tiles. Facing the west, the

church has a semi-circular arched entrance and windows above. The

facade is impressive, flanked on either side by a stepped pinnacle.

There is a bell-turret on the summit of the gable-front divided into

three compartments

.

59

58 See appendix VI for the plan of the ground floor of St. Francis Church, Kochi. 59 Peter Miller, Kerala: Jewel of India’s Malabar Coast, in National Geographic, 173, No.5 (May 1988), p.604.

. Inside, the church is divided from the nave by

a plain arched opening and the top of the church roof is crowned by

two stepped pinnacles. It exhibits the architectural value of arch.

Inside the church we can find the grave stones of the Portuguese on

the northern wall and the Dutch on the southern wall. It is also to be

noted that at St. Francis Church, the mortal remains of Vasco Da Gama

were interned, but it remained only for a temporary period and in

1540, after sixteen years of his burial, the body was conveyed to

Portugal by his son Pedro da Silva da Gama. The hand operated fans

found in the church are a reminder of the British opulence of that

period. Some of the heraldic designs and armorial bearings on the

tomb-stones, affixed on the walls of this church are examples of fine

workmanship. It is also noted that the present furniture were installed

when it was under the Anglican order. The church and its coloured

glass windows had all features of late Gothic style.

157

Another notable centre of worship of the Christians in Kochi is

Santa Cruz Basilica. It is one of the eight basilicas in India, built in the

Gothic style by the Portuguese. The history of Santa Cruz Basilica has

started with the second wave of Portuguese mission led by Pedro

Alavares Cabral in 150060

In 1558, Pope Paul IV elevated Santa Cruz church to the status of

cathedral with the erection of the diocese of Kochi. In 1663, after the

capture of Kochi, the Dutch destroyed all the catholic buildings in

Kochi and they left only St. Franciscan church and Cathedral

untouched. During the ascendancy, the Dutch had been used the

Cathedral to store their arms. After the capture of Kochi by the British,

they used the Cathedral for prayers

. He, along with a group of missionaries,

reached the port of Kochi on the eve of Christmas in 1500 and they

were received by King Goda Varma I of Kochi. They tried to win the

confidence of the indigenous Raja and both of them fought against the

Zamorin of Calicut. The Portuguese army under Commander

Albuquerque reached and extended support to the Raja of Kochi. In

return for the assistance extended, the Raja of Kochi granted him

permission to build a fort at Kochi and they further got permission to

construct centres of worship there. Consequently, the foundation

stone for the Santa Cruz Basilica was laid on May 3, 1505, the feast day

of ‘the invention of the Holy Cross’, hence the great centre of worship,

when completed named as Santa Cruz.

61

60 Sergio Mascarenhas, Christians and Cochin: The Religious factor in the Portuguese Establishment in Cochin, in Marian Arackal and Francis Kurisinkal (Eds.), Exploring Cochin, Cochin, 2008,p.27. 61 Stephen Neill, A History of Christianity in India: The Beginnings to AD 1707, Cambridge University Press, New York, 1984,p.44.

. In the history of the Cathedral,

Bishops D. Joao Gomes Ferreira (1887-1897) and D. Mateus de Oliveira

158

Xavier (1897-1908) had been played a significant role. The Cathedral

was consecrated by Dom Sebastiao Jose Pereira, the Bishop of Damao

on 19th November 1905. In December, 1905, Pope John Paul II has

elevated the Cathedral into a Basilica through a special decree and it

should be treated as a symbol of recognition of its antiquity, artistic

dignity and historical importance. The Cathedral is unique in terms of

its architectural specificity and decorative paintings. The Church has

two lofty spires and a remarkably bright, white-washed exterior

Synagogues are the other historical monuments in Kochi. The

Jewish community had their first settlement at Cranganoor. Because

of the persecution of the Portuguese the Jews left Cranganoor and

settled at Kochi in 1565

and a

pastel-colored interior. The interiors of the church are mostly Gothic,

with the main altar decorated by the famous Italian painter Br.

Moschini S.J and his disciple De Gama of Bangalore. The columns

decorated with frescos and murals, the seven large canvas paintings

on the passion and death on the Cross, especially the painting of the

Last Supper, modeled on the famous painting of Leonardo da Vinci and

the beautiful stained glass windows add to the artistic grandeur of the

palace. The paintings that adorn the ceiling depict scenes from the life

of Jesus Christ. In short, the Basilica represents a shared culture of

Europe and its Christian traditions.

62

62 Francis Day, The Land of the Perumals or Cochin: Its Past and Present, AES (Reprint), Chennai, 2006,p.352.

. The most important Jewish monument in

Kerala is the Jewish Synagogue at Mattanchery. Architecturally, it is

nothing, but a tall building with slopig tilled roofs. It has a mosaic

floor, but without any column in the interior. In the mid eighteenth

159

century, Ezekiel Rahabi has built a clock tower and paved the floor of

the Synagogue with hand painted tiles of willow pattern, brought all

the way from Canton, China63

There are two chief synagogues, one at the northern end of the

town close to the wall of the Raja’s palace and exclusively used by the

White Jews. Another could be found at the southern extremity, which

is used by the Black Jews

.

64

There are number of mosques in Kochi and surrounding areas.

But none of them show any grand architectural form, so conspicuous

in the imperial and provincial styles of the Indo-Islamic architecture.

The most important among them is the Cheraman Juma Masjid at

Cranganoor, which resembling to a Hindu temple, built in 629 AD. It

is a lofty two storied building with tiled roofs. Its outer walls are built

on an adhishthana, similar to any brahmanical temple

. The northern synagogue is about forty feet

long and thirty feet wide and by no means a fine building.

65

63 H. Sarkar, Op.Cit., 1992, p.53. 64 Francis Day, Op.Cit.,p.354. 65 H. Sarkar,Op.Cit. 1992,p.52.

. There are

corridors on all the four sides of the central hall, meant for prayers

with a mihrab on the western wall. The mosques themselves are

unpretentious monuments and completely utilitarian in character.

The closed prayer hall and sloping tiled roofs have been used, no

doubt, to combat the phenomenon of heavy rainfall. The Indo-Islamic

architecture drew its main inspiration from the Persian and Turkish

traditions. However, this trend never reached the shores of Kerala,

where the Arabic tradition of simplicity of structural forms had

160

combined itself with the indigenous style of Kerala, thereby giving rise

to a new type of mosque architecture.

The Fort Kochi Juma Masjid (Calvathy Mosque) is the

contribution of Arabs, who came to Kochi for trade. It was built in

around 1384 and later it was reconstructed. The Chembitta Palli is

another important mosque. Its site was allotted by the Maharaja of

Kochi. The mosque got its name from the roof of the main hall, which

is sheeted with copper. It is said that the Jews of Kochi donated the

wood for its construction. In short, the regional state of Kochi has

been adorned with religious centres of various religious identities.

The rulers of Kochi, despite their Hindu religious belief, had the broad

mindedness to encourage other religious groups also and it resulted in

the making of Kochi as the centre of religious symbiosis.

VI

Of all things which the human beings have imagined, the town

is perhaps the noblest. In the context of India, town planning is not

new. Cities of Mohanjodaro, Harappa, and other cities of the Indus

Valley complex tell a tale of how towns were laid in pre-historic times

in India66

66 B.V.Jayanathan, Town Planning and Land Surveys, in Madras Survey Centenary Souvenir, Manchester, 1912,p.14.

. Town planning is a matter of policy concerned with the

shaping and guiding of the physical growth and arrangement of towns

in harmony, reflecting socio-cultural economic and also environmental

needs of the people. But in the state of Kochi, we could not find any

concrete evidence for town planning, in the right sense of the term,

until modern period. However, we could find certain indications to

161

the prevalence of a crude town planning. It was at the end of the 15th

century that the headquarters of Perumpadappu was established at

Kochi67. In the regional state of Kochi, town planning is centred

around Fort Kochi, Mattanchery and Thrippunithura68

Fort Kochi is an important place in Kochi where, the town

planning has been centred around. In the history of town planning

at Fort Kochi, the arrival of the Europeans is of great importance. It

was with the arrival of the Portuguese that construction works started

in Fort Kochi. The Portuguese constructed their fort at Fort Kochi in

1503 with the permission of Raja. They chose the northern tip of land

which had a commanding view over the open sea for the site of their

fort. In 1503, the Zamorin’s garrisons also housed at this site which

was outside the northern boundaries of the built up area of the town.

In 1505, Almeida built a stronger fort and enlarged the Portuguese

garrison. He also made Kochi as his main residence and a European

town developed at the north of Indian Ocean

.

69

History reveals that Kochi was born out of chance and has

grown without any master plan. The influence of sea, backwaters and

rivers is more spectacular in the growth and development of Kochi.

The contribution of foreign powers such as Portuguese, Dutch and

English were also very important. In Kochi the evolution of the town

was intimately connected with trade and temple. Various travellers

who visited the land from time to time do make indirect references to

town planning and settlement pattern. The change of the regions

.

67 R.S.Whiteway, The Rise of Portuguese Power in India (1497- 1550), Westminster, 1894,p.357. 68 See Appendix VII for the details of heritage centres at Fort Kochi and Mattanchery. 69 Mehrdad Shokooshy, Muslim Architecture of South India, Routledge, London, 2003,p.215

162

under the rulers of Kochi could be gathered from these accounts.

According to Pyrad, “there are two towns in Cochin the one is the old

town, distant from the sea about a league and a half where the king

resides, the other only a league from the sea, at the mouth of a large

river upon which also the old town is. The new town belonged to the

Portuguese and it is fortified with good walls and a citadel. The kings

of Cochin have given them this place and some land about over which

they exercise full dominion. They built very handsome houses

churches and monasteries and royal hospital for the Portuguese”70

Another traveller John Huyghan van Linschoten, who visited

Kochi in 1583-84 and in 1589 describe Kochi as a densely populated

well built town. He remarked “the town of Cochin is almost as great

as Goa, very populated and well built with houses, churches and

cloysters etc

.

71. Philip Baldaeus who visited Kochi in the 17th century

gives a true and exact description. He writes: “Cochin is built after the

Indian fashion with very broad street, it is very populous, and the

royal palace is built with bricks a mortar after the European way, with

apartments very spacious and lofty- near which stood the pagoda with

a very large cistern and adjoining it”72

In spite of some European influence on the architecture of the

Raja’s palace, the Indian town itself remained separate from the

Portuguese one, preserving its traditional Indian town planning and

architecture. Later on, for their new fort, the Dutch remodelled the

.

70 A.Grey and HCP Dell (eds.), The Voyages of Francois Pyrad D Lavel, London, 1887, pp.34-35. 71 Arthur Cock Burnell (ed), The Voyages of John Huyghan van Linschoten to East Indies, 1885, p.69. 72 Philip Baldaeus, A True and Exact Description of the most Celebrated East India, Coasts of Malabar and Coromandal, (Trans.A.J.Churchill), London, 1732,p.18

163

Portuguese town and laid out new street on grid pattern and

constructed new buildings on the Dutch style. The Calvinist Dutch

also converted the Santa Cruz Cathedral into a ware house and in 1778

the Governor, Van Moens, restored the fort and removed practically

all the remaining buildings of the Portuguese. The Dutch town was

much smaller than the earlier Portuguese one. Fort Kochi was built

with mercantile aim and to provide basic facilities for company

servants and their families –complete with warehouses, a shipwright’s

office, a governor’s mansion, quarters or barracks for soldiers and a

church, a hospital an orphanage and a prison. None of the

illustrations of the fort Cochin shows a school. A painting by Jan

Brandes depicts the fort with the beacon tower, warehouses, other

edifices and fishing nets. There was an esplanade a graveyard, a

market place and fresh water wells. It is noted that “the main streets

near the bay-gate were the Rozen straat and Prinse straat. Other street

names were Heeren straat, Prinsegracht, Bloemendal Lely straat, Linde

straat, Burger straat. Smaller streets were named after important

buildings which stood on them like the wapenkamer straat (Camoury

Street) Peter leselie straat (Parsley Street) which was probably the

place the spice market was held73

The Dutch city in turn proved to have a very short life. In 1806

the East India Company took it upon itself to demolish the entire

. We can argue that in the context of

Kochi, the town planning did have some political meaning since the

Dutch had taken the pain to remodel the city by replacing the

remnants of their ‘enemy nation’.

73 Anjana Singh, Fort Cochin in Kerala 1750-1830: The Social Condition of a Dutch Community in an Indian Milieu, 2010,p.25.

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Dutch city by blowing up most of its buildings, with explosives. A

new British style colonial town was then constructed which merged

gradually with the old town. It would be difficult to discern any

traces of the configuration of the boundaries of old Kochi, let alone the

original street layout. The detailed description of Lawson and

surviving historical buildings-the Rajas place, the synagogues, the

mosques and other Muslim shrines provide indications which help to

establish the location of old quarters. Old maps of the Portuguese and

the Dutch forts also assist in determining the approximate boundaries

of the European town. From the foregone discussion we can argue that

the role of Europeans in shaping Fort Kochi was limited within a

fortified area. But still, we could see an indigenous local town did

exist outside ramparts.

The indigenous local town was existed at the south east of the

fort. It appears to have spread as wide ribbon stretching south for

about 1 K.M, occupying the coastal areas. The present bazaar road

dates back probably to the 18th century and as we have seen fully

operational in the mid 19th century. But it seems to be a northern

extension of the main spinal road of the old Hindu town to the south.

The names and the present function of this road as a crowded centre

for wholesale of important merchandise are a continuation of its

historic life. The road is set slightly away from the coast, but runs

alongside it between the ware houses, merchant office and shops,

there are numerous access routes to the water front. A number of

smaller roads lead westward from the bazaar road to the residential

area known as Mattanchery.

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At Fort Kochi we could see certain buildings which do bear the

imprints of the contacts with the Europeans. A good number of

buildings exist at Fort Kochi, but we do present only a few at this

moment. The important among them are Koder house, Thakur house

and Pierce Leslie Bungalow. The Koder house is constructed by

Samuel and Kodar of the Cochin Electric Company in 1808. This

building is a supreme example of the transition from colonial to Indo-

European architecture. Features like veranda, seats at the entrance,

floor tiles in a chess board pattern, red coloured brick like facade,

carved wood furniture are unique to this.

Thakur house is another important building in the western style.

This building was early known as Kunal or Hill Bungalow. It was

house to the managers of the National Bank of India during the British

reign. Today the Bungalow belongs to the owner of the Tax trading

firm, Ram Bahadur Thakur. Vasco House is another important

building constructed in the 16th century and believed to be the

residence of Vasco da Gama and is one of the oldest structures of Fort

Cochin. European glass panelled windows with balcony cum

verandas are characteristics of the Dutch influence.

Pierce Leslie Bungalow at Fort Cochin is a blend of Portuguese

Dutch and native building style. Wood panel make the ceiling of the

ground floor, there are arched doorways carved doors and sprawling

rooms. Waterfront verandas are also there. This mansion housed the

office of Pierce Leslie and company coffee merchants founded in 1862.

Another important structure is David Hall built around 1695 by the

Dutch East India Company. This building is named after one of its late

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occupants David Kodar, a Jewish businessman. This building was

originally associated with the famous Dutch commodore Hendrick

Van Reed famous for his Hortus Malabaricus.

In town planning, the settlement pattern does have an important

place. The region of Mattanchery is known for the settlement of

various ethnic and religio-cultural groups. The place has been

inhabited by various sects of people like Jews, Tamil Brahmins,

Konkinis, Anglo-Indians, Gujratis, Marathis, and Muslims. The Jews

lived in the buildings which have shops or trading offices on the street

front and residence either at the back or on the first floor. In Kochi we

can identify the Jewish buildings having extra-ordinary height. They

made use of wooden false ceiling for covering the awesome height of

the gable roof. In the grills of the windows the star of the David is

seen. It is a symbol denoting their original rightful land Israel. The

rooms are huge and spacious with large size doors and windows.

Another feature was large windows with inbuilt seating facing the

street and aligned in line with the opposite house enabling

conversation giving a greater community sense and society. The

entrance doors to all Jewish houses are distinguished by the ‘miseus’ a

Hebrew prayer rolled into a gold plated casting. The immigrant Jews

were very insecure. This insecurity led them to construct their houses

into the row house pattern abutting the streets and they thereby

constructed their work place and houses together. The ground floor

rooms are used as shops or warehouses and the living rooms are

planned on the first floor.

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The Konkanis another important group of traders settled in

Cochin. The basis of the Konkani settlement is the temple which acts

on the main focus of all activities. The Konkanis arranged their house

linearly boarding the streets. The houses are called lane houses and

were so arranged based on Sannidhi Veedhi and Pradakshina Veedi.

This type of arrangement allows the god to visit each houses during

the festival season. The Konkani venerated the tulasi plant. It is

usually placed in the front of the house in such a way that it can be

seen till the farthest end. The doors and windows were arranged

linearly so as to facilitate better air circulation and thulasidharsanam.

In this linear arrangement of rooms, a privacy fact is less. Generally

five rooms per house are seen, but no bed rooms this linear

arrangement of rooms privacy facts is less. Generally five rooms peer

house are seen, but no bed rooms. In this type of construction, scope

for further extension is less. High plinth and building edges as seats

enabled community activity of chatting with the neighbours in the

evening.

The Tamil Brahmins lived in agraharams. In this locality they

made continuous row of houses called agraharams, sharing common

wall. The focal point of the community activity was the temple. These

buildings have no side clearness. The houses form a continuous row

on either side of the streets, usually leading to a temple. The major

features of a Tamil Brahmin house are entirely different, when

compared to other houses. Puranthinna are the steps leading to the

main portion of the house and occurs above the drain. It is the

transition between the built and the inbuilt. It is the covered portico

and acts as the Veranda. The next portion is reezi, the central core of

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the house and sometimes houses the deity. Paddy is also stored here.

Koodam is the hall area and contained the nadumittam. Koodam is

followed by kitchen. The open space in the house which houses the

toilet and other facilities is called mittam. In front of the house the

tulasitara is seen.

The historical origin of the Anglo-Indians could be traced back

to the Portuguese period. They emerged as a result of the policy of

marriage with the local women undertaken by the direction of Alfonso

de Albuquerque. They served the colonial government and

occasionally engaged as private investors. Their houses are

characterised by double height room and large windows. The ground

floor is reserved as garage storage or as a cattle shed. The Gujratis

constituted the next important group of people settled in Mattanchery

and their number is counted as 1500 to 2000 families74

74 Project Report of the B.Arch. Students of National Institute of Technology Calicut, 2001-2006 Batch.

. Gujratis from

Kutch and Saurashtra used to come and settle in Kochi for business

activities. They settled along the New road and near to Gujrathi

School in Palace road. Gujrati houses in Mattanchery could be

classified into three as row-type house, chawl-type quarter and lane

house. In the row type houses, the Jain temple constituted the nucleus

of the settlement. The buildings are normally owned by the temple

and give to the settlers on nominal rent. In the chawl-type quarter the

settlement is centred on the temple and the well. The chawl-type

quarter faces the street. They have shops or offices on the ground floor

and residences on the first floor. The Gujrati lane houses were the

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earliest form of houses inhabited by them and later they have been

used by the Muslims.

The next category of people settled in Mattanchery is the

Marathis and they had migrated from Ratnagiri district of

Maharashtra. For the Marathis, Mattanchery was an important centre

for carrying out their business. The Raja of Kochi extended certain

trade concessions and requested them to settle there. In 1879 Govinda

Pandit built a Sreekrishna Devaswam temple and Marathi settlements

started concentrating around the temple and Raja of Kochi gave name

as Pandithan road.

In the settlement pattern of Kochi, the Muslims constituted an

important position. Among the Muslims who settled at Mattanchery

we could identify three groups and they are nainars, thangals or

sayyids and kutchi Muslims. The nainars were the converted Muslims

from high caste Hindus. But the thangals or sayyids were the direct

generation of Prophet Mohammed came from Yemen. The kutchi

Muslims were mainly Gujrat based Muslims came from Kutch region.

The Muslim settlers at Mattanchery lived as joint families.

Mattanchery could be identified as the settlement area of various sects

in the regional state of Kochi.

Another important place in the town planning scheme in Kochi

was Thrippunithura, where the Rajas had their headquarters. The

Rajas made Thrippunithura as their capital in 930 ME. The nucleus of

the Thrippunithura was a place called kottaykakam, which is

protected all sides with massive walls and they arranged protection

guards both at the east and north gates. They made a trench at the

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southern side of the wall and the western side is protected by a river.

In the initial years, the number of the Kochi royal family was quite

limited, hence they did not require big building or huge complexes. It

is noted that the family had been inhabited in a nalukettu, which still

remains75

One of the notable aspects of town planning, centred around

Thrippunithura is puthanangadi. The leading role in the making of

puthanangadi was played by Saktan Thamburan. It is noted that he

started a fair at Thrippunithura on 10

.

One of the first notable constructions at Thrippunithura is

Kalikotta Palace, located in the south-east part of the Poornathrayeesa

temple. This building, built in Dutch style, was meant to impart

education to the members of the royal family. Later, all public

programmes related to the royal family had been staged at Kalikotta

palace. Another important building at Thrippunithura is a residential

palace called Devathamalika and it was built by Saktan Thamburan in

Dutch style. But later in 1932, this building was demolished.

Ammathamburan Kovilakam, meant for the exclusive use of the ladies of

the Kochi royal family, is located at the southern side of the

Poornathrayeesa temple. Bunglow palace is the oldest remaining

building today. We can find several such palaces meant for the

habitation of the members of the royal family.

th Medam 973M.E and he gave

orders to the Christians to do business76

75 R.T.Ravi Varma, Rajavamsam: Thrippunithura Smarana (Mal.), Kottayam, 2010,p.11 76 Thrippunithura Nagarasabha Vikasana Rekha- Onpatham Padhadhi (Mal.), p.14.

. He encouraged the Christians

who lived in the interiors of Thrippunithura to came and settle at the

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heart of the town. He built Polakulam and requested them to settle

there.

In the regional state of Kochi we can identify a crude system of

town planning and it was centred around places like Fort Kochi,

Mattanchery and Thrippunithura. Being a place in close proximity to

the sea, Fort Kochi had the rare chance of housing the occidental

ruling systems. The palace had been subjected to the continuous

process of making and it was done by the Europeans. The place does

have certain buildings which still bear the testimony of the European

contacts, primarily based on trans-marine contacts. Unlike Fort

Kochi, the importance of Mattanchery could be ascertained as the

centre of habitation for various ethnic and religio-cultural sects from in

and out of India. The place has been housed for various trade based

communities who enjoyed the backing the ruling house of Kochi. The

town planning at Thrippunithura was centred around the

Poornathrayeesa temple. Thrippunithura, being the headquarters of

the Kochi royal family, has a town planning with a settlement system

for the members of the royal family and the common people were

inhabited outside the ramparts. In brief, Kochi had been built and

rebuilt through centuries. In this process, one could see the impact of

European architecture as well as the indigenous style of construction

and designing. As said, it is a town of shared heritage in which

European elements are also protected in all respects