An English Reader for Academic Purposes

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An English Reader for

Academic Purposes

The English Language IMechanical Engineering

STROJARSTVO

2014/15

Ksenija Mance

The Faculty of Engineering in Rijeka,

Rijeka University2014/15


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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION

Some useful phrases for your discussion 4

LECTURE 1

Core Text WHERE DOES ENGLISH COME FROM? 6

LECTURE 2

Core Text THE AMERICAN LANGUAGE VS. BRITISH 16

NOUNS AND ARTICLES

LECTURE 3

Core Text ENGINEERING ETHICS,TECHNICAL FAILURES 28

LECTURE 4

Core Texts WHAT IS ENGINEERING? 58

ABSTRACT WRITING 70

LECTURE 5

Core Text GEARS 88Core Text PROPELLERS 100

LECTURE 6

Core Text CONTINUOUS, PERFECT AND PASSIVE ASPECTS 102

LECTURE 7

Core Text GRAMMAR REVISION 106

LECTURE 8 PRELIM EXAM 1 - GRAMMAR EXAM 118

LECTURE 9

Core Text THE GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DYNAMICS 122

LECTURE 10A

Core Text MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSIONS 138

LECTURE 10B

Core Text BIOMECHANICS, BIOENGINEERING 174

LECTURE 11

Core Text HYDROELECTRIC, SOLAR, WIND POWER 188

GENERATION AND OTHER RENEWABLES

LECTURE 12 THERMODYNAMICS, NUCLEAR ENERGY 228

Core Text

LECTURE 13 WHAT IS A FLUID? 256

Core Text

LECTURE 14 PRELIM 2 - TERMINOLOGY EXAM 280

Core Text

LECTURE 15 Revision 282

REFERENCES 285


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INTRODUCTION

My class you will learn to think for yourself again. You will learn to savor

words and language. No matter what anybody tells you, words and ideas can

change the world.

Robin Wil liamsas English Teacher John Keating

DEAD POETS SOCIETY, 1989

This issue/book includes a number of articles that address the teaching and learning oftechnical vocabulary. Vocabulary learning goals should be integrated into speakingactivities, i.e., planned vocabulary learning should not compromise the communicativenature of spoken activities. Therefore, each unit of these texts is an interdisciplinarylook at a topic which provides a focus for debate. My aim is to provide a good,intellectually challenging language education. All areas including engineering,

engineering ethics, technology, language arts, social studies, mathematics, science andbusiness English are covered.

I suggest techniques involving all students as active participants in selecting topics andmaterials.

Cooperative learning, put quite simply, is a type of instruction wherby students worktogether in small groups to achieve a common goal. Cooperative learning has becomeincreasingly popular as a feature of Communicative language teaching (CLT) with

benefits that include increased student interest due to the quick pace of cooperativetasks, improved critical thinking ability, and the opportunity to practice both the

productive and receptive skills in a natural context. The array of benefits extend beyond

increased language learning to include increased self-esteem and tolerance of diversepoints of view. (Johson and Johnson 1989; Kagan 1995; McCafferty, jacobs, andiddings 2006; Slavin 1995).

Johnson and Johnson (1999) indicate five features of a successful cooperative learningactivity:

1 students learn that their success depend upon working together interdependently2 students are individually accountable while achieving group goals3 students support and assist one anothers success through face-to-face interactions4 students develop social skills by cooperating and working together effectively

5 students as a group have the opportunity to reflect on the effectiveness of workingtogether.

When these principles are realized, cooperative learning creates a rich environment forstudents to learn language and simultaneously develop their capacities for collaborativetwenty-first-century communication and problem solving.English Teaching Forum, Volume 47, Number 4, 2009

I also suggest techniques as elicitation the process of drawing out something, ofprovoking a response. Using elicitation as a questioning strategy in the languageclassroom focuses discussion on the learners on their ideas, opinions, imagination,and involment.


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Classroom discussions that use elicitation as a technique allow students to draw on whatthey knowon existing schemata/scaffoldingand provide for a rich sharing of ideaswithin sociocultural context (Huong 2003).

Classroom discussions can so build on the experiences and language of learners byinviting them to discuss their experiences. I would also like to use students as resourcesby letting them share their knowledge and expertise with others in the classemphasizing their experience and knowledge and taking the focus off of the text as thesource of authority. Therefore, elicitation helps learners become more self-reliant. Thestudent could help by sharing their ideas, interests, and aims and by being engagedmembers in collaborative learning.Through the strategies of elicitation, gapping extension or adaption, students interactmore, construct solutions together and with this e-mail book have the tools to

participate in and contribute to their education.

My students will also be systematically taught English grammar and creative writing.

My curriculum was thus developed to provide students of all the necessary support inthe form of the group work, i.e. roundtable discussion, which could give themopportunities to speak in front of a small audience with confidence, enlarge theirvocabulary and give them chances to learn from classmates - their colleagues. Any'general statement' whether such a statement is made on human behaviour, art, scienceor history must be questioned.

Man's knowledge of his world could be built up by analytical observation and piecedtogether rather like a jigsaw puzzle. Our history has taught us that objective observationis impossible because of the various strata of human and individual consciousness.

Therefore, involving the science, technology and social studies, we not only lighten thecurriculum and ideas but also allow students to see natural ties across curriculum andacross cultures.

I would also like to stress the genius of students by having students engage in thiscurriculum, dialogue with each other, sharing their attitudes and experiences with eachother. We emphasize communication, scientific outlook, and deep insight into various

phenomena by reassessing the common views and outlooks. Feature films are alsoimportant because they capture the imagination of people and shake up new lexicalitems so that they remain accessible to the student.

Therefore, various units that are presented emphasize more student-centred approachthat may fit their interests. Students shouldnt be afraid of holistic approach, anapproach from various standpoints and an approach including activities such aslistening, watching movies, reading, writing and discussing. So, they should not beafraid of reassassing. Therefore, I offer you various texts, texts with various registers,styles and standpoints.

In the end, you might also share with me how you go implementing your English.

I wish you all a happy, healthy and prosperous new academic year full of excitingopportunities, high motivation, goodwill, good feelings, good intentions and goodcommunication

Your teacher of EnglishKsenija Mance


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SOME USEFUL PHRASES FOR YOUR DISCUSSION

Making a point/Stating an argument

Whats your opinion / point of view . ?How do you feel about .?What do you think of .?In my opinion . . ..

From my point of view .I reckon .Personally, I think/ feel . . .I believe (that). . .The point is this: ...

If you ask me. I think. . .I'd like to say this: .. .

As far as I'm concerned, ...But speaking of it, could you tell me .It seems to me that ..As I see it, .I strongly believe that .....

Clarifying

What I said/meant was: .. .I did not say. . . . What I did say was. . .I think you (must have) misunderstood me/what I said.

Let me repeat/rephrase what I said.I'm not saying that. What I am saying is (that)...

Yes, but don't forget I was only referring to.. .

Disagreeingwith an argument

(I'm afraid) I disagree.On the other hand, of course, ...That's not (entirely) true, . ..I can't possibly agree with/accept that.I hate to disagree with you, but. . .

Yes/All right, but don't you think.. .

Asking for an opinion

Well? What doyou think?Do/Don't you agree?What's your view (then)?How do you see it (then)?Let's have your opinion.


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Challenging an argument

That can't be (true/right).But what about. . . ?

What's your answer to that?Do you mean to tell me that. . . ? If you don't. .,then you should say what you mean.Are you seriously suggesting that. .. ?

Agreeing with an argument

Quite. Exactly. That's (very) true.So (do) I. Neither/Nor (do) I.I entirely agree. I agree with you entirely.You're absolutely right.That's a good point.I couldn't agree with you more.That's just what I think.How interesting.

Interrupting an argument

Excuse me, did you say/do you mean (that). . .Before you make your next point. ..So what you're saying is (that)...Qome to the point! What you really think k (that)...Does this make sense to you?Hoping to hear from you again before long.I must go home immediately, give my apologies to Mister XYThats it. It was on the tip of my tongue.I cant help thinking I dontdoubt that

You have Some Difficulties in UnderstandingWhat Your British or American Friends Say

Did you understand what I said?No, Im sorry but I didnt quite catch what you said.I beg your pardon?

No, Im afraid I didnt understand.No, Im sorry, but I missed what you said.Would you say it again, please?

Summarizing a discussion

Then we agree.(Basically), we're in agreement.(Ithink) we'd better agree to differ.Can you admit that you are wrong?


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LECTURE 1

Section 1An Introductory Lecture to the Course as a Whole

Section 2Placement TestsListening Comprehension Test -A talk about human brain

Section 3Where Does English Come from?Assignment- Additional Text

Every beginning is difficult.

Practice makes perfect.

As you sow, so you shall reap.


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The English language has come a long way since it firsttook shape in the island of Britain, sometime in the 5th

century AD. It took another 700 years of evolutionbefore it sounded anything like the English werecognise today. And when Shakespeare was writing,in what is often thought of as the golden age of thelanguage, only about four million people spoke it.

Now in the early 21st-century, English has become thepre-eminent global language. Nearly a quarter of theworlds population is estimated to have someknowledge of English and 400 million people speak itas their mother tongue.

If beings from outer space landed on Earth tomorrowthey would most likely assume that the humanlanguage was English.

What is the future of the language?

Will it be more important than ever or could it besupplanted as the global lingua franca by anotherlanguage German, Spanish or Chinese perhaps oreven by the artificial language Esperanto?

Assignment 1

Watch this video!https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPlpphT7n9s

BBC Documentary English Birth of a LanguageEnglish Goes Underground - History of English language 2
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPlpphT7n9shttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPlpphT7n9shttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gPlpphT7n9s


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Assignment 2: Read and write notes!

Core TextWhere does English come from?

English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is it the only

language that is spoken there today. English was originally a foreign language, imported by foreign

invaders. These invaders were two Germanic tribes living in what is now Northern Germany, along the

North Sea coast. They were called the Angles and the Saxons, and they spoke different dialects of the

same language. It is from these dialects that the modern English has descended.

Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as historians of the language prefer to call it, remained the language of

English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150. The reason why it is not still the language of England

is that there were two more foreign invasions of the Island by people speaking different tongues - first

the Northman or Vikings from Denmark, and then the Normans from Normandy in France.

The result of these further invasions, particularly the second by the French-speaking Normans in A.D.

1066, was to modify Old English very considerably, and turn it, in the course of the next threecenturies, into a compound language which is known as Middle English. Middle English is recognizably

the ancestor of the English spoken, today (which Old English is not, and it was the common language

of the inhabitants of England from about A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500.

As there were no more foreign conquests of the Island the language was from then on able to develop

under its own impetus. There were no more radical changes and so the Middle English merged

imperceptibly into the Early English of Shakespeare's age and then into the language spoken now.

Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, a dead language, but a good deal of its vocabulary has survived, in one

form or another, to the present day. Most of the very common words in modern English are Anglo-

Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed, hunger most of the propositions and

conjunctions, and nearly all of the strong verbs. When it was mixed with Norman French there werethree main results: the grammar was simplified, the pronunciation and spelling became -and still are-

much more complicated, and the vocabulary was enormously extended. French is a Latin language so

the major part of the English vocabulary is now Latin in origin. That is also one reason why there are

so many synonyms. In pairs of words like "wed" and "marry",fat and

"corpulent", and "lively" and

"vivacious", the first word is derived from Anglo-Saxon, the second, from Latin.

A language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. These changes are rapid in

primitive societies, but slow in advanced ones, because the invention of printing and the spread of

education have fixed traditional usage.

D.H. Spencer and A.S. Hornby

Assignment 3: Cover up this passage, write down what you remember

and check your composition.

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Assignment 4: Vocabulary practice

Find words or phrases in the text which mean the same as the following:

a) from/in the beginning

b) have as ancestors, pass by inheritance, come from earlier timesc) during

d) language, one's mother languagee) much; a great deal

f) made up of two or more combined parts

g) forerunner

h) defeat or overcome enemies (vb.)

i) conquering a country (n.)

j) enlarge

k) since then

l) impulse

m) slightly, gradually and not perceivable

n) greater or more important part

o) words that that join other words, clauses, e.g. and, but, or.

Assignment 5: Explain the aspects of the underlined verbs.

English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is it the only

language that is spoken there today. English was originally a foreign language, imported by foreigninvaders. These invaders were two Germanic tribes living in what is now Northern Germany, along the

North Sea coast. They were called the Angles and the Saxons, and they spoke different dialects of the

same language. It is from these dialects that the modern English has descended.

Assignment 6: Put the articles where necessary.

........ English is not ....... language that has always been spoken in ......... British Isles, nor indeed is it

...... only language that is spoken there today. ....... English was originally ....... foreign language,

imported by ....... foreign invaders. These invaders were ....... two Germanic tribes living in what is now

....... Northern Germany, along ....... North Sea coast. They were called ....... Angles and........ Saxons,

and they spoke different dialects of ....... same language. It is from these dialects that ....... modern

English has descended.

....... Anglo-Saxon, or ........ Old English, as ....... historians of ....... language prefer to call it, remained

....... language of ....... English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150. The reason why it is not still

....... language of ....... England is that there were two more foreign invasions of ....... Island by people

speaking ....... different tongues - first ....... Northman or ....... Vikings from Denmark, and then .......

Normans from ....... Normandy in France.

The result of these further invasions, particularly ....... second by ....... French-speaking Normans inA.D. 1066, was to modify ....... Old English very considerably, and turn it, in the course of ....... nextthree centuries, into ....... compound language which is known as ....... Middle English. Middle English

is recognizably ........ ancestor of ....... English spoken, today (which Old English is not, and it was .......

common language of ....... inhabitants of England from about A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500.

........ language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. These changes are rapid in

....... primitive societies, but slow in ....... advanced ones, because ....... invention of ....... printing and

....... spread of ........ education have fixed ......... traditional usage.

Assignment 7 :Repeat plural of nouns.What about the use of the article with the names of countries and languages?


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Informative TextAdditional Reading

Assignment 1.Jot down the subtitles for the passages in question forms.

Where does English come from?

Up to now nobody has been able to count all the languages spoken in the world today. But there

must be about 3,000, two of which are far more common than any of the others: Northern Chinese,

which is spoken by almost six hundred million people, and English, which is spoken by three

hundred and sixty million people in Europe, India, Africa, America, Australia and New Zealand;

1,000 among American Indians, 750 in Sub-Sahara, 150 in India, 750 just on one island: New Guinea.

Though international conferences are often conducted simultaneously in three or four languages,

more often than not scientists and politicians from Russia, Japan, Germany, India, France and some

remote African state will speak English together.

............ However, English is not the language that has always been spoken in the British Isles, nor indeed is

it the only language that is spoken there today. So, where have all the English words come from?

Only very few have survived from the time when Britain was inhabited by the Ancient-Britons, a

Celtic tribe. They were masters of the island from the 6th century B.C. up to 55 B.C. when the island

was invaded by the Romans, who ruled the country for several centuries. During that time Britain,

was a province of the Empire, but very few Latin words from that period have remained: castra (a

camp) appears in Lancaster, Leicester, Gloucester and Worcester; strata (a paved way) in

Stratford, etc. By the fifth century the Roman Empire was falling to pieces, and the occupying

forces had left the country.

...........

English as a separate identifiable language is over 1,200 years old. As it was originally a foreign

laguage, imported by foreign invaders, English, like German, belongs to a group of related

languages which may ultimately be said to have descended from Common Germanic (or proto-

Germanic) as a distinct branch of the Indo-European group of languages. Ethnic and linguistic

differentiation within the Germanic language community sooner or later put an end to the original

unity.

...........

So, it all began with the biggest invasion of all, the invasion of the island of Britain by three

Germanic tribes from northern Europe the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, in the year 499 A.D.

Anno Domini. Although the Island had been inhabited since pre-historic times indeed

Stonehenge was built by ancient Britons some 3,500 years ago the beginning of English datesfrom this invasion, when the pagan adventurers from Denmark and the lowlands of the Continent,

what is now Northern Germany, along the North Sea coast, drove the native Celts and Romans out

of what is now England, into the mountains and protective regions of Wales, and Scotland where

the Celtic languages have survived, as in Brittany (France). The languages that these invaders spoke

were three forms of Germanic; they spoke different dialects of the same language which had many

words in common. It is from these dialects that the modern English has descended.

From the tribe of Angles comes the name Englalond, Land of the Angles, and the name of the

language but it was primarily the dialect of the West Saxons which became the standard speech,

and developed into Old English. The first written records in English date from 700 A.D. and about

this time Britain was invaded yet again by Scandinavian adventurers the Vikings.


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..

Anglo-Saxon, or Old English, as historians of the language prefer to call it, remained thelanguage of English from about A.D. 450 to about A.D. 1150.

The Germanic tribes took over very little from the Celtic or Latin apart from a few place

names. Different though it is from "Old English", modern English contains many wordsfrom it. Indeed, most of the vital every day words are of Germanic origin:

and, bright, come, find, good, hand, in, Tuesday, through, two, under, was, we,

well, when,

all of which remind us of German words which we, too, use every day.

The reason why it is not still the language of England is that there were two more foreign

invasions of the Island by people speaking different tongues - first the Northman or

Vikings from Denmark, and then the Normans from Normandy in France.

Toward the end of the eighth century the Danish Vikings started invading the coast of

England and settled among the natives. This was quite natural since the languagesspoken by the Danes were not unlike the language spoken by the Angles and Saxons, all

these languages being of Germanic origin. However, a very large number of new words

were added:

call, fellow, get, hit, knife, leg, skin, sky, Thursday, happy, wrong, egg, bank.

After some 200 years of fighting with the Anglo-Saxons, the Vikings came to an

agreement with the Saxon King, Alfred the Great, to divide the island the Saxons in the

west the Scandinavians, who were Norse speaking, in the east. England was thereforebi-lingual until the two groups, through intermarriage, became one people. The linguisticblend of Saxon and Norse was also a marriage. In the verb to be, for example, the third

person singular he isis pure Saxon, but the plural, theyarepure Norse. The word wifeisSaxon, but the word husbandcame from the Norse armfrom the Saxon, but legfrom

the Norse. Duruwas the Saxon word for door, but vinduwas the Norse word which gave

us window so from this marriage, we have one language which we call Old English. It

was a very complicated language compared to modern English: it was highly inflected that is, had many different endings for all words as in Latin or modern German and

Russian. It also gave grammatical gender to nouns masculine, feminine and neuter

like modern German and not only did it have singular and plural, but a third form called

the dual form to indicate precisely two no more and no less. For example, in addition to the pronouns I and we in the first

person, Old English had witwhich means the two of us... both of us... you-and mebutnot them.

Many words in Old English are still close enough to modern English for us to understand

them. See if you can guess what these Old English words mean:

Thencan cild wifmann muth nosu god niht

Perhaps you could hear that thencanis the verb to think, cildin modern English is child,

wifmannbecame woman, muth mouth,nosunose,god nihtgood night.


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But most of Old English is unintelligible today without studying it as a separate language.

Anglo-Saxon is now, of course, a dead language, but a good deal of its vocabulary has

survived, in one form or another, to the present day. Most of the very common words inmodern English are Anglo-Saxon in origin: nouns like father, mother, food, drink, bed,

hungermost of the propositions and conjunctions, and nearly all of the strong verbs.

...........................

The next invasion of Britain and incidentally the last foreign invasion of the island in

English history was in the year 1066. This invasion was far-reaching in many ways: theinvading forces were again Scandinavians, but with a difference these Norsemen called

Normans came from the north coast of France and were French speaking. Their leaderWilliam of Normandy, known as the Conqueror, conquered the Anglo-Saxons and had a

claim on the throne of England. As his forces were victorious, William established himself

as king and set about building London's two greatest tourist attractions: The Tower of

London and. Westminster Abbey. Norman French became the language of the court, the

aristocracy of England, and the country once again became bi-lingual. We often sayhistory repeats itself and this is just what happened to the language: in the course of

300 years, Old English absorbed Norman French and emerged as one language, much as

had happened with Saxon and Norse before. Linguistically, the Norman Conquest meant

the domination in England of a non-Germanic language, which over a period of almostthree and a half centuries was to play a significant (although progressively decreasing)role as a means of communication among certain sections of the population. Unlike the

Germanic Conquest of the larger part of Britain in the fifth and following centuries and

the later Scandinavian invasions, the establishment of Norman rule in England did not

lead to large-scale immigration and mass settlements of compatriots of the conquerors.

............................

As a consequence of the Norman Conquest, political and economic power becameconcentrated in the hands of a small group of great feudal landlords, which included the

king himself, the clergy and the vassals of the king (feudal aristocracy).

The Normans were descendants of the "Norsemen" who had come from Scandinavia and

settled in the north of France. They had adopted French as their language. William set up

a kingdom on the island, and for three hundred years all the kings and the nobility spokeNorman-French. Thus two languages were spoken from 1066 till early in the fourteenth

century. The result of this invasion was to modify Old English very considerably, and turn

it, in the course of the next three centuries, gradually into a compound language which is

known asMiddle English.

...........................

Middle Englishis recognizably the ancestor of the English spoken today (which OldEnglish is not), and it was the common language of the inhabitants of England fromabout A.D. 1150 to about A.D. 1500.

When Anglo-Saxon was mixed with Norman French there were three main results: the

grammar was simplified, the pronunciation and spelling became - and still are - much

more complicated, and the vocabulary was enormously extended. French is a Latin

language so the major part of the English vocabulary is now Latin in origin.

That is also one reason why there are so many synonyms. In pairs of words like:


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............................

The English language was destined to become still richer and more hybrid.

The Renaissance in 1500 brought about the rediscovery of the classics, and English was

greatly enriched by a profusion of words directly taken from Latin and ancient Greek.

Words of Greek and Latin origin were adopted in the 14th, 15th and 16th centuries, ithas been said that the greater part of the classical dictionaries was poured into the

English language at this time and even today when a new word is needed to name a new

thing, Latin or Greek words, or syllables may be used: cinema, telephone, bicycle,

television(which is a mixture of Greek tele= from a far and Latin visus= vision), fromLatin, words like accommodate, capable, persecute, investigate and from Greek,

words like apology, climax, physical, emphasisand so on.The flood of words from Latin and Greek did not end with the Renaissance and

whenever we have needed a new word or name, we have tended to look to the classics

to provide it from Greek: aerodrome, telegraphandtelephone; from Latin: escalator,

penicillinand the prefix minifor cars and skirts, for example.

There are words of Italian origin (concerto, pavement, andpotato), Dutch origin (dock,yacht) or words taken from the Indian languages, Turkish, Arabic, Persian, Russian,

Chinese, Portuguese, Spanish and various African languages.

..........................

But back to the 16thcentury now, for what could be one of the greatest influences on the

English language the birth of William Shakespeare in 1564 appropriately enough onthe 23rdof April, the day dedicated to St. George Patron Saint of England. Curiously

enough, Shakespeare also died on the 23rdof April, 52 years later. It will forever be a

mystery how this man, of modest education became the greatest poet of the English

language and the worldsmost produced playwright. It has been said that in the nearly

400 years since his death there has never been a day when one or more of Shakespearesplays has not been played somewhere in the world.But even more important, perhaps, was his contribution to the language. However

poorly educated a native English speaker may be, he cannot help using the words and

phrases created by Shakespeare they are too much a part of English. Shakespeare

gave the language, through his inventive genius, so many words, phrases and

memorable sayings which simply didnt exist before.Today English is the richest language in the world. There are about 800 000 words. But

don't worry: you needn't learn all of them. The average speaking vocabulary of a well-

educated person is 5 000 words. Andif you are able to use 2 000 common English words,you can always make yourself understood and you willget along wonderfully.

..............................................................................................................................

A language never stands still. It is always changing and developing. It is also a veryvariable social phenomenon in the sense that it varies through time. For language tokeep functioning as an efficient instrument of mutual communication among the

members of a continually changing society, it must constitute a system which is non-

static, dynamic, flexible and open in character. It originates and develops in the process

of social interaction between the members of a community. These changes are rapid inprimitive societies, but slow in advanced ones, because the invention of printing and the

spread of education have fixed traditional usage.Adapted from Speak Up, 1987


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ASSIGNMENT 2

After listening/reading comprehension exercise answer thefollowing questions in pairs!

1. Where is English mainly spoken?

2. What was the biggest invasion of Britain?

3. Who were the first foreign invaders?

4. In which parts of Great Britain have the Celtic languages still survived?

5. How is Anglo-Saxon language called by the historians?

6. State why this language is not still the language of England?

7. State some words of Germanic origin.

8. What happened after the conquest by the Northman or Vikings from Denmark?

9. What was the name of the language spoken by the Vikings?

10. What do you know about bilingualism in Great Britain?

11. What happened after Williams conquest?

12. Why it is said that history repeats itself?

13. Why is language important from sociological standpoint?

14.What languages is the present-day vocabulary of English composed of?

15. Give some examples of two words of different origin for the same thing and for thesame concept.

16.When were words of Greek and Latin origin adopted?

17. We are not free to say just what we like. Ordinary everyday conversation is narrowly

determined. It is a sort of roughly prescribed social ritual in which you generally say

what your friends expect you to say.

18. So, the world is indeed a stage and society is the author of the play. The grown man in

a modern society has to play many parts, and unless he knows his roles and his lines he

is no use in the play. If you do not know your part, there are no clues for the other and

no place for his lines either. The play then just falls through.

This is a sort of paraphrasing and analogy of Shakespeares lines from As You Like It, II,

7, 139;

All the worlds a stage,

And all the men and women merely players:

They have their exits and their entrances;

And one man in his time plays many parts.


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LECTURE 2

Section 1CORE TEXTS:

American English

American English versus British English

Section 2Articles (Grammar File I)Plural of Nouns (Grammar File I)

England and America are two countries

separated by one language.

No news is good news.

Bad news travels fast.

Go abroad and you'll hear news from home.

My house is my castle.


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ASSIGNMENT 1

Insert articles where necessary

Auto-corrective testpage 27

Spreading of... English throughout ... World

.. English language was carried around .. globe by . .English merchants and .. explorers; its roots were firmlyfixed in many parts of .. new continents by .. permanentsettling there of .. whole communities of .. people from

.. British Isles who took with them their institutions, theirtraditions and their way of life.Though .. spreading of .. language through other countries

of .. vast British Empire of .. 19th century was of ..completely different nature, linked as it was to ..overwhelming power of .. Britain's economic, political andmilitary strength, its influence and utility have not been refused.On .. contrary, language and .. concepts it conveysform one of .. most important links in .. free association of.. Commonwealth countries... cause for .. English as .. international means of ..

communication seems, nowadays, to have been taken up by ..England's most rebellious off-spring: .. United States. ..US position as one of .. worlds superpowers, its wealth andeconomic power, reaching world-wide through its internationalcompanies, its advanced technology, political and military

power, have given .. English language .. good lead overother national languages which are also competing for .. first

place as .. global tongue of communication.


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CORE TEXT 1

THEAMERICANLANGUAGE

America is a nation of immigrants a melting pot of English, French, German,Italian, Spanish, Scandinavian, African and many other cultures. As the country

absorbed these various peoples and turned them into Americans, most lost their

native language and customs. But no ethnic group left the American language

untouched. American English grew in vitality and variety along with the nation

itself.

The first English settlers to reach America arrived in Virginia in 1607 and in Massachusetts in1620. They all spoke the English of the early seventeenth centurythe language of Shakespeareand Milton. Most of them came originally from the south and south east of England. Althoughsome of them had spent some years of exile in Holland they spoke with the accents of the

southern part of their home country. To a large extent they kept that form of speech, but theysoon learned to give old words new uses. They also took words from the local Indian languagesfor plants and animals that were new to them.Until the Declaration of Independence in 1776 over two thirds of the settlers in what later becamethe U.S. came from England. After that date many other peoples came to make a new life forthemselves in the New World. These included Irish, French, Germans, Dutch. Italians, Slavs, andScandinavians. All these peoples gave new words to the language of North America. The Frenchgave such words as chowder and prairie. Sleigh came from the Dutch settlers. The Afro -Americans who had been taken from Africa as slaves to work on the rice and cotton plantationsadded words and structures from their own native languages. Some people today think that thevery American expression O.K. comes from a similar African expression which was brought toAmerica by the Afro-Americans.

Although all these people contributed in various ways to the language which was to becomeAmerican English, there is one man who can be singled out as the person who did most to giveAmerican English an identity of its own. He was Noah Webster (1758-1843) He worked as ateacher, lawyer, journalist and essayist; he wrote on many subjects, but his two best-known workswere his Blue-Backed Speller (1783)(a book with a blue cover used to teach and improvespelling) and his American Dictionary of the English Language (1828). He is largelyresponsible for the differences which exist today between British and American spelling. So, thefamous shift was when Webster?s Dictionary decided that it was going to give up any idea thatcertain uses of words were better than other uses, and it was simply going to record usage. Thatis, once something is de facto the case, then it becomes de jure the case.

Webster had a practical approach to language and he simplified many of the traditional Englishspellings. For example, he wrote favor, humor,and laborfor the English favour, humour andlabour. Since Webster's time many of his spellings have become acceptable in England, such asauthor, tailorand visitor. Public,jailand ciderin their original English versions were publick,gaol and cyder. But there are other differences apart from vocabulary between American andBritish English. The idioms of American slang are often very different from those we have inBritain. For example, Cool it! ,which is a way of telling someone to calm down.

Also, like the early settlers, Americans today are constantly inventing new words and usages tomeet their needs. They have given us the verb to televisefrom the noun televisionand combinedthe words sportand broadcastto give us sportcast.


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From American English we have all learned that we parkour cars. In fact the wordpark wasused in a slightly different way in Shakespeare's time, but the Americans have revived it andgiven it a new meaning.

In terms of pronunciation, there are three main types in America. These are New England,General American and Southern. General American is by far the most widely used. New Englandis the pronunciation which was used by John F. Kennedy. President Carter, who comes fromGeorgia, speaks with a Southern accent. If you listen to a recording of these two presidents youwill be able to hear the difference quite clearly. Some American pronunciations are related toEnglish ones. Americans say the words dance, fast and grass like people from the North ofEnglandwith a short a.

But in spite of many small variations the three American accents do not differ greatly from oneanother. One reason for this is that an important fact of American life has always been travel.People have moved to wherever work could be found and this has tended to level out differences

in pronunciation. There are more differences in pronunciation between the various areas ofBritain than there are in the whole of North America.

During the twentieth century the differences between American and British English seem to havebeen getting smaller. The reasons for this include the interchange of books and newspapers andthe large numbers of American soldiers who came to Britain in the two World Wars, importingmany American expressions. But more important today are the films, television and radioprogrammes which can bring the latest American slang to Britain instantly.

There are words from many different languages in English: from Latin, French and Danish as aresult of invasions throughout history, from colonized countries like India, but also from Americaand many other countries.

No other language has been so quick or willing to let itself be influenced by other languages. Ifthe English stumble on to a new food or thing or concept, then the word for it is quickly andwholly taken over.

From theItalians, we have piano, opera, soprano, umbrell a, in fl uenza,frescoetc.Two Italian navigators have a special place of honor in the American language. The name ofChristopher Columbus lives on in the District of Columbia, Columbus Day and many othertowns and cities named Columbus. Amerigo Vespucci' the first navigator to recognize America asa new continent, gave us our name from his first name. Later Italian immigrants brought us thenames of familiar foods like pizza, spaghetti, and tutti-fruttiice cream.

From Spain we have cigar , cigarette, cork , cargoand embargo.

Spanish has contributed more words to American English than any other language. The Spaniardshad an early start at it, since they were the first Europeans to explore much of the Americancontinent. They gave the names to many of the natural phenomena they saw such as alligators,buffalo, and the mesa (a high, wide tableland).

In the Southwest, which borders on Mexico, Spanish words are used for food. Later immigrantsto the U.S. from Puerto Rico and Cuba also brought more Spanish words into the language.

FromPortugal, we have our marmalade, verandahetc.

From Mexicocome cocoa, chocolateand tomato.

The words hammock, hurr icaneand maize came to England from the Caribbean.


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Pyjamas, shampoo,bungalow and punchall came from India.

The words caravanand bazaarcame from Persia.

Bambooand gongare Malaysianwords.

Australiaprovided boomerang, kangaroo and cockatoo.

From the Dutch we have yacht, deck, ski pper ,and cru ise, smuggleand sketch.

In the seventeenth century, New York City was known as New Amsterdam. The early Dutchsettlers on the East coast introduced into the language such words as boss, hunky (which hasbecome hunky-dory =fine, satisfactory), and Santa Claus from Sant Klaas , or Saint Nicholas.Because American colonists appreciated Dutch baking, the language picked up words likecookie,from the Dutchword for little cake andwaffle, a crisp pancake baked in a waffle iron.

And we shouldn't forget that large numbers of Germans emigrated to the States during thenineteenth century, bringing with them the food and customs of their homeland.Frankfurters andhamburgers are two of the most popular American foods today. We also love to eat pretzels,pumpern ickel, sauerkr autandother treats purchased at a delicatessen.frankfurtera small sausage also known as a wienerorhot doghamburgera ground beef sandwich, from Hamburg.Also, from the German language come Rucksack, Wanderlust, Weltanschauung,Kindergarten and Schadenfreude.There are still countless words alive from the old language of the British Isles,Celtic: ass, cairn,clan, plaid, flannel, druid, bard, galoreand, of course, whisky.The English language has never stood still. It is still changing: it is shaped by those who speak itall the time.

The Jewish immigrants loaned us schnozzle, bagel and nosh. The Scandinavians brought asmorgasbordof foods and customs with them. Some of the words which survived the suppressionof the native Africanlanguages are gumboand voodoo.

pretzel a brittle, salted cracker in form of a loose knotpumpernickel rye breadsauerkraut sour cabbagedelicatessen a store that sells food delicaciesschnozzle a large nosebagel a hard, chewy breadnosh a snack between mealssmorgasbord a buffet offering a wide variety of foodsgumbo a thick soupvoodoo magic or sorceryDistrict of Columbia the area of land on which the nation's capital, Washington, is situated.

tutti-frutti all fruits

French explorers left an early mark on the American language as well. In Canada and thenorthern part of the U.S., French trappers and fur traders known as voyageurs, orFrench-Canadian boatsmen and fur traders who explored much of the American continent for the firsttime carried their language with their canoes from river to lake and across portages, i.e. landbetween lakes over which boats have to be carried. These same adventurers gave the vastgrassland in the continental interior its name the prairie. Way down in New Orleans, theFrench established their customs and language, e.g.Mardi Gras,Fat Tuesday, or Shrove Tuesdaybefore Lent has become a time when the city erupts into a festival of merrymaking and parades.In the French Quarter of the city, residents-and tourists dine on excellent French cuisine.

Some passages are adapted from the text written by HUGH CORRIGAN in BBC English


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Today, American English has a lot of influence on the development of the English language.Are the American and English varieties of English very different? Are they becoming morewidely separated? The two languages have drifted apart in 200 years, and it is fairly obviousthat they will continue to drift apart. However, many linguist disagree with this statement.Global communication is increasing, they say, and so the different varieties of English willconverge, rather than drift apart. Time will tell. What do you think?

Languages are changing all the time, of course, and the English language is no exception. Somepeople welcome change as healthy; other people regard it as inevitable, but do not welcome it;still other people welcome certain changes but not all; and still other people regard all change asbad. Those of the last type would like to see the language as invariant. But language is notlike that luckily .Constantly, in language, we are provided with a range of constructions and a range of wordswhich will enable us to be friendly at one moment, to be dignified, to be haughty, to be hurtfuleven. A single form of language is not really able to do all those things. This is what humanlanguage is aboutthis adaptability.

Answer the following questions!

Should we try to stop languages changing?

Could we do it, even if we wanted to?

How do you decide what is correct and what is incorrect in a language? Who can or should decide this?

Do you find it easy to understand different varieties of EnglishBritish andAmerican, for example?

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CORE TEXT 2

BRITISH AND AMERICAN ENGLISH

Listening to spoken English, can you tell American from British English?

Do you prefer the sound of British to American English? If so, why? And why not?Jot down American equivalents for the British words in the text!So which is correct - "theater", or "theatre", "center" or "centre", "labor" or "labour" color/colour,

fiber/fibre,neighbor/neighbour,sulfur/sulphur,favorite/favourite?

But this variety is not only confusing for the reader. For a copy editor, the differences between the two

versions of English can be a nightmare. Most people know that the Americans say "sidewalk" for the

British "pavement", or "subway" for "underground"; for example, in the past we've had "bond" (BE bail),

"dumpster" (BE rubbish container, skip) or "realtor" (BE estate agent), all words which are not used in

Britain. Besides, the word enjoin in British English means give an order for, urge, command, and in

American English to prohibit, especially by legal injunction, forbid; when the British sayto table (a

motion) they mean to submit for discussion or consideration, whereas the Americans mean to

postpone indefinitely the discussion or consideration of (a legislative bill, motion, etc).

It can work the other way too - when listening to two English girls discussing a new rucksack one hadbought, an American bystander said: "Pardon me (American for excuse me), what's a rucksack?" She

only knew "backpack".

Often when a letter is doubled in British English, it appears singly in American English, for example:

traveling/travelling, instalment/installment. But just when you think you've understood the trick, they

then double a letter where the British only have one, as in enroll/ enrol. A word like program/me

presents the problem that even the British use the shortened version in the world of computers.

You'll read words like "percent", "defense", "check", "movie" in an article on New York, but "per cent",

"defence" "cheque" and "film" in one from London.

The United States and Britain are two countries divided by a common language. An American colleague

recalls a Canadian friend of his mother who tried to buy diapers in a store during a visit to the United

States. She asked the clerk for "nappies". The clerk gave her napkins. The woman said, no, she wanted"nappies". The clerk kept handing her napkins. They did eventually straighten it out. Lucky for the

woman's baby.

Sometimes we run into trouble when we write our stories. We avoid the word "mad" because it means

"crazy" to a Briton but means "angry" to Americans. When writing about parliaments and their doings

Americans stay away from the verb "table", which means "introduce legislation or submit for discussion

or consideration" to the British colleagues but means "postpone action of a legislative bill" to the

Americans. Similarly, to enjoin in British English means to order someone or impose with authority,

enforce, by legal injunction, whereas in American English it means to prohibit, especially by legal

injunction.

Actually, it's a complete myth that American English is much richer and more varied than British

English. The British absorb all the Americanisms, and then add a medley of regional and slang variations

of their own.

"American English" (AE) and "British English" (BE) means that when I mention a truck, elevator,

streetcar, and apartment for my American clients, I must render that is a lorry, lift, tram and flat for my

British customers. Also to contact in B.E. is to get into touch with somwbody.

Similarly, an American "undershirt" is a British "vest", an American "buddy" is a British "mate". Then

there is the problem of spelling, with Britain's "labour" becoming America's "labor", as just one example.

We have to worry about group nouns, which in AE generally take a singular verb but in BE a plural verb.Thus, in AE "the government has" but in BE, "the government have", although a change may be

forthcoming -I heard a BBC "news reader" (in AE, "news announcer") use the singular the other night.


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2.1 Write American counterparts for the following grammatical structures,words, and spelling:

British English American English

I've lostmy umbrella. Have you seenit?

I've just hadlunch.

She has already left.

She hasn't finishedher work yet.

Have you ever riddena donkey?

I have never seenit before.

British speakers havea bath, a shower, a holiday, a break American speakers

Which film shallwe watch?

We needn'thurry.

She demanded that Ishouldapologise.

They insisted that it should be well organised.

Myfriendwas injured and taken to hospital.I went to prisonto visit him.

She often goes to church.

Dinamo/ the team /like government/ police/ familyare doing well.

Atthe weekend/atweekends

At the front/atthe back

Do you live in this street?

Do youget on well with your new colleague?

My bedroom looks great now that it has been done up.

It hasgot better, it wasburnt, spelt etc.

Please write tome soon.

Please, fill inthis form.

She turned(a)round.

Apologise, organise, specialise

travelling, cancelling

theater, centre, labour

colour, fibre, neighbourgh

sulphur, favourite

pavement, underground

Excuse me, what's a backpack?

installment

enrollto program a computer

per cent, defence, cheque and film

mad

to table

mate

news reader

N. B.

kukuruzni kruh i palenta in B.E. meanmaize-meal bread and maize-meal porridge and in A.E. cornpone and mush or

cornmeal mush.

In American English we say: It is a very good motion (= proposal to be discussed and voted on at a meeting), why doyou want to table it (put itad acta)? However, in British English it means intr oduce legislation.


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2.2 Jot down British equivalents for the following American words:

PLACES

apartmentbaby carriagedoctor's/dentist's officedrugstoreelevatorhall, hallwayhardware storeintersectionmailboxthe movies

one-room apartment, studioorchestra (seat) (in a theater)overpassparkwaypedestrian crossingsidewalkstorestreetcarsubwaytoilet (bathroom)traffic circleyard

USEFUL OBJECTS

absorbent cottonballpointeraserfaucetflashlightgarbage can, trash canloose leaf notebook, binder

packagerubber bandshopping bagslingshotspool of threadstovethreadthumbtackwater heaterwrench

FOOD

can (of solid food)candycookiecrackersdessertFrench friesfruit and vegetable storejello (gelatin dessert)ground beefmolasses syruppotato chipspowdered/confectioner's sugarrare (meat)string beans

PERSONAL ITEMS

bangs (of hair)cuffsdiapernail polish

pantspantyhoseraincoatready to wearrun (in a stocking)suspendersturtleneck (sweater)vestundershirtzippersneakers -

athletic shoes-

PEOPLE

attorney, lawyerfaculty (of university)graduate studentguyjanitorpatrolman (police)cop, policemansalesperson


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ASSIGNMENT 2.3:Fill in the correct British equivalent from the list belowfor each italicized American word. The following description is written inAmerican English.

articulated lorries, bonnet, diversion, petrol, lorry, dual carriage-way, garage,

motorway, overtaking, windscreen, roundabout, traffic light, wing mirror

We took the freeway .. out of New York but soon got onto asmaller divided hi ghway in New Jersey. The traffic was heavy and carsand trailertrucks.. kept passing........... us. Soon, ahead of us, we saw a detour sign just before atraffic circl . It was confusing, so we pulled off the road into a gas station.. . We asked for some gas and directions. The attendantwashed our windshield opened the hoodto check theoil, and gave us directions. He pointed to a stop light . .... . where atruck was turningleft. He said that was the correct route. After carefullywatching the rear view mir ror. we pulled back on the road.

WORD LISTFreeway highway with several lanes

articulated lorries zglobom vezani kamion

trailer truck transport vehicle hauled by a truck

bonnet poklopac auto-motora, hauba

(dual) carriage way BEcesta, trak na kolniku;divided highway

diversion skretanje

traffic diversions when traffic is directed by different routes because of road repairs

motorway autostrada; road built especially for fast traffic, with dual

carriageways and going over or under other roads

roundabout zaobilaznica; traffic circle

detour a way used when the main road is blocked, diversion

traffic light prometno svjetlo, semafor; stop light

ASSIGNMENT 2.4: CAR PARTS.Connect the British word to its American equivalent.

BE AE1. bonnet a. trunk

2. windscreen b. tire

3. tyre c. gear shift

4. boot d. gas tank

5. wing e. license plate

6. accelerator pedal f. hood

7. indicator light g. side-view mirror8. indicator switch h. windshield

9. gear lever i. taillight or rear light

10. wing mirror j. fender

11. registration number k. muffler

12. number plate l. gas pedal

13. petrol tank m. left/right-turn light

14. rear light n. turn signal

15. silencer o. license number

Answers: freeway motorway; divided highway dual carriageway; trailer trucks articulated lorries; passing overtaking;

detour diversion; traffic circle roundabout; gas station garage; gas petrol; windshield windscreen; hood bonnet; stoplight traffic light; truck lorry; rear view mirror wing mirror.


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ASSIGNMENT 3

How was English imported from

Britain into Australia?

Why did the British become interested in Australia?

What port did Sidney develop from?

Who were the first settlers?

What did the Government take care of?

A stream of adventures and rebels from other partsof the world poured into the newly-discovered continent.

Scots, Irish, English and others driven from the land bythe industrial revolution, which created an army of the

poor, left Europe for Australia with its seemingly*endless, empty expanses*.

The loss of their American colonies made Britishtake a more serious interest in Australia, but at first,

because of its great distance, it did not seem a veryattractive economic proposition*. This distance was anadvantage, though, for other purposes.

In may 1787, a fleet of eleven vessels under thecommand of Captain Arthur Phillip set sail from Englandwith 1 500 people on board, more than half of themfelons. After an arduous voyage lasting eight months, theships put in at Botany bay, where the passangersdisembarked. A few days later they were transported to

port Jackson, which was to grow into the largestAustralian city, SIDNEY. Captain Arthur Phillip wasnamed first governor of New South Wales, a new British

colony. The British government could now breathe a sighof relief, for it had found a solution for the overcrowdingin prisnons by transporting convicts to Australia. It seems,though, that care was always taken to include a certain

proportion of honest folk, ordinary immigrants, in theconvoys.

*seemingly apparently*expanse wide and open area*proposition matter to be dealt with*felon person guilty of felony, major serious crime, e.g.

murder, armed robbery, arson


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AUTOCORRECTION

The Spreading of English throughout the World

The English language was carried around the globeby English merchants and explorers; its roots were firmly fixed in many parts ofthe new continents by the permanent settling there of whole communities of

people from the British Isles who took with them their institutions, theirtraditions and their way of life.

Though the spreading of the language through other countries of the vast

British Empire of the 19th century was of a completely different nature, linkedas it was to the overwhelming power of Britain's economic, political and militarystrength, its influence and utility have not been refused. On the contrary, thelanguage and the concepts it conveys form one of the most important links in thefree association of the Commonwealth countries.

The cause for English as an international means of communicationseems, nowadays, to have been taken up by England's most rebellious off-spring:the United States. The US position as one of the worlds superpowers, its wealthand economic power, reaching world-wide through its international companies,its advanced technology, political and military power, have given the Englishlanguage a good lead over other national languages which are also competing forfirst place as a global tongue of communication.

FORUM QUESTIONS

Which variety of English should a foreign student choose

to learn, British English or American English?The separate and divergent growth of the American and Britishpeoples have brought about differencesmainlyof a lexical characterbut which have also affected thegrammatical structure, pronunciation and accents.


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LECTURE 3

Section 1OATH OF THE ENGINEER

Section 2ENGINEERING ETHICS AND

TECHNICAL FAILURES

ALGORITHM FOR EFFICIENT READING

1st reading vert ical for global information.

2nd

reading pay attention to transparent words and make

predictions about the topic.

3rd

reading analytic and linear for detailed information

The dress is not the man.

Honesty is the best policy.

Ignorance of the law is no excuse forbreaking it.

Empty sacks will never stand upright.


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CORE TEXT 1

OATH/FAITH OF THE ENGINEER

I am an Engineer. In my profession I take deep pride, but without vainglory; to it Iowe solemn obligations that I am eager to fulfil.

As an Engineer, I will participate in none but honest enterprise. To him that has

engaged my services, as employer or client; I will give the utmost of performance and

fidelity.

When needed, my skill and knowledge shall be given without reservation for the

public good. From special capacity springs the obligation to use it well in the service

of humanity: and I accept the challenge that this implies.

Jealous of the high repute of my calling, I will strive to protect the interests and the

good name of any engineer that I know to be deserving; but I will not shrink, should

duty dictate, from disclosing the truth regarding anyone that, by unscrupulous act,

has shown himself unworthy of the profession.

Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the genius

of my professional forebears. By them have been rendered usable to mankind

Nature's vast resources of material and energy. By them have been vitalized and

turned to practical account the principles of science and the revelations

of technology. Except for this heritage of accumulated experience, my efforts would

be feeble. I dedicate myself to the dissemination of engineering knowledge, and.especially, to the instruction of younger members of my profession in all its arts and

traditions.

To my fellows I pledge, in the same full measure I ask of them, integrity

and fair dealing, tolerance and respect, and devotion to the standards and

the dignity of our profession; with the consciousness, always, that our special

expertness carries with it the obligation to serve humanity with complete sincerity.

Note: The "Faith of the Engineer" was presented to the Eleventh Annual Meeting of Engineers Council forProfessional Development by the Committee on Principles of Engineering Ethics and received unanimous

approval.N.B. Hippocratic Oathis the oath generally taken by students receiving a medical degree: it is attributed toHippocrates and sets forth an ethical code for the medical profession.

DICTATION

Engineers should now strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development and be

morally obliged to provide and maintain healthy environment for future generations. Also,

adverse consequences of technology can nowadays be regarded as ethically unacceptable

because technology is nothing more than an area of interaction between ourselves as individuals

and our environment. Thus, engineers need to be aware as to how their work will affect societyin the future.


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Assignment 1.1

Translate and discuss this oath.

Study this WORDLIST

canon general standard or principle by which somethingjudged; the canons of conduct(norma, mjerila)

ethics science of moralsuphold, upheld, upheld support or approveimpartial fair in giving judgments not favoring one more

than another(nepristran)strive, strove, striven strugglevainglory extreme vanity or pride in oneself; excessive

elation or pride over ones own achievementsand

abilities; boastful vanity, empty pomp or show;(pobjedonosnost, tatina, hvalisavost)

jealous of taking watchful care; solicitous or vigilant inmaintaining or guarding something;

vigilant keenly watchful to detect danger, awake and alertsolicitous carefulforebear ancestor, forefather (predak)revelation revealing, making known of something secret or

hiddenfeeble weak, without energydisseminate distribute or spread widely ideas, doctrines

pledge promisesolemn (uzvien, svean)obligation moral responsibilityenterprise a business firmspring, sprang, sprung to make known or cause to appear suddenly,

unexpectedlyshrink, shrank, shrunk to draw back, withdraw, to move back and awaycommitment a pledge or promise to do something

Assignment 1.2 Justify the use of the PASSIVE in the followingparagraphand turn the sentences into the ACTIVE:

Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the genius of myprofessional forebears. By them have been rendered usable to mankind Nature's vastresources of material and energy. By them have been vitalized and turned to practicalaccount the principles of science and the revelations of technology.

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To him that has engaged my services, as employer or client, I will give the utmost ofperformance and fidelity.

. .

Many engineers face, however, the dilemma of loyalty to their company and employer versus

their responsibility to society as a whole.

When needed, my ski ll and knowledge shall be given wi thout reservation f or the publ ic good.

...

The welfare of the public i.e. the public good(ope dobro) should be held paramount by the

engineers. What is implied by the publicgood? The semantic meaning of the public good

implies an ethical notion of the good and welfare in political decision -making and thismeaning should not be confused with the economic concept of public goods (javna dobra)although these two concepts are very similar. The public good encompasses public health and

welfare programs, education, research and development, national and domestic security,

roads, and a clean environment.

One example of an irrational approach to the public good and irrational development ofpublic

goods(pay attention to various meanings of these two phrases) is the Three Gorges Dam inChina, which spansthe Yangtze River. With the reservoir over 600 km long, it is known as thelargest hydroelectric river dam and the largest hydro-electric power station in the world.

Although there are economic benefits of flood control and hydroelectric power, a lot of ethical

issues have been raised, because the impact of the dam on the environment is irreversible; the

region's wildlife, water quality, local residents valuable archeological and cultural sites, as wellas ecological damage like landslides, soil erosion, water pollution, conflicts caused by land andwater shortage have all been affected.

We wonder if our environment can be sacrificed in exchange for temporary economic

prosperity. Anyway, should this oath of the engineer be modified to include a reference to theenvironment?As an example, we can mention the American Society of Civil Engineering (ASCE) Code, which

states that engineers should be committed to improving the environment to enhance the

quality of life and that engineers shall hold paramount the safety, health and welfare of the

public and shall strive to comply with the principles of sustainable development in the

performance of their professional duties. The IEEE code of Ethics, (The IEEE Institute ofElectrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc.) the world's leading professional association for theadvancement of technology, states that the members of the IEEE commit themselves to the

highest ethical and professional conduct and agreeto accept responsibility in making decisions

consistent with the safety, health and welfare of the public, and to disclose promptly factors thatmight endanger the public or the environment; it was approvedby the IEEE Board of Directors

in 2006.

So, the word environment is explicitly mentioned. The oath of the engineer has a shortlinguistic form and, therefore, requires effective semantic and clear communication that

should not result in lack of communication or under-estimation of the canons of ethics. When

a new technology is introduced, its potential unintended consequences are unknown until

decades later.


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That is why we have to improve the understanding of new technology, technical competence,and its appropriate application.

When implementing new technologies, engineers must consider physical and environmentalsafety. In this context, we have to keep in mind that Man and the environment significantly

influence one another. Everything is closely intertwined and the earths interconnectedecosystems are under extreme pressure. That is why the responsibility of the engineering

profession is to sustain the balance in nature. Life and the environment evolve together as asingle system so that not only does the species that leaves the most progeny tend to inherit

the environment but also the environment that favors the most progeny is itself sustained.

[7] James Lovelock formulated the Gaia Hypothesis, which provides an interesting idea of the

interaction of physical, chemical, geological and biological processes on Earth.

From special capacity springs the obligation to use it well in the servi ce of humani ty: and I

accept the challenge that th is impl ies.

The challenge mentioned in the faith or faith is nothing more than a compromise betweenless health, safety and welfare and more health, safety and welfare for the money spent.

But how to make a compromise between progress and ecology, between reliability and

ecology, between technically practical, viable, safe and economic requirements, betweenmoral responsibility to people and the whole environment and obligations to future

generations.

However, we have challenged nature so far. Therefore, we could now supplement this code

with the word Natureand say that we shall use our knowledge in the service of humanity and

Nature:Since there is a universal conception of nature, and since the universe is presumed to have a

nature, [8] the word nature conveys a lot of meanings which are related just as Nature in itstotality conveys relatedness. This is the most comprehensive word which can be applicable

always and everywhere.

Jealous of the high repute of my call ing, I wil l stri ve to protect the interests and the good

name of any engineer that I know to be deserving; but I wil l not shrink, should duty dictate,

fr om disclosing the truth regarding anyone that, by unscrupulous act, has shown h imself

unwor thy of the profession.

..

Ethical standards are embodied in the oath of the engineer and it is implied that if onesmanager, employer or superior do not act to undo, curb or mitigate dangers of serious

personal or social damage, it is necessary to offer honest criticism or even blow the whistle,

so as to reduce the risk, to acknowledge and correct errors, violations or negative

consequences as much as possible. The ethical inner judgment should be the final decisive

guide in deciding whether or not to blow a whistle. Being a matter of integrity and honesty,ethical principals should always take greater priority.


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Engineering professionals must minimize malfunctions, any serious harm to others, anyenvironmental impact and if necessary, advice should be sought from other engineering

professions. To avoid causing harm to society, engineering professionals have enormousresponsibility to define appropriate and inappropriate use of engineering resources, systems

and technology.

Since the Age of Stone, human progress has been conditioned by the genius of myprofessional forebears. By them have been rendered usable to mankind Nature's vast

resources of material and energy. By them have been vitalized and turned to practical

account the pri nciples of science and the revelati ons of technology.Except for thi s her itage of accumulated experience, my effor ts would be feeble.

Does human progress represent conflicts of values? Technology was seen by our ancestors as

a force for controlling a hostile nature and not as a threat or harm that could be inflicted upon

nature. The oath focuses on our professional forefathers i.e. on the past. However, engineers

have obligations to future generations who could be harmed by irresponsible engineeringactivities. It may take decades and generations for products and facilities to have adverseeffects; e.g. according to United Nations Environment Programme, (Ozone Secretariat) air

pollution and global warming are instances where the damage done today is so irreparable

that even if we begin to reduce the emission of greenhouse gases and ozone layer depletion

now, the effects will be felt over the next 300 years. Definitely, human-induced climate

change has ethical dimensions.

I dedicate myself to the dissemination of engineering knowledge, and especial ly, to the

instruction of younger members of my profession i n al l i ts arts and traditi ons.

Engineering professionals have a responsibility to share technical knowledge and professionaldevelopment, not only with younger members, colleagues and co-workers but also with the

public.To my fell ows I pledge, in the same fu ll measure I ask of them, integri ty and fair dealing,

tolerance and respect, and devotion to the standards and the digni ty of our prof ession; with

the consciousness, always, that our special expertness carr ies with it the obligation to serve

humani ty with complete sincer ity.

.

Professional competence, personal accountability for professional work, confidentiality of

information, honesty, integrity and fair dealing and the contributions of others must behonored, properly credited and obligated not only by the oath of the engineer but also by

contract or by law. Bribery must be rejected and malicious action such as injuring othersavoided. All persons will be treated equally without regard to age, gender, race, religion,


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disability, or national origin. Immoral and unethical rules and laws must be challenged by allengineers.

In conclusionwe can say that the existing oaths wording is inadequate in addressing many

engineers as guardians of the environment for future generations. The political expressionpublic good and the expression humanity neither place the ecological consciousness of the

engineers in the first place nor address the problem of maintaining environmental qualityproperly.

Consequently, professional normative standards are not abstract moral philosophies. An oath

of the type that is discussed in this article, determines the ethical foundation of a profession,

in terms of the actual content or meaning of the words that are uttered. In this case, one can

see that it gives engineers an ethical grounding which they can rely upon, or refer to, in terms

of ethical decision making whilst carrying out their professional career.Taken fromEngineering Review

Some additional information can be found on:

http://www.ieee.org/about/ethics/index.html http://www.ieee.org/about/corporate/governance/p7-8.html

1.4 Discuss the following questions:

1. What is the Faith of the Engineer?What does this oath determine?

2. The principle line of argument we offer is that the oath's wording does not pay

enough attention to the environment. Where are these gray areasof this oath?

3. Should the oath treat the ethical duty that engineers have towards the environment?

4. Is the code deficient in terms of the attention it pays to the environment?

How could you substantiate your argument?

5. Can the wording public goodbe misinterpeted?

6. Consider the complexity of the tripartite relation between society, the

environment and the engineer, which can provide fuel for further discussion.

7. Do engineers need to be aware as to how their work will affect society in the future?

Consider the following arguments below and discuss!

When we take into consideration that engineers are often unable to predict with certainty

as to how their projects will affect the environment in the long term, one becomes aware of

how balancing the needs between society and the environment is an extremly tricky one.

We are therefore compelled into thinking more about how engineers have to find the

difficult balance between attending to the needs of present society and the needs of society

in the future. This raises a number of moral/ethical questions about whose interests

engineers should primarily serve (present society or future generation).
http://www.ieee.org/about/ethics/index.htmlhttp://www.ieee.org/about/ethics/index.htmlhttp://www.ieee.org/about/corporate/governance/p7-8.htmlhttp://www.ieee.org/about/corporate/governance/p7-8.htmlhttp://www.ieee.org/about/corporate/governance/p7-8.htmlhttp://www.ieee.org/about/ethics/index.html


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1. Is the wording of this oath a thought-provoking because of our wider concern about

the place of ethics in the engineering profession?

2. What would you say about the actual practice of taking an oath?

3. Does an oath of the type presented in this article determine the ethical foundation

of a profession, in terms of the actual content or meaning of the words that are

uttered?

4. Does it give an ethical grounding which engineers can rely upon, or refer to, in

terms of ethical decission making whilst carrying out their profession?

It also highlights to those taking the oath that they have an ethical responsibility in

their professional career.

5. Would you feel more like engineers or would you feel the same if you were requiredto take the oath? Compare it with other professions (such as medicine).

6. How far are competing institutions and countries really committed to the ideals of

ethical recruitment? In the increasing competition, the pressure is on almost every

one and in almost every field to sell (knowledge, products etc.). There could be a

risk of students and people being misled.

1.5 Discuss the questions below and think about your ownconclusions concerning the text Faith of the Eng ineer.Jot them down.

1. Is engineering ethics important for society as a whole?

2. How could engineers responsibility for safe design be nurtured?

3. How could we manage risk better?

4. Can we protect ourselves from unscrupulous competitors by setting high product

standards?

5. Are engineers morally required to act on the basis of professional codes and canons?

6. Are they required to assume ethical responsibility for their activity?

7. Do you agree that the best basis for ethical responsibility is regulation and law?

8. Do you think that the oath of the engineer is unnecessary because engineers, in

general, have an inner moral duty and conscience not to deceive?

9. If a product or structure is an enormous hazard, do we have a duty through our

individual consciousness to make the problem public or do we have to protect our

organization or company?


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10.Should the Oath of the Engineer also embody the ethical commitments of

engineering professionals and reflect moral values and principles which are to be put

into practice.

11.Do you agree with the statement that the oath tells us what engineers stand for when

conducting businessand that it enhances the sense of communi ty among members, ofbelonging to a group with common values and a common mission? [3]

12.Do you also agree with the fact that the oath of the engineer deserves our special

attention because there are increasingly important new issues in engineering

professions lately?

13.Do you agree with the following statements?

In answers to the question why engineering schools and organizations in Croatia

should draw up the oath of the engineer and codes of the engineer, we can say:

to show moral maturity and responsibilities;

to promote high standards of engineering practice and sustainable

development;

to show that the profession's ethical standards conform to common

regulations and law;

to show that the professions ethical standards can even transcend

commonly accepted morality because ethical issues in new technologies

must be resolved.

1.6 WRITE A SHORT CONCLUSION PARAGRAPHProbably the shortest paragraph of an essay, the conclusion should be brief and tothe point. It's worth pointing out that a good writer avoids a blatant repetition of

the thesis statement. Repeating the thesis, word for word, in the conclusion seemslazy and is not very interesting. The conclusion should provide a restatement of thethesis, and perhaps a solution to the problem. It is best to restate the ideas usingdifferent language, perhaps even to create a sort of dramatic effect that comes

from repetition.

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Documents

An English Reader for Academic Purposes