Africa (7)MTRA. MARCELA ALVAREZ PÉREZ

First and Second World Wars

• FWW: few war actions inside Africa• German territories occupied by the Allies• France: Senegalese Gunmen• Southafrican Union: allied to GB after some problems

– General de Wet, extremist nationalist tries to keep SU neutral gathers thousands of afrikaaners to ally themselves with Germany

• June 28 1919, Treaty of Versailles: German colonies assigned to other countries– GB: extends from Cape Town to Cairo; FR gets Togo

and most of Cameroon; Belgium gets Ruanda and Urundi; Portugal gets territory of Kionga

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• Innovation: not just anexation or transfer of colonial power– League of Nations Mandate: territories that being

“inhabited by peoples that are not yet capable of directing themselves in the particularly hard conditions of the modern world” must be taken care of by the europeans

– Responsibility to develop the african peoples for their own interest

– Accountability report the conditions in which the mandate was realized and the efficiency of the mandate would be determinded by the degree of advancement of the peoples• Objective: autonomy and then independence• Political, moral and educative duty of the

Europeans3

• Importance of this concept: europeans recognize that the relationship colonizator-colonized has no end in itself nor is it an ideal, it is a preparation for the future– “School of liberty and independence”

• Aplication: the Europan powers just asume the obligation to make a report, but the LoN has no way to supervise– Porhibition to give privileges or monopolies to private

companies– No rules about the proces of emancipation, plans or

dates– No ideas about the representation of the Africans in

these governments• GB: integrates their territories; FR: administers the

mandates as separate entities

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• FR- Eforts to present a positive result to the LoN– Vaccination and sanitary measures; continue

education but now in french; finish infrastructure projects

• Italy- ends conquest of Libia and starts colonization of the territory

• Attempts to conquest Ethiopia:– War actions in october 1935: Emperor Haile Selassie I

asks for LoN intervention– “sanctions” inefficient embargo– 1936: Anexation of Ethiopia investment for

moderniztion in the following 5 years– WWII: Italy forced out and Haile Selassie returns to

the throne in 1941

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Interwar Period• South Africa

– New white civilization constituted: combination of Afrikaner and British traditions

• Tutors of less developed civilizations• Each race would preserve their own

characteristics/qualities without mixing with the others. – Nationalist-extremist party: stop contamination of the

Afrikaners with British spirit of liberalism and tolerance– 1924: Hertzog wins the elections with help of Labor Party

seeking to protect the white poor from the black worker– G.D.1929: gold mines affected new extremist “purified”

nationalist party created by the doper• Extremist groups: organisms of direct action inspired by

Germany’s racist national socialism– They would not support Germany in the war for fear of

loosing land.

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• Economy, Society, Culture

– In general: no rebelions or other movements no european troops during the wars

– Not a lot of violence

– Relationships between colonizers and colonized generally characterized by loyalty and trust, although with some dificulties

• Colonial period: continued development in general, directed towards peace and security, economic and demographic progress, better living standars and progressive culturization and emancipaticon.

• French system: military interest capacity to movilize human resources in case of war

– Senegalese Riflemen: hundreds of dhousands of Africans sent to Europe and North Africa return as french ex-military, with prestige

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• South Africa: mining modifies African economies and social structures

– After 1935 over 2/3 of investment in sub-Saharan Africa

• Social consequences:

– Introduction to a monetary economy subsistence economies

– Salaries manufactured products consumption

– Workers living near mining centers

• Congo: miners and families in urban centers

• South Africa: white bosses and technicians prevent the creation of an African professional miners class: non-specialized labor, temporary, yearly contracts

– Lower salaries/worse labor conditions

– More contact with their tribe knowledge of urban civilization

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• European development of agriculture: Cash Crops

• Industrial production and consumption

– Peanut, cocoa, coffee, palm oil, tea, tobacco, cotton, rice, rubber

• Sanitary efforts (mainly FR and GB):

– Study tropical sicknesses and establish cures

– Vaccination programs elimination of epidemics

– Hospitals

• Education

– Different objectives: GB create African universities to adapt education levels to the African means; FR teach the Africans French culture, universities in France

• French education due to African exigencies

• Effort to educate African teachers to reach rural areas most turned into politicians and government officials

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– Belgian Congo: elementary and technical education practical reasons consequence and justification of paternalism

– Many African institutions created; many African professors

– South African Republic: segregation• Most of the African leaders of the emancipation period went

to European schools– New African elite that could pressure the colonial

administrations from within the system.– Individuals and organizations that pressured the

Europeans for a better/larger inclusion of Africans in the administration and culture

– Better positions for themselves some criticized for looking to use European ideologies instead of ending colonialism 10

• World War Two: new changes– War production: high demand for materials and food– More infrastructure developed to facilitate extraction

and transport– Hundreds of thousands of African troops: combats in

Africa, Europe and Asia new generation of Africans with a larger perspective and world knowledge

• Demobilized troops important political force– Anti-fascist and pro-democratic propaganda reaches

Africa

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Emancipation: British Territories• Indirect administration: cheap and effective

– Counsel tribal chiefs to obtain a commercial profit• “school for democracy”:

– Learn about freedom from below administrative action political level

• Theoretical stages for emancipation:

Local government Self government dominion– Assemblies with limited powers tutorship with

responsibilities that would diminish– Members: designated progressive election

(restricted suffrage and then universal election)

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• Dominion(Statute of1926): equal communities, autonomous, not subordinated to each other, united by fidelity to the crown–  Statute of Westminster 1931

• Commonwealth: British Family– obligations

• Contradictions of the emancipation system:– To whom deliver the power of determination?– Autonomy possibility of reduction of individual

freedoms for some• Contradictions for the new powers:

– Main objective: freedom or prosperity?– Anarchy vs. Authoritarianism

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• Independence of Ghana: precipitates independence movements in the rest of Black Africa– Conference of Accra 1958 leadership of federation

of African nations– African solidarity proved, but also African differences– Use of force vs. Pacific independences

• Most leaders against clashes: not necessary due to liberal attitude of the colonizers

• Value of independence: national unity could only be achieved through bloody conflict

– Not all willing to accept Ghana’s leadership

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• Mostly without violence Algeria the exception– Africa was not good for white colonization or an important

income producer• Fast and peaceful evolution in part as a product of World War

Two– France divided between the Vichy government and the

Free France– Most African colonies loyal to Vichy– Charles De Gaulle: worried about French colonies in

Africa tries to unify them• Chad in favor, other territories unclear; Cameroon

worried about possible return of German settlers; military expeditions to Gabon

– Operations center established between Chad and Libya advancement to the Mediterranean

• Nov 1942: U.S: troops land in French North Africa– The rest of French Africa turns loyal to the Free France

and unity is restored by the end of 1943

Emancipation: French Territories

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• De Gaulle builds a provisional government in Algiers: National Freedom Committee– Reforms when France was liberated– Necessary to reconsider the statute of the territories

abroad and its inhabitants’ rights resources and men from the empire

• Reunion of governors and other personalities in Brazzaville Conference, 1944– Objective: determine the basics to create a French

community– Replace the colonial system

• Objective: modernize Africa and its peoples– Due to French liberalism– They had helped with the liberation of France– Renovation will inside and outside

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• Administrative, social, cultural and economic issues– Political issues not discussed autonomy not in

question, complete French sovereignty

French Union• New Constituent Assembly 1945

– 522 members: 63 from abroad—9 Africans• 2 main problems:

– How to represent the overseas populations in the Assembly?

• Procedure and proportion– Territorial assemblies overseas

• What powers should they have?• First constitution project rejected

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• IV French Republic founded on October 13– French Union principle:  France,

French overseas départements, territories, settlements, United Nations trusteeships, French colonies to become overseas départements and associate states (protectorates) which became autonomous proclaimed as one and indivisible

– National Assembly, Council of the Republic (senate), local assemblies

– Assembly of the French Union: no legislative function, just council and propositions half from France and half from overseas

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• Art. 80: all nationals from France and the former subjects would become citizens of the French Union

– Conduct the peoples under their charge to a freedom of administration, eliminate colonization system, guarantee access to rights and freedoms proclaimed in the constitution

• Problem: Frenchmen minority resources would be on the hands of the representatives of the “less evolved” peoples.

• Minister of Colonies becomes the Ministry of Overseas France

– Same hierarchy: Governor general, governors, commanders all white

– Same colonial administrative functions: infrastructure, food, justice administration, taxes, public order

• More investment than other countries insufficient

– Urbanization, appearance of new social classes: workers, middle class, politicians

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• Elections: lessons for the electorate and the candidates number of representatives rises little by little– Senators, members of the Assembly of the FU and

territorial Assemblies– Permanent Ministers of African origin in France since

1946• Political life and birth of parties first developed in

West Africa• September 1946: political congress

• African Democratic Reunion party created Sudan, Niger and Guinea

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• 1953: Movement of Overseas Independents development of a federal conception of the FU– France seeking to adhere to the Europe Six its allies

would not accept to share the burden of the FU– Gold Coast: Nkrumah becomes Prime Minister and Ghana

is heading towards independence chain reaction– Afro-Asian Conference of Bandung 1955 solidarity and

aspiration towards independence– 1954 rebels rise in Algeria

• 23 of june 1956: Loi-Cadre reform to guarantee the evolution of overseas territories– Universal vote, more power to territorial assemblies,

prepares the road for territorial government– Autonomy not considered yet, but descentralization allows

local authorities to have more power and responsibilities• France promotes “africanization of the administration”

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• May 13 1958: Gral. De Gaulle rises to power with a new Constitution for the Fifth French Republic

– French Community: France will continue with financial efforts to aid members of the community but recognizes its existence as autonomous states

– Referendum: those that vote against it will be excluded completely, those that vote yes have the option to abandon it and gain independence as they will

• Guinea: only one to vote against due to a misunderstanding between De Gaulle and Sekú Ture France delays recognition while Guinea asks for aid elsewhere

– “positive neutralism” avoid commitments for the future

– Democratic centralism one party system to encourage the masses and maximize resources

– Contagious example for the rest of French Africa

• Between november 24 and December 4 1958 the territories choose their status in the French Comunity

– Options after the referendum: 1. Preserve the status of overseas territory2. Become a member state of the French Community3. Become an overseas department

• The overseas territory of the Comoro Islands kept its status

• Chad, Dahomey, French Sudan, Ivory Coast, Madagascar, Mauritania, Middle Congo, Niger, Senegal, Ubangi-Shari, and Upper Volta chose to become member states of the French Community

• They proclaim themselves to be republics (some change their name) and gain access to the United Nations sponsored by France

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• Attempts to group with each other:  – Senegal and F. Sudan: Federation of Mali 1959—

independence in 1960– Ivory Coast, Higher Volta, Niger and Dahomey:

Conseil de l'Entente—independences in 1960• Mali triggers the French race for independence

– June 4 1960 reform to the Constitution to allow member states to become fully independent and be (or not) members of the Community

• UN: 27 African countries – 23 European

• 1961, only the Central African Republic, Chad, Congo, Gabon, Madagascar and Senegal still belonged to the Community

• No formal withdrawal French Community existing only in paper until 1995 that the articles in the Constitution were abrogated