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A Student’s Companion toA Student’s Companion toA Student’s Companion to BeowulfBeowulfBeowulf

by Robert W. Watsonby Robert W. Watsonby Robert W. Watson

Beowulf / 1

Introduction to Beowulf

I N his Germania, the Roman historian, Tacitus, offers the earliest look at the German tribes, who eventually migrated to England. According to Tacitus, flocks and herds of animals were the Germans’ only wealth. Nevertheless, the Roman legions feared the

German warrior, who was fierce and determined, often rushing into the Roman lines as he uttered fearful cries and songs of battle. Also, according to Tacitus, “the matrimonial bond is strict and severe,” “they live fenced about with chastity.” The women in this society were respected. Indeed, Tacitus notes that the Germans believed sanctity and deference were inherent to the fairer sex. However, to really understand the mind and heart of the early German warrior, we need to look at the poem, Beowulf, where we find all the elements that Tacitus stated in Germania. There is blood and slaughter, loyalty to one’s lord, and honored women.

This poem is the oldest in the English language, and it is set in the sixth century. King Hygalac is a historical figure who was killed in 521. The best anyone can guess is that the poem was written in the eighth century. The poem survives in only one manuscript and was discovered in the sixteenth century. Today, the manuscript is located in the British Museum. Beowulf (which means bear) stands all alone in an era of darkness. Since only monks had the ability to read and write, more than likely the poem was created by the hand of a clergyman.

The reader of Beowulf will become conscious of the violence in the story. It is a story of blood and battle, clashing warriors and conquered monsters. It is a strange story that is silent about plowed fields or about harvests. The land is wild, marshy, and misty. But not only is the land wild, the sea is in a constant commotion, testing the nerve and strength of the men who sailed the ships to other lands. Thus, it is fitting that in such a wild environment, the people themselves reflect the wildness. Life is hard, and the warriors participate in a world that is cheerless and hopeless. However, much of the coarseness is alleviated somewhat by the Christian influence in the poem. The debate continues today whether the “original” Beowulf was corrupted by the addition of the Christian elements. Many scholars point out that the poem does not mention the name of Jesus Christ or any other uniquely Christian jargon. However, the argument can be made that the Anglo-Saxon gods are not mentioned either. On the other hand, this is not compelling, because we have examples in our Bible where God is not even mentioned also, namely the book of Esther and the Song of Solomon. This study will assume that the Christian elements are original to the poem, and that the poem is an allegory with rich symbolism. There does seem to be a mixture of the pagan with Christianity in the poem. Yet, these elements are so nicely interwoven into the story that it would be difficult to eliminate the Christianity without doing violence to the text.

Like most early poetry, the reader ought to consider the work as a drama, a piece that is acted out by a storyteller. Thus, it will be odd at first to appreciate the constant use of synonyms. Beowulf may be called the “slayer of Grendel,” the “noble Geat,” or the “son of Ecgtheow.” Also, the history is merely a backdrop, and the primary emphasis is centered on the legend. However, do not view Beowulf as merely a fairy tale. The lessons to be learned from the poem are much more than presenting shallow morals, but rather are about life at its basic foundation. ROBERT W. WATSON

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Characters Beowulf—A Geat, and the hero of the poem, son of Ecgtheow, nephew of Hygelac, later, king

of the Geats Beowulf the Dane—Not the hero of the poem, who is a Danish king, son of Scyld Breca—Engages in a swimming contest with Beowulf when they were younger, King of the

Brondings Ecglaf—Unferth’s father, a ,Dane Ecgtheow—Beowulf’s father, married to King Hrethel’s only daughter; he slays a man and

escapes to Denmark Grendel—The monster who threatens Hrothgar’s kingdom Grendel’s mother—Grendel’s hag-like mother, who dwells at the bottom of a mere (a large

swampy pond) in a cave Healfdene—Danish king; son of Beowulf the Dane; father of Hrothgar, Heorogar, and Halga Heardred—Geatish king, Hygelac’s son, who Beowulf counsels him; slain by Swedish king

Onela; avenged by Beowulf who, with Eadgils, kills Onela Hengest—Hnaef’s brother; he leads the Danes after Hnaef is slain Hnaef—King of the Danes, brother of Hengest and Hildeburh, slain by Finn’s men, given

Germanic funeral Hrethel—Geatish king, Hygelac’s father; grandfather of Beowulf; dies of grief after Haethcyn

accidentally kills his own brother, Herebeald Hrethric—Hrothgar’s son, elder brother to Hrothmund, killed when Hrothulf usurps the Danish

throne after Hrothgar’s death Hrothgar—King of the Danes, son of Healfdene and brother of Heorogar; he wishes to make

peace with the Heathobards Hrothmund—Hrothgar’s son, brother to Hrethric Hrothulf—Hrothgar’s nephew, son of Halga Hygd—Hygelac’s queen, mother of Heardred; Beowulf gives her the necklace which

Wealhtheow gave him Hygelac—Geatish king and uncle to Beowulf; historical character verified by other evidence Scyld Sceafing—Founder of Hrothgar’s mighty Danish royal house; son of Sceaf Unferth—Son of Ecglaf, slew his brother; taunts Beowulf early in the poem, but later he lends

his sword, Hrunting, to Beowulf just before Beowulf’s battle with Grendel’s mother Wealhtheow—Hrothgar’s queen, mother of Hrethric and Hrothmund

Beowulf / 3

Beowulf Lesson One

1.1 Vocabulary

moor n. requite v. thane n. henchman n. 1.2 Vocabulary Exercise

1. The Kerns were _______________ many times over for their generosity to their neighbors when the Smiths moved to the neighborhood.

2. William Wallace kept his army in the ____________, because the soft, soggy land was not amenable to the English heavy horsemen.

3. Sir Marvin received many tokens of appreciation from his lord, because the _________________ fulfilled his position as second in command admirably.

4. After the day of sports, the rival _______________ held a banquet that was attended by many of their retainers and men-at-arms.

1.3 Reading Assignment: Beowulf, Episodes I–VIII 1.4 Recall Questions

1. How does Scyld Scefing become the king of the Danes?

2. The text refers to a “whale-road.” What does this expression mean?

3. What was the name of the meeting place that Hrothgar had built?

4. What is the name of the “grim spirit” who lived in the marsh?

5. As the ship of the Geats arrived on the shores of Denmark, who challenges the warriors by the seaside?

6. What is the name of Hrothgar’s herald?

7. When was the last time Hrothgar met Beowulf, and how does Hrothgar receive the Geat warrior?

8. How does Beowulf propose to kill the monster?

9. How did Hrothgar end the feud with the Wufings?

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1.5 Critical Thinking

Discuss how Grendel symbolizes the flesh warring against the Spirit.

Discuss how Beowulf’s desire to fight against Grendel is like the believer fighting against the flesh without divine help.

Is the character of Beowulf credible? Examine Episodes 3 and 8–9 to support your answer. 1.6 Bonus Thoughts

Early poetry, alliteration, and caesura: Whenever you repeat the sound of a consonant that appears in the front of or in the stressed syllable of words that are close to one another, you are using alliteration. As you read Beowulf, notice the use of alliteration. For the earliest English poets, a poem was not poetry unless there was a lot of alliteration, which often links words together and provides an interest to the writer's style. From the early Anglo-Saxon poem, “The Wanderer,” there is the repetition of the consonants w, c, h, and f.

Oft to the Wanderer, weary of exile, Cometh God’s pity, compassionate love, Though woefully toiling on wintry seas With churning oar in the icy wave, Homeless and helpless he fled from Fate.

Also a characteristic of early English poetry is the use of the caesura, or a decisive pause that appears in the middle of the line of verse. In other words, the poems were organized into two half-lines per line with two strong syllables per half-line. R. K. Gordon’s translation does not reflect the caesura, because the translator did not use versification. However, another translation by Kevin Crossley-Holland tries to reflect the use of the caesura.

Listen! The fame of Danish kings in days gone by, the daring feats worked by those heroes are well known to us.

In the above example, the caesura is indicated by the space on each line, and the accents fall on Lis-, fame; Dan-, kings; days, by; dar-, feats; worked, he-; and known, us.

Grendel and Cain: According to the poet of Beowulf, Grendel was one of the many offspring of Cain, who slew Able. In addition to being marked by God, Cain became a vagabond, a rootless man who would be on the move all of the time. We learn from the Bible that Cain’s descendants are responsible for cities, polygamy, domestication of cattle for food, musical instruments, and the working with metals. It is interesting to note that Cain and his clan rejected the lifestyle of honorable farming for a way of life, and opted for a nomadic life that is marked by exploiting agriculture, by entertainment, and by immorality. Indeed, urban life creates a very mobile society, whether within the city or moving between cities, where individuals become alienated from each other. Grendel is thus symbolic of this parasitic way of life, because instead of creating a culture, the fiend destroys it.

Beowulf / 5

Beowulf Lesson Two

2.1 Vocabulary

welter n. bereave v. mere n. deft adj. 2.2 Vocabulary Exercise

1. The two boys in the small sailboat began to despair when the winds created a tremendous _____________ of sea foam and high waves.

2. In no time at all, the burglar picked the lock on the house with his ____________ fingers.

3. Situated on the lowest portion of the land on our farm, we have a natural ___________ that seems to be the gathering place for all local wildlife.

4. The young children came home from school, not knowing about the accident, ________________ of their mother and father.

2.3 Reading Assignment: Beowulf, Episodes IX–XIX 2.4 Recall Questions

1. How does Unferth try to discredit Beowulf?

2. How long were Beowulf and Breca in the sea?

3. For what purpose did Beowulf and Breca hold their swords as they swam across the sea?

4. How many sea monsters does Beowulf kill with his sword as he swam across the sea?

5. Why does Beowulf tell Unferth that he will “suffer damnation in hell”?

6. What does Beowulf promise to Wealtheow, after she gives him the drinking cup?

7. Before he goes to sleep, what does Beowulf boast about, regarding the use of weapons with Grendel?

8. Episode XI states, “The warriors slept, who were to keep the antlered building, all save one.” Who is the one person who did not fall asleep?

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9. What wound does Beowulf give to Grendel?

10. What did Sigemund kill?

11. In Episode XVII, the minstrel sings about the tragic story of which Danish-born queen of the Frisians?

2.5 Critical Thinking

Explain how in the episode of Unferth’s attempt to discredit Beowulf, the Geat warrior shows that he is not only strong with weapons and physical strength, but strong with words as well.

Discuss why Beowulf delayed his going into action against Grendel. Was the death of the sleeping warrior necessary?

In today’s readings, how is Beowulf depicted like Jesus Christ? 2.6 Bonus Thoughts

Boasting and Ring-treasures: What appears to be self-pride on the part of the warriors in Beowulf is really an intricate heroic code that was common among the Germanic peoples. According to their thinking, boasting among the Germans was not a vice, but rather a virtue. Great warriors were careful of their reputations, and their achievements were meant to be publicized as a confirmation of their fulfilling the heroic code. The central virtue in the code was loyalty between the warriors and the king. From this code of loyalty came the feudal system that was implemented in Europe during the Middle Ages. In addition to this, gifts of treasure have a different meaning than today, where worth and value are measured in monetary terms. For the German hero, gifts of value were merely tokens recognizing the warrior’s greatness in battle. Treasure was not to be hoarded, but freely given away to those who were worthy to be recognized. Later, you will see Beowulf giving all of his gifts that he received from Hrothgar to his lord and king, Hygelac. Thus, the desire for reward was the desire to be liberal in giving the treasure away to someone more worthy than the warrior. In short, the giving of rings becomes a ritual that recognizes heroism.

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Beowulf Lesson Three

3.1 Vocabulary

baleful adj. vouchsafe v. runic adj. paltry adj. 3.2 Vocabulary Exercise

1. With all of the advertising about the lecture on how to make a chocolate pie, we were surprised by the _______________ turnout. Obviously, few people were interested in the topic.

2. The librarians become very excited when they discovered a manuscript written with ____________ letters. It turned out to be an unknown Saxon poem.

3. As Kevin journeyed further into the dismal forest, the amateur explorer thought the trees had a ____________ look that warned him to venture no more.

4. I never figured that our teacher would __________________ our being able to toss paper airplanes in the classroom for thirty minutes a day.

3.3 Reading Assignment: Beowulf, Episodes XX–XXVII 3.4 Recall Questions

1. Who visits Heorot in order to avenge the death of Grendel?

2. What does the avenger take back to the moors?

3. According to Beowulf, what is the best way to honor a fallen warrior and friend?

4. What did the troop of thanes discover next to the blood-stained waters?

5. What is the name of the sword that Unferth gives to Beowulf to use?

6. What prevents Grendel’s mother from hurting Beowulf?

7. What failed Beowulf during the battle with Grendel’s mother?

8. Who is credited with saving the life of Beowulf as Grendel’s mother tries to win her revenge?

9. What weapon does Beowulf find that allows him to kill Grendel’s mother?

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10. What happens to this weapon after Beowulf cuts off Grendel’s head?

11. What does Hrothgar discover written on the hilt of the weapon?

12. In his farewell speech, what does Beowulf promise to do for the Danes?

3.5 Critical Thinking

Compare the descent of Beowulf into the water as a type of descending into hell.

Discuss Hrothgar’s advice to Beowulf about leadership. Is it wise counsel? More important, is the advice Biblically sound?

3.6 Bonus Thoughts

The Giants: Beowulf was fortunate to find “an old sword of giants” in order to slay Grendel’s mother. Who were these giants? The origin of the giants is found in Genesis 6:4: There were giants in the earth in those days; and also after that, when the sons of God came in unto the daughters of men, and they bare children to them, the same became mighty men which were of old, men of renown.

Regarding who these giants were, interpretations range from very tall men to dinosaurs. The most common view—though it is an illogical one—is that the giants were the offspring of the “godly line” of Seth (“sons of God”) and the “ungodly line” of Cain (“daughters of men”). This interpretation fails because the Bible never speaks about a “godly line” of anyone. Also, it is difficult to imagine how a “good” person and a “bad” person can produce giants. In addition to this, the term son of God in the Bible refers only to Adam (Luke 3:38), to an angel (Job 2:1), to the Lord Jesus Christ (Mark 1:1), and to the New Testament believer (John 1:11–12). The only explanation consistent with the Bible is that the sons of God were angels.

The objection to these sons of God being angels centers on the belief that angels are incapable of procreating. Nevertheless, every time an angel appears in the Bible, he appears as a man. Also, passages from the Scriptures challenge this misconception. See 2 Peter 2:4–5, which speaks of a group of angels who have a special condemnation, and Jude 6–7, which speaks about these same angels who “kept not their first estate.” These passages are connected with the Biblical flood.

The belief that the giants were the offspring of angels is shared by both Josephus and John Milton. From Josephus’s Antiquities of the Jews, we find the following:

But what degree of zeal they had formerly shewn for virtue, [humans] now shewed by their actions a double degree of wickedness, whereby they made God to be their enemy; for many angels of God accompanied with women, and begat sons that proved unjust, and despisers of all that were good, on account of the confidence they had in their own strength, for the tradition is that these men did what resembled the acts of those whom the Grecians call giants.

In a footnote regarding this text, the note says, “This notion, that the fallen angels were, in some sense, the fathers of the old giants, was the constant opinion of antiquity.” Satan does not originate error; he perverts the truth. Therefore, ancient mythology is primarily religious

Beowulf / 9

perversion, and will always have a kernel of truth.

About 1500 years later, John Milton writes in his Paradise Regained that the giants were the offspring of angels. This is significant, because Milton was a Puritan who tried to apply Biblical Christianity. In Book II, lines 178–181, the Lord Jesus Christ is speaking to Satan:

Before the Flood thou with thy lusty Crew, False titl’d Sons of God, roaming the Earth Cast wanton eyes on the daughters of men, And coupl’d with them, and begot a race.

A profitable study from the Bible would be the signs of the end times that the Lord Jesus Christ expresses to his disciples concerning the days of Noah. Interestingly, all references in the Bible about this race of giants are in connection with the flood. Therefore, notice how the monsters in Beowulf are all buried in the sea.

10 / Beowulf

Beowulf Lesson Four

4.1 Vocabulary

artful adj. guerdon n. wont n. van n. 4.2 Vocabulary Exercise

1. I must admit that I have never seen such ____________ examples of pottery in these parts until now. The quality is very good.

2. King David plotted to have Uriah the Hittite put in the __________ of the military formation; thus, the king hoped that during the heat of fighting, the loyal warrior would be killed.

3. Mr. Smith’s ____________ to walk around the block at five o’clock every afternoon is a habit now for fifteen years.

4. The warrior was surprised by the generous ____________ received from his lord, since he merely did his duty as a soldier.

4.3 Reading Assignment: Beowulf, Episodes XXVIII–XXXV 4.4 Recall Questions

1. What commendable qualities were possessed by the queen of the Geats, Hygd, which were lacking in a previous queen, Thryth?

2. What is the meaning of “After the jewel of the sky glided over the fields”? (p. 38)

3. When Beowulf relates the story of his battle with Grendel, we learn that the monster had a bag made of what?

4. To whom does Beowulf offer all of his treasure that he received from Hrothgar?

5. How does Hygelac die?

6. How long did Beowulf reign in the land peacefully until a dragon came?

7. In Episode XXXII, the watchman, the last of a civilization, laments that the guarded treasure was permanent, while what is not?

8. How long has the dragon guarded the ancient hoard of treasure?

Beowulf / 11

9. What caused the dragon to become angry with the Geats?

10. Why does Beowulf order a shield be made of iron for him?

11. How did Beowulf receive the throne of the Geats?

12. How many men went with Beowulf to the lair of the dragon?

13. Who accidentally kills Herebeald, son of King Hrethel?

14. When Beowulf attacks the dragon, what happens to his warriors.

4.5 Critical Thinking

Beowulf thought that the dragon’s revenge was due to his disobeying God. Was Beowulf correct? Discuss the difference between God’s punishment and His chastening.

Discuss the dragon as a symbol of the “god of this world.”

Compare and contrast Beowulf’s men with the disciples of Jesus Christ. 4.6 Bonus Thoughts

The Dragon: The text calls the monster a “coiling dragon.” Therefore, this description of the dragon is closer to the oriental dragon (and the Biblical one) rather than the one often pictured as a four-legged beast. In Beowulf, the battle with the dragon with its ultimate defeat is the greatest challenge that ever faced Beowulf. Those who are careful to see the dragon as something more that just a monster will note that the dragon is no doubt Satan, who is described as a dragon in the Bible. To understand what Satan looks like today, you need to read Job chapter 41, which is a description of Leviathan, the “piercing serpent” of Isaiah 27:1.

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Beowulf Lesson Five

5.1 Vocabulary

reek n. resolute adj. gild v. dirge n. 5.2 Vocabulary Exercise

1. The _____________ Spartans were determined to hold the Pass of Thermopylae when the Persian army invaded Greece.

2. The ___________ that came up through the drains in the basement caused us to leave our house. The plumber said a dead skunk had gotten trapped in the pipes.

3. The playing of a ____________ has become commonplace at funerals, because of its melancholy sound.

4. Karen tries to ___________ an easy manner with a façade of seriousness. However, we who know her best realize that the public Karen is different than the private one.

5.3 Reading Assignment: Beowulf, Episodes XXXVI–XLIII 5.4 Recall Questions

1. What is the name of the one warrior who remains with Beowulf to fight the dragon?

2. What is the name of Beowulf’s sword?

3. As Beowulf is about to die, what was his opinion about the conduct of his own life?

4. Regarding his monument, what final request does Beowulf give to Wiglaf?

5. According to Wiglaf, what is better than “a shameful life”?

6. What “prospects” does Wiglaf foresee when the death of Beowulf becomes known in other lands.

7. How long was the dragon?

8. How long was the ban upon taking the treasure out of the hoard?

Beowulf / 13

5.5 Critical Thinking

Defend or oppose the following statement: “Beowulf fought the dragon in order to win the riches contained in the hoard of treasure.”

Discuss whether Beowulf’s death is a symbol of the death of Christ. Did Christ sell his “old life for the hoard of treasures”?

Note that the three monsters did their evil at night. Discuss the significance of this fact using the Bible to support your answer.

Explain how Wiglaf immediately assumes the role of a capable king and leader. 5.6 Bonus Thoughts

Monuments: We find Beowulf thinking about others to the very end. His monument is to be constructed such that sailors will be guided safely across the seas. At the same time, the monument will remind others about the deeds of Beowulf, and the stories of his deeds will be lessons of bravery and integrity for others to follow. The Scriptures refer to monuments as an aid to teaching. One example is when the Israelites crossed the river Jordan and were commanded to stack twelve stones upon each other. This pile of stones was to be “a memorial.” The monument was to prompt questions from children, who would ask, “What mean ye by these stones?” Thus, a moment of teaching presents itself to explain the greatness of God and the furtherance of a culture. No doubt, there are many monuments throughout your town or city. Whenever you see one, take the time to read the inscriptions and learn about the reason why the monument is there. Consider the study of monuments to be a part of your education and a furtherance of your culture.

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Glossary for Beowulf artful (ärt“f…l) adj. Exhibiting art or skill; skillful in accomplishing a purpose baleful (b³l“f…l) adj. Portending evil; ominous; sinister; harmful or malignant in intent or effect bereave (b¹-r¶v“) v. [past tense: be·reaved or be·reft (-rμft“)]To leave desolate or alone,

especially by death deft (dμft) adj. Quick and skillful dirge (dûrj) n. A funeral hymn or lament; a slow, mournful musical composition gild (g¹ld) v. To cover with or as if with a thin layer of gold guerdon (gûr“dn) n. A reward; recompense henchman (hμnch“m…n) n. A loyal and trusted follower or subordinate; a page mere (mîr) n. A small lake, pond, or marsh moor (m‹r) n. A broad area of open land, often high but poorly drained paltry (pôl“tr¶) adj. Lacking in importance or worth; trivial; wretched or contemptible reek (r¶k) n. A strong, offensive odor; a stench requite (r¹-kwºt“) v. To make repayment or return for; to reciprocate; to avenge resolute (rμz“…-l›t”) adj. Firm or determined; unwavering runic (r›“-n¹k) adj. Characteristic of several alphabets used by ancient Germanic peoples from

the 3rd to the 13th century thane (th³n) n. freeman granted land by the king in return for military service in Anglo-Saxon

society van (v²n) n. Shorten for the vanguard; the forefront vouchsafe (vouch-s³f“) v. To condescend to grant or bestow a privilege; grant welter (wμl“t…r) n. A confused mass; a jumble; confusion; turmoil wont (wônt) n. Customary practice; usage

1

Beowulf Vocabulary Quiz

1. When Beowulf and his men stayed in the hall called Heorot, which was the site of much

woe, the warriors had no idea of the ____________ reception that Grendel would have for them.

(A) artful (B) baleful (C) deft (D) paltry (E) resolute

2. The watchman agreed to guide the warriors to his master and ordered his ____________, all

loyal men, to guard the ship.

(A) dirges (B) guerdons (C) henchmen (D) moors (E) vans

3. Coming from the ____________ by the swamps, Grendel descended upon Heorot as was

his ______________, catching the sleeping warriors unaware.

(A) dirge . . welter (B) guerdon . . van (C) mere . . thane (D) moor . . wont (E) thane . . mere

4. Soon the hall became a _____________ of terrified cries and confusing shouts, while

Beowulf took a _____________ hold of Grendel’s arm.

(A) welter . . resolute (B) van . . runic (C) wont . . deft (D) dirge . . baleful (E) mere . . paltry

5. Later Beowulf discovers that he cannot use his sword against the monster; however, the

brave warrior finds a sword once belonging to the giants, which he uses in a(n) _______ way.

(A) baleful (B) deft (C) paltry (D) reeking (E) runic

OVER

2

6. _____

Since the seas and the terrain were often A hazardous, the life of warriors were fraught B C with danger as well as hardship. No error D E 7. _____

The watchman of the Scyldings, whose duty A required him guarding the sea-cliffs, saw the B reflection of the bright shields and spears C belonging to Beowulf’s men. No error D E 8. _____

Beowulf saw among the weapons in the cave A of Grendel’s mother an old sword of a giant, B whom was one of the men of renown from C D before the Flood. No error E 9. _____

When morning came, they sat down to break A B their fast and enjoyed their meal while their leader was rewarded by the prince with C treasure and valuables. No error D E

10. Wiglaf saw a banner, cunningly woven, all gilt flying high above the hoard of gold and treasure.

The word “gilt” more nearly means in this context

(A) tatters. (B) rag. (C) wool. (D) gold. (E) broad cloth.

11. As a hero, Beowulf reflected the

warrior’s code, when no gift was considered a paltry sum, nor any reward worth coveting.

The word “paltry” means

(A) insignificant. (B) fabulous. (C) burdensome. (D) insulting. (E) expected.

12. As a brave and noble warrior, Beowulf

chose to follow Grendel’s mother to requite the wrongs committed against the king.

The infinitive “to requite” means

(A) to redress. (B) to find. (C) to search. (D) to furnish. (E) to accept.

13. Beowulf’s men who composed the van

checked the enemy for several hours.

The word “van” means

(A) rear. (B) flank. (C) front. (D) cavalry. (E)wagon.

CONTINUE TO NEXT PAGE

3

The ferocious monster called Grendel has spent twelve years killing and eating people in King Hrothgar’s hall “Heorot” in Denmark. Learning of the king’s distress, the exceptionally brave and strong Beowulf with his men sail from the southern part of Sweden to help 14 Hrothgar, who had once helped Beowulf’s father Ecgtheow. In a fierce one-on-one battle, Beowulf’s strong arm tears off the arm of 15 his enemy, who flees to his mother’s cave to die. The next night Grendel’s mother comes to Heorot seeking revenge, taking one of Hrothgar’s men back to the cave. Due to this sad event, King Hrothgar asks Beowulf to go after her. Beowulf pursues the she- 16 monster into her cave and kills her with her own sword. After he kills the monster, he wanders through her cave, finds Grendel lying 17 dead and cutting off Grendel’s head using the sword of his mother. 18 Beowulf returns home to his own country and eventually becomes king of his homeland. Fifty years later a dragon, furious with one of Beowulf’s men for having stolen a chalice from the treasure which 19 it had guarded for three hundred years, goes on a destructive rampage throughout the countryside. Beowulf with the help of his protégé Wiglaf confronts the dragon, killing it. The dragon bites Beowulf on the neck during the fight thus the great warrior dies 20 from the poisonous bite.

STOP

A. NO CHANGE B. sails C. sailing D. will sail A. NO CHANGE B. Beowulf’s strong

arms tear off C. Beowulf tears off

with his strong arm D. Beowulf’s stronger

arm tears off A. NO CHANGE B. after it. C. after herself. D. after Grendel’s

mother. A. NO CHANGE B. he moves C. Beowulf wanders D. his wandering A. NO CHANGE B. cuts off C. cut off D. cut A. NO CHANGE B. of stealing C. for stolen D. to have stolen A. NO CHANGE B. but C. ; and, D. ; thus,

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

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Answer Keys to Beowulf Vocabulary Exercise, Lesson 1 1. requited 2. moor 3. henchman 4. thanes Lesson 1 1. Scyld waged successful war against the other tribes. 2. The expression means the seas, or ocean. 3. The name of the hall was Heorot. 4. His name is Grendel. 5. The guard, or a thane of Hrothgar, challenges the warriors. 6. His name is Wulfgar. 7. Beowulf was but a child when Hrothgar last saw Beowulf, and he was happy to receive him. 8. Beowulf will use his bare hands. 9. Hrothgar sent money. Vocabulary Exercise, Lesson 2 1. welter 2. deft 3. mere 4. bereft, or bereaved Lesson 2 1. Unferth accuses Beowulf of losing a swimming contest with Breca. 2. The two men swam in the sea for “seven nights.” 3. Beowulf stated that the weapons were necessary in case the men were attacked by whales. 4. Beowulf killed nine monsters. 5. Unferth had murdered his brother, his “near kinsman.” 6. Beowulf promises to kill Grendel, or die attempting it. 7. Beowulf will fight the monster with his bare hands. 8. Beowulf remained awake. 9. Beowulf pulls Grendel’s arm off his body. 10. Sigemund killed the dragon, which was the guardian of the treasure. 11. The queen was named Hildeburh. Vocabulary Exercise, Lesson 3 1. paltry 2. runic 3. baleful 4. vouchsafed

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Lesson 3 1. The mother of Grendel comes to Heorot to avenge the death of Grendel. 2. Grendel’s mother takes back the arm of Grendel. 3. It is best to avenge a friend’s death rather than mourn. 4. The thanes found the head of Æschere. 5. The name of the sword is “Hrunting.” 6. Beowulf’s armor was able to prevent Grendel’s mother from hurting the warrior. 7. Hrunting failed to inflict a wound for the first time ever. 8. God is credited with allowing Beowulf to win the battle. 9. A sword that was used by the giants. 10. The sword begins to dissolve due to the blood of Grendel. 11. Written on the hilt was the story of the Biblical flood that destroyed the giants. 12. Beowulf promises to fight for the Danes if they ever needed his help. Vocabulary Exercise, Lesson 4 1. artful 2. van 3. wont 4. guerdon Lesson 4 1. Hygd was amenable and generous, unlike Thryth. 2. The meaning is when it became dark, the sun being the “jewel.” 3. Grendel had a bag that was made of dragon skin. 4. Beowulf offers his treasure to Hygelac. 5. Hygelac is killed in battle. 6. Beowulf ruled the land peacefully for fifty years. 7. Human life is not permanent. 8. The dragon watched over the treasure for 300 years. 9. A servant had found the treasure and stolen a vessel to give to his master. 10. Beowulf knew that a shield of wood would not be effective against the dragon. 11. The heir of Hygelac, Heardred, was killed. 12. Twelve men went with Beowulf; 11 warriors and the theft, who showed the others the way

to the lair. 13. Herebeald was struck by an arrow, shot by his own brother, Haethcyn. 14. The warriors become afraid and run away from the fight. Vocabulary Exercise, Lesson 5 1. resolute 2. reek 3. dirge 4. gild

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Lesson 5 1. The warrior’s name is Wiglaf. 2. The name of the sword is Naegling. 3. Beowulf believed that he had led a good life, consistent with the conduct of a good king. 4. Wiglaf is to tell the people to build a tower, monument such that it may guide seafaring men

safely across the dark seas. 5. Death is better than a shameful life. 6. The Geats will have to battle with the Franks the Frisians, and the Swedes. 7. The dragon was 50 feet long. 8. No one was to take any of the treasure until “doomsday.”

Beowulf

1. B 2. C 3. D 4. A 5. B 6. C (S-V agreement) 7. B (pronoun case) 8. C (pronoun case) 9. B (indefinite subj.) 10. D 11. A 12. A 13. C 14. B (S-V agreement) 15. C (pro. antecedent) 16. D (indefinite object) 17. C (indefinite subj.) 18. B (verb form) 19. A 20. D (mechanics)

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