1st Meeting DA

8/12/2019 1st Meeting DA

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Course : Discourse AnalysisCode : IGB432Component : MKKDepartment : Language Education ProgramStudy Program : English Education SectionProgram : S1Semester : IV Four)Credit : 3 SKSLecturer : Khidayatul Munawwaroh, M.Pd

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS


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Component of language

linguistic structure (phonetics, phonology,morphology, syntax and semantics)

language use (pragmatics, discourse analysis,

sociolinguistics) language as a social phenomenon (dialects,

language change, taboos, language and sex roles,

language and deception), and language universals.


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The Rules of Conversation

We also have rules for putting sentences, whether they arewritten or spoken, together to make larger units of discourse.

Here, discoursemeans any spoken or written language thathas been produced in order to communicate.

As interpreters, your primary concern is with spoken languagemore specifically with conversation.

In any language, there are rules for conversation that governsuch things as how to interrupt a speaker, how to know whena speakers turn is over, how to change a topic, what topic isappropriate, etc.


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7.1 Discourse and discourse analysis

In everyday life, we often produce several sentences at a time, which form a larger

coherent whole. In an interview from the manager of a company, you may reply likethis:I will be happy to attend for an interview on Monday next at 10 a.m. I will

bring with me the full details of my testimonials as you suggest these are usually

called discourse.

Discourse is language above the sentence or above the clause

(Stubbs, 1983: 1). 1960s grammarians became convinced of theusefulness of considering stretches longer than individual sentences

in their analyses, at least two terms came to be used in parallel

fashion: text li nguisticsand discourse analysis.

Originally, some people preferred to usetextto refer to written

language and kept discoursestrictly for oral production.

In this chapter, we do not make any distinctions between text

linguisticsand discourse analysis, and between discourseand text,

because they are now often used interchangeably.


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What is discourse?

In everyday life, we often produce several sentences at atime, which form a larger coherent whole. In an interviewfrom the manager of a company, you may reply like this:Iwill be happy to attend for an interview on Monday next at10 a.m. I will bring with me the full details of my

testimonials as you suggest these are usually calleddiscourse.

Originally, some people preferred to usetextto refer to

written language and kept discoursestrictly for oral

production. In this chapter, we do not make any distinctions between

text l inguisticsand discourse analysis, and between

discourseand text, because they are now often used

interchangeably.


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What is discourse?

Discourse is:

language above the sentence or above theclause

a continuous stretch of spoken language largerthan a sentence, often constituting a coherentunit

a stretch of language perceived to bemeaningful unified, and purposive; language inuse

(viewed) as social practice determined bysocial structures


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Structural and functional definitions of

discourse

Structural or textual definition of discourse:

Discourse is a particular unit of language (above the

sentence).

Functional definition of discourse: Discourse is aparticular focus of language use.


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Discourse analysis (DA), or discourse studies, is a general term for a number

of approaches to analyzing written, vocal, or sign language use or any

significantsemiotic event.

Discourse analysis is also called discourse linguisticsand discourse studies,or text analysis.pragmatics is more concerned with meaning, discourse is

more concerned with the formal and information structure.

Discourse analysisis the study of how sentences in spoken and written

language form larger meaningful units such as paragraphs, conversations,

interviews, etc.tasks in discourse analysisis to explore the linguistic features which

characterize discourses.

The goal of discourse analysisis to examine how the reader or user of a

discourse recognizes that the words/phrases/sentences in a discourse must

be co-interpretedthat parts of a discourse are dependent on others.

One of the most important features of discourseis that they have cohesion.

Besides, some other topics of discourse analysis include information

structure, coherence, discourse markers, conversational analysis.


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Seven criteria which have to be fulfilled to

qualify either a written or a spoken text as a

discourse have been suggested by Beaugrande

(1981). These include:

Cohesion- grammatical relationship between parts of a sentenceessential for its interpretation;

Coherence- the order of statements relates one another by sense. Intentionality- the message has to be conveyed deliberately and

consciously;

Acceptability- indicates that the communicative product needs tobe satisfactory in that the audience approves it;

Informativeness - some new information has to be included in thediscourse;

Situationality - circumstances in which the remark is made areimportant;

Intertextuality - reference to the world outside the text or theinterpreters' schemata;


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Types of Discourse

There are many ways to classify discourse:

Written/spoken discourse.

Classification of discourse according to the register

(level of formality). Classification of discourse according to genre

(communicative purpose, style, audience).

Monologic (one speaker/writer produces an entire

discourse)/ dialogic/ multiparty (two/moreparticipants interact/ construct discourse together).


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Distinction between Written and

Spoken Discourse Spoken and written discoursediffer for many

reasons. Spoken discourse has to be understood

immediately, written discourse can be referred to

many times.


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Distinction between Written and Spoken

Discourse

Spoken discourse:

Variations in speed, but it is generally faster than writing.

Loudness/quietness.

ExampleAnnouncer: an the winner iz:s (1.4) RACHEL ROBERTS.

For YANKS.

A: who is she going out with.

B: Um (.) Peter.


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Distinction between Written and Spoken

Discourse

Spoken discourse:

Gestures/ Body language(Mr. Bean)

Intonation.

Pitch range: - the shift to the higher pitch; - the shift to

the lower pitch, V - a fall rise.

Stress: underlined words in transcription: good.

Rhythm.

Pausing and phrasing: (.)a tiny gap, difficult to be measured,

(7.1)a pause of 7.1 seconds,a longer pause like (..)


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Which Discourse is More Complex?

Grammatically?

Spoken discoursefewer subordinate clauses,

fewer that/to complement clauses, fewer

sequences of prepositional phrases, fewer

attributive adjectives, more active verbs.


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Lexical characteristics?

Spoken discourselonger, more repetitions. Spokendiscoursethe percentage of different word is below40%, written discourseabove 40%.

Spoken discourseshorter, less complex words andphrases (less contractions, fewer nominalizations,more verb-based phrases, more words that refer to

the speaker, less abstract words, more quantifiers).


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Lexical characteristics?

Spoken discoursehas:

More verb-based phrases:

having treatment (W)being treated (S)

hospital care (W)go to the hospital (S)

More predicative adjectives:

misleading statistics (W)statistics are misleading (S)frightening news (W)news is frightening (S)


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Lexical characteristics?Spoken discoursehas:

More pronouns (it, they, you, we).

more lexical repetitions/ refinements

This man+ this chap she was going out with

More first person references.

More active verbs.

Use of indeterminate agentsOh everything they do in Edinbourgh+ they do it far

too slowly


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Structurally?

Spoken discourse is more fragmented. It

contains more simple sentences and

coordination words (and, but, so, because,

etc.)

Written texts exhibit a confusing variety and

richness of different structural forms.


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Haiku, a Japanese form of poetry, wheresyllables are the form of writing:

Example 3

line 1- 5 syllables: Beauty and color

line 2- 7 syllables: Butterflies dance in the sky

line 3- 5 syllables: Flying high and free.


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Shape poems usually describe an object being writtenabout

Example 4

A spider


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Representation/ reproduction of text:

Written discourse can be divided into chapters,

sections, units, headings, subheadings,

quotations, etc.

Where the original text exploits typographicalvariety, a reproduction of the same text may lack

the qualities of the original.


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Hallidaycompares a sentence from a written text with a typical spokenequivalent:

Written form:

The use of this method of control unquestionably leads to safer and fastertrain running in the most adverse weather conditions.

A typical spoken variant:

If this method of control is used trains will unquestionably (be able to) runmore safely and faster (even) when the weather conditions are mostadverse.

A more natural spoken version:

You can control the trains this way and if you do that you can be quite surethat theyll be able to run more safely and more quickly then they wouldother wise, no matter how bad the weather gets.


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Functionally?

Spoken and written discourses serve differentfunctions. The written language has two mainfunctions (Goody):

the storage function which permits communicationover time and space;

shifting language from the oral to the visual domain,

which permits words and sentences to be examinedout of their original contexts.


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(Brown and Yule). We use speech largely for

the establishment and maintenance of human

relationships (or we use it for interaction),

whereas we use written language for workingout and transference of information (primarily

for the purpose of transaction).


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Interrelation of Written and Spoken

Discourse

Writing and speech interrelate (e.g. the doctor

writes your symptoms, you write a telephone

number).

We can have written discourse that is

intended to be spoken, and spoken language

that is designed to be read.

Marginal discourses: e-mails, SMS, chats


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Interrelation of Written and Spoken

Discourse

KINDS SPOKEN WRITTEN

ORATE e.g.conversation

e.g. informalletters, drama,

poetry

LITERATE e.g. lectures,

sermons,

speeches

e.g.

expository

essays,

articles


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Example of coherence text

A: Dik, tolong itu teleponnya dijawab.

B : Aduh, lagi tanggung, Mas.

Jika ditinjau dari kata-katanya, tidak ada

perpautan antara A dan B. Akan tetapi, keduakalimat itu adalah koheren karena maknanyaberkaitan. Perkaitan itu disebabkan oleh adanyakata-kata yang tersembunyi yang tidak diucapkan.

Kalimat B sebenarnya dapat berbunyi Maaf Mas,saya tidak dapat menjawab telepon itu karena

saya lagi tanggung, menggoreng tempe.


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References:

Brown, G., Yule, G. (1983). Discourse Analysis.

Cambridge, etc.: Cambridge University Press.

pp. 1226

Van Dijk (1997). Discourse Studies, Volume 2:

Discourse as Social Interaction. London etc.:

Sage Publications.Ch 1.pp.1-38. (esp. p.4)

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1st Meeting DA