ADBnwm.gov.in/sites/default/files/study_research/ADB- 1st...Bank (ADB), by a team comprising of Arnaud Cauchois1, Harish Kumar Varma2, Martin A Burton3, and Amarjit S. Dhingra4. The

ADB

Project Numbers: SC 100903 IND and SC 100905 IND

November 2014

India: Support for the Implementation of the National Water Mission by State Governments in India: Scoping Study for a National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program

Final Report Volume 1: Main Report (Financed by the ADB)

Prepared by

Martin A Burton Team Leader Water Resources and Irrigation Management Specialist

and

Amarjit Singh Dhingra Deputy Team Leader Water Resource and Irrigation Management Specialist

This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the concerned, and ADB cannot be held responsible for its contents.

Asian Development Bank

ADB

Project Numbers: SC 100903 IND and SC 100905 IND

November 2014

India: Support for the Implementation of the National Water Mission by State Governments in India: Scoping Study for a National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program Final Report Volume 1: Main Report

(Financed by the ADB)

Prepared by Martin A Burton Team Leader Water Resources and Irrigation Management Specialist

and

Amarjit Singh Dhingra Deputy Team Leader Water Resource and Irrigation Management Specialist

This consultant’s report does not necessarily reflect the views of ADB or the concerned, and ADB cannot be held responsible for its contents.

Asian Development Bank

Asian Development Bank India Resident Mission 4., San Martin Marg, Chanakyapuri New Delhi 110021, India

This study was undertaken by South Asia Environment, Natural Resources and Agriculture Division (SAER) and India Resident Mission (INRM), Asian Development Bank (ADB), by a team comprising of Arnaud Cauchois1, Harish Kumar Varma2, Martin A Burton3, and Amarjit S. Dhingra4. The views expressed in this book are those of authors and do not necessarily reflect the views and policies of the ADB, its Board of Governors or the governments it represent, and ADB and the Government cannot be held liable for its contents.. The ADB does not guarantee the source, originality, accuracy, completeness or reliability of any statements, information, data, advice, opinion, or view presented in this publication and accepts no responsibility for any consequences of their use. By making any designation of or reference to a particular territory or geographic area in this document, the Asian Development Bank does not intend to make any judgments as to the legal or other status of any territory or area.

1 Senior Water Resources Specialist, South Asia Environment, Natural Resources and Agriculture Division,

ADB, Manila, Philippines 2 Senior Project Officer, India Resident Mission, ADB, New Delhi, India

3 Consultant, Water Policy Specialist/Team Leader, Itchen Stoke, UK

4 Consultant, Water Resources and Irrigation Management Specialist/Deputy Team Leader, New

Delhi, India

i

SUPPORT FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE NATIONAL WATER MISSION BY STATE GOVERNMENTS IN INDIA: SCOPING STUDY FOR A NATIONAL WATER

USE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT SUPPORT PROGRAM

VOLUME 1: MAIN REPORT

CONTENTS

Particulars

Page

Contents i Currency Equivalents and Units and Measures v Abbreviations vi Glossary and Notes viii Executive Summary ix I INTRODUCTION 1 A Purpose of the study 1 B Overview of work carried out 1 C Structure of report 1

II BACKGROUND 2 A Water resources development 2 B National Water Policy (2012) 9 C National Water Mission reform agenda 11 D Twelfth Five Year Plan reform agenda 17 E Literature review 20 1 DSDAP study 20 2 National Water Resources Framework study 20 3 World Bank sector review 21 4 Other related studies and programs 23 a Mid-term Appraisal Report of the 11

th Five Year plan 23

b Working Group report on MMI and CAD for 12th

Five Year Plan 23 c Technical assistance to support the National Water Mission 24 d Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP) 24 e Command Area Development and Water Management (CAD&WM)

Program 24

f Artificial Groundwater Recharge Scheme 25

III MEASURES FOR ASSESSING AND IMPROVING WATER USE EFFICIENCY ON MMI SCHEMES

26

A What do we mean by the term “water use efficiency” 26 B Commonly used definitions of WUE 27 C Proposed definition of water use efficiency 29 D Framework for analysis 29 1 Overview 29 2 Defining the problem 30 3 Setting the boundaries 31 4 Identifying core processes 32 5 identifying key indicators 36 6 Data collection 44 7 Analysis of the problem 45 a Overview 45 b DSDAP study analysis 45 c FAO MASSCOTE approach to rapid appraisal of I&D schemes 48

ii

Particulars

Page

d Current study’s findings 55 i Irrigation institutions 55 ii Irrigation and water management 56 iii information technology 56 iv Ground water and conjunctive use 57 v Participatory irrigation management 57 e Summary of key factors influencing WUE 58 f Approach to identifying feasible solutions 59 g Typology of MMI schemes based on WUE issues and opportunities’ 69 8 Constraints on implementation of identified solutions 71 9 Monitor and evaluate implementation and outcomes 71 E Testing the process – Pilot Schemes 73 1 Purpose and outputs from the pilot schemes 73 2 Mechanism for implementation 73 3 Criteria for selection of pilot schemes 74 4 Work to be carried out 76 F Benchmarking 78

IV UPDATING DPR GUIDELINES 84 A Overview 84 B Contents of the existing guidelines and review of the current approach 84 C Purpose and need for up-dating guideline 86 D Approach to the structure of the proposed guidelines 87 E Purpose of updating guidelines 87 F Updating present guidelines 88

V WORKING GROUP STATE AND NATIONAL LEVEL CONSULTATIONS 89 A Introduction 89 B Setting the context 89 C Focused group discussions: interventions at various levels of the irrigation system 89 D Chandigarh workshop 90 E Hyderabad workshop 91 F Overall recommendations (issues and constraints) 92 G National level meeting 93

VI STRATEGY FOR A NATIONAL WATER USE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT SUPPORT PROGRAM

94

A Introduction 94 B Rationale and objectives 94 C Components 94

VII CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 101

References and reading material 108

Boxes III.1 Framework for linking common performance related terms 38 III.2 Description of the FAO RAP process 49 III.3 Benchmarking definition 78 III.4 Descriptors for irrigation and drainage schemes 79

Tables II.1 Gross water availability and requirements of all water use in India under different

scenarios 2

iii

Particulars

Page

II.2 Indicative water balance for India, present and ultimate stage of development 2 II.3 Renewable and utilizable water resources of river basins 3 II.4 Business-as-usual scenario water projection, 2000-2050 5 II.5 Comparison of irrigable area, irrigation potential created and actual areas irrigated in

selected States 7

II.6 National Water Mission objectives and proposed actions 15 II.7 NWRMS irrigation related working papers 20 II.8 Irrigation sector issues and proposed solutions identified World Bank report on the

Irrigation Sector (World Bank, 1998) 21

III.1 Examples of water use efficiency terms developed by different practitioners 28 III.2 Perspectives of irrigation performance by different stakeholders 32 III.3 Examples of measures for water saving and possible impacts 39 III.4 Key indicators identified for the scheme and its core processes 40 III.5 Water use efficiencies in Indian irrigation systems (IWRS, 2004) 43 III.6 Linking performance indicators to data collection 45 III.7 Common reasons and recommendations for low WUE from studies of 30 irrigation

systems (CWC, 2010) 48

III.8 MASSCOTE 11 steps (FAO, 2008) 49 III.9 Summary of FAO MASSCOTE studies in Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh 51

III.10 Matrix for identifing feasible solutions 62 III.11 Structuring the issues and possible solutions facing MMI irrigation schemes 65 III.12 Revised typology for MMI schemes based on identified issues and opportunities 70 III.13 Broad constraints to the implementation of WUE improvement solutions 72 III.14 Proposed criteria for selection of Pilot projects 74 III.15 Outline of information and data needs for the Pilot Projects 77 III.16 Development of the benchmarking programme in Maharashtra 80 III.17 Indicators used in benchmarking I&D schemes in Maharashtra 80 III.18 Categorisation of I&D schemes in Maharashtra benchmarking 81 III.19 Range of values for benchmarking indicators, Maharashtra, 2006-07 82 V.1 Key constraints and levels of intervention identified at regional workshops 92 VI.1 Identified needs and proposed National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support

programme 95

VII.1 Matrix of comments and replies 102

Figures II.1 River basins of India 4 II.2 River basins categorized on water scarcity and food surplus/deficit 4 II.3 Indicators of growing water scarcity, 2000-2025 6 II.4 Growth in Urban population, 1950-2030 8 II.5 Population growth, GDP and food grain production, 1950-2011 8 III.1 ICID concept of water use efficiency 26 III.2 Irrigation and drainage functions in the context of nested systems 27 III.3 Proposed framework to identify measures to improve performance and water use

efficiency on MMI schemes 31

III.4 Identifying core processes by discipline 33 III.5 Framework for defining water use efficiency (Fairweather et al, 2003, adapted from

Barret, Purcell and Associates, 1999) 34

III.6 Component parts of core processes 35 III.7 Linkage between different water sources in an irrigation system 36 III.8 Example of scheduling irrigation water for paddy during Kharif season in Odisha 37 III.9 Examples of volumes of rainwater utilized in Kharif for different storage capacities 37

III.10 Example of improving crop production with increased WUE 39 III.11 Linking core processes to performance indicators, process outputs and scheme

objectives 40

III.12 Definition of the depleted fraction 43 III.13 Annual rainfall, reservoir storage and releases, Nizam Sagar Scheme, 1995-2006 44 III.14 Seasonal and total cropped areas compared to Cultivated Command area, Nizam Sagar

Scheme, 1995-2006 44

III.15 Unstructured problem analysis 46 III.16 Structured problem analysis 46 III.17 Restructuring the “ problem tree” into a “solution tree” 59 III.18 MMI water use efficiency improvement problem tree 61

iv

III.19 Core elements of service delivery 63 III.20 Key elements for improving the level of irrigation service provision 63 III.21 Decision matrix for prioritizing action to improve performance & WUE 72 III.22 Flow chart of procedure for identification of WUE improvement measures 76 III.23 Benchmarking – comparative performance against best practice 78 III.24 Identification of key processes in an irrigation and drainage scheme 79 III.25 Identification and costing of measures to close the performance gap 80

VOLUME 2: ANNEXURS

Particulars

ANNEXURE I: CONSULTANTS TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE STUDY ANNEXURE II: KEY ASPECTS OF THE 12

TH FIVE YEAR PLAN RELATED TO THE NWUEISP

ANNEXURE III: GAP BETWEEN IRRIGATION POTENTIAL CREATED AND UTILIZATION – PARADIGM SHIFT IN CONCEPT ANNEXURE IV: REVIEW OF THE APPROACHES FOR ASSESSMENT OF WATER USE EFFICIENCY ANNEXURE V: TOWARDS FORMS OF INTERVENTION

ANNEXURE V.1: REALIGNING IRRIGATION INSTITUTIONS IN STATES FOR REFORMS

ANNEXURE V.2 IRRIGATION AND WATER MANAGEMENT

ANNEXURE V.3: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

ANNEXURE V.4: GROUNDWATER AND CONJUNCTIVE USE

ANNEXURE V.5: PARTICIPATORY IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

ANNEXURE V.6: REALINNING AND REVAMPING COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME

ANNEXURE VI: TOWARDS IRRIGATION SECTOR REFORMS – STRENGTHENING WATER AND LAND MANAGEMENT INSTITUTES ANNEXURE VII: GUIDELINES FOR PREPARATION OF PROJECT PROPOSALS FOR NATIONAL WATER USE EFFICIENCY PROGRAMME AND DEVELOPMENT OF DETAILED PROJECT REPORTS FOR MODERNIZATION (ERM) OF MMI PROJECTS – SUGGESTIONS FOR UPDATION ANNEXURE VIII: REPORT ON STATE AND NATIONAL LEVEL CONSULTATIONS

VOLUME 3: DRAFT PROGRAM CONCEPT PAPER

Particulars

I INTRODUCTION II TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE III DUE DILIGENCE REQUIRED IV PROCESSING PLAN V KEY ISSUES

Appendices

1 BASIC PROJECT INFORMATION 2 PROBLEM TREE 3 PRELIMINARY DESIGN AND MONITORING FRAMEWORK FOR THE INVESTMENT PROGRAM 4 PROJECT PREPARATORY TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE

v

CURRENCY EQUIVALENTS (as of 9th August 2013 })

Currency Unit – Indian Rupee (Rs)

Rs 1.00 = $ 0.0168

$1.00 = Rs 60.68

UNITS AND MEASURES

BCM - Billion cubic metre cm - Centimetre cumec - Cubic metre per second cusec - Cubic feet per second ft - Feet ha - Hectares ha-m - Hectare metre kg - Kilogramme m - Meter m3 - Cubic metre MCM - Million cubic metre mha - Million hectares ML - Mega litres mm - Millimetre sq km - Square kilometre sq m - Square metre TCM - Thousand million cubic feet

vi

ABBREVIATIONS

ADB - Asian Development Bank AIBP - Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme AIWMP - Accelerated Irrigation Water Management Programme (scheme

proposed in this report) AMP - Asset Management Plan APFIMS - Andhra Pradesh Farmers’ Irrigation Management System APSRAC - Andhra Pradesh State Remote Application Centre AU - Analysis Unit BAU - Business as Usual BCM - Billion Cubic Metres CAD - Command Area Development, also Computer Aided Design CADA - Command Area Development Authority CAD&WM - Command Area Development and Water Management CCA - Culturable Command Area CD - Cross Drainage (structure) CGWB - Central Ground Water Board CM - Cross Masonry (structure) CMD - Comprehensive Mission Document CSC - Cabinet Sub Committee CWC - Central Water Commission DC - Distributary Committee DPR - Delivery Program Ratio also Detailed Project Review DSDAP - Development Synthesis and Draft Action Plan (for improving WUE

of irrigated agriculture in selected Indian States) DSS - Decision Support System DU - Data Unit ERM - Extension Renovation and Modernization ET - Evapotranspiration E-WUE - Effective Water Use Efficiency FAO - Food and Agriculture Organization FPARP - Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Programme FRL - Full Reservoir Level FSD - Full Supply Discharge FTCs - Farmer Training Centres FYP - Five Year Plan GCA - Gross Command Area GIS - Geographical Information System GOAP - Government of Andhra Pradesh GOI - Government of India GP - Gram Panchayat GS - Gram Sabha GWP - Global Water Partnership HR - Head Reach I&CAD - Irrigation and Command Area Development (department) ICAR - Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICID - International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage ICOLD - International Commission on Large Dams ID - Irrigation Department also Irrigated Dry (crops) IDB - Irrigation Development Board (in Andhra Pradesh) IMT - Irrigation Management Transfer INCID - Indian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage IPC - Irrigation Potential Created

vii

IPTRID - International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage

IPU - Irrigation Potential Utilized ISF - Irrigation Service Fee IWMI - Irrigation Water Management Institute IWRM - Integrated Water Resources Management ITES - Information Technology Enabled Services KPI - Key Performance Indicator LIS - Lift Irrigation System MASSCOTE - Mapping System and Services for Canal Operation Techniques MGNREGA - Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employee Guarantee Act MI - Minor Irrigation MIS - Management Information System; also Micro Irrigation System mm - Man Months MMI - Major and Medium Irrigation MOA&C - Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperation MOM - Management, Operation and Maintenance MoWR - Ministry of Water Resources MR - Middle Reach MWL - Maximum Water Level NAPCC - National Action Plan for Climate Change NCIWRD - National Commission on Irrigation and Water Resources

Development NGO - Non-Governmental Organization NIMF - National Irrigation Management Fund NPIRD - National Programme for Irrigation Research and Development

(NSW, Australia) NWM - National Water Mission NWMI - National Water Management Institute NWRFS - National Water Resources Framework Study NWP - National Water Policy NWUEISP - National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program O&M - Operation and Maintenance OFD - On-farm Development OSE - Overall Scheme Efficiency PC - Project Committee PIM - Participatory Irrigation Management PPA - Proposed Project Area PPC - Paddy Procurement Committee PPP - Public Private Partnership PWD - Public Works Department RA - Regulatory Authority RAP - Rapid Appraisal Process R&D - Research and Development RPA - Rapid Performance Assessment RWS - Relative Water Supply SCIWAM - State Level Committee for Integrated Water Planning and

Management SRI - System of Rice Intensification SSI - Sustainable Sugar Initiative TOR - Terms of Reference TR - Tail Reach WALMI - Water and Land Management Institute WALMTARI - Water and Land Management, Training and Research Institute WIS - Water Information System

viii

WMO - Water Management Organization WRD - Water Resources Department WRG - Water Resources Group WRIS - Water Resources Information System WSSD - Water Summit on Sustainable Development (GWP) WSR - Water Sector Restructuring (World Bank projects) WUA - Water Users Association WUE - Water Use Efficiency WUI - Water Use Index WUP - Water Use Productivity

GLOSSARY

On-farm - Relates to groupings of farmers plots and the management and distribution of water between these individual plots. Usually refers to the command area below the outlet.

Project - Widely used in India to refer to irrigation and drainage schemes at all stages of development, from planning through to implementation. Also more commonly used to refer to a time bounded activity.

Scheme - Term used to refer to the total irrigation and drainage complex, including the irrigation and drainage system, the irrigated land, villages, roads, etc. As such it relates to water delivery and agricultural production.

System - Term used to refer to the network of irrigation and drainage channels, including structures. As such it relates to water delivery, and excludes agricultural production.

NOTES

In this report, "$" refers to US dollars unless otherwise stated.

ix

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

1. The purpose of the study is to deliver a program concept addressing states and central agencies constraints to successfully implement the National Water Mission (NWM) and 12th Five Year Plan (FYP) water use efficiency reform agendas. The program concept more specifically focusses on addressing water use efficiency (WUE) on selected major and medium irrigation (MMI) schemes which represent about 80 percent of the government created irrigation potential in India. 2. The study reviews the current and predicted future situation in relation to water resources and irrigation development, the reform agendas of the NWM and 12th FYP and reviews how water use efficiency is defined and measured. Measures for assessing and improving the water use efficiency on MMI schemes are identified, with an assessment framework being developed to structure the analysis. Various studies on issues related to water use efficiency on MMI schemes have been reviewed, including the DSDAP1 study, the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) MASSCOTE 2 studies and the findings of various sub-committees formed by the NWM and in the preparation of the 12th FYP. The review of these studies has been combined with contributions by a study team of specialists in irrigation management, information technology, groundwater and conjunctive use and participatory irrigation management to yield a comprehensive assessment of the current issues influencing water use efficiency and performance of MMI schemes. Reports by these specialists, together with other annexures, are included in Volume 2 of the report. 3. Following this analysis, proposals have been prepared for testing the analytical process through rapid performance assessment procedures to be carried out by the follow-on TA team3 and for benchmarking scheme performance. In addition, in the light of the findings the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) guidelines for preparation of Detailed Project Report (DPR) have been reviewed and recommendations made for updating the guidelines to take account of measures for improving water use efficiency.

4. Two regional workshops were held, one for northern states in Chandigarh and another for southern states in Hyderabad. The findings of these workshops have, together with the analysis described above, then been used to prepare a strategy for a National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP), which is included as Volume 3 of the report. 5. In looking into the background related to the concern over water use efficiency on MMI schemes the study found that there are significant variations in the estimates of water that is available for human use in India. According to the 12th Five Year Plan the water budget based on Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) estimates shows utilisable water of 1123 billion cubic metres (BCM) against a current estimated demand of 710 BCM. The Standing Committee of the Ministry of Water Resources estimates that this water demand will rise to 1093 BCM by 2025. Other calculations, however, are not so optimistic, with the 2030 Water Resources Group (2009) predicting that with the current pattern of demand for water about half the demand will be unmet by 2030.

6. Whilst figures taken on a national basis might give some indication of the overall water resources balance they hide the reality in individual river basins. Studies by the

1 ADB - RSC C13535 (IND) and C13696 (IND), July 2012, Sector Study on Development of Synthesis and Action Plan for Improving Water Use Efficiency of Irrigated Agriculture in selected Indian States, Final Report; Amarjit S Dhingra and Rahul Sen, Consultants

2 Mapping System and Services for Canal Operation Techniques

3 ADB: TA7967–IND Innovations for More Food with Less Water

x

International Water Management Institute (Amarasinghe et al, 2007) found that as a result of rising water demand many river basins will be physically water scarce by 2050. According to Amarasinghe, of the 19 river basins in India, 8 already have a potentially utilizable water resource of less than 1,000 m3/capita4, with a further 7 currently with less than 1,500 m3/ha. Only the Narmada (2,448 m3/capita) and the Mahanadi (2,341 m3/capita) river basins have adequate water resources available into the foreseeable future. By 2050 10 river basins, with 75 percent of the total population, will have developed all of the potentially utilizable water resources with the consequence that water reallocation between sectors will be a necessary and common occurrence in these basins. It is predicted that in many basins groundwater, with the current levels of recharge and groundwater use patterns, will be in severe crisis; some already are at catchment and sub-basin level. 7. Solutions proposed to address this water scarcity are: (i) to increase crop productivity for each unit of water used (“more crop per drop”); (ii) to increase groundwater resources through artificial recharge; (iii) to concentrate on economic activities where the value of water is very high5; or (iv) to transfer water from water-rich basins. 8. Currently over 80 percent of the available water is used by the irrigation sector. In some states, such as Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, the development of irrigation has resulted in the full development of the water resource, leading to critical water scarcity and shortages of water for other uses. As highlighted in the 12th FYP, in these and other states where a large proportion of the ultimate irrigation potential has been realised the focus needs to change from construction of new schemes to more efficient and productive management of already constructed schemes.

9. This interest on improving the performance of completed MMI schemes has focussed the attention of the NWM and the 12th FYP on the issues of improving water use efficiency, with both parties setting a target of increasing the water use efficiency by 20%. The 12th FYP quotes figures from WUE studies carried out by the CWC on 30 MMI schemes in which the WUE on nine schemes was found to be less than 30 percent and the average 38 percent. With the NWM and 12th FYP target the average figure would need to rise to 46%.

10. Measures to achieve the target are set out in the NWM Comprehensive Mission Document (CMD) and the 12th FYP. The measures proposed include an integrated mix of reform of the Irrigation Departments (ID) in States, physical works, improved maintenance, improved management information systems, conjunctive use of surface and groundwater and greater participation by water users in the management, operation and maintenance (MOM) of irrigation and drainage (I&D) schemes. In order to incentivize IDs to reform and address service delivery and maintenance issues the 12th FYP has introduced the National Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF) which provides funds from central government to states in a 1:1 proportion to the water charges collected, with additional funding where these funds are collected by Water Users Associations (WUAs) and a rebate given to the WUAs. Further funds will be provided where water allocation is made by volumetric measurement.

4 According to international convention basins with less than 1000 m

3/capita are classed as water scarce

5 The value of water can be assessed in a variety of ways, including in terms of wealth created, livelihoods

supported (whether rural or urban), votes obtained, basic needs (food security) and protection of the environment.

xi

11. A study that fed into the preparation of the 12th FYP and is relevant to this study was the National Water Resources Framework Study (NWRFS) which endeavoured to answer 53 key questions posed by the Planning Commission in relation to the water resources, irrigation and water supply sectors. The report produced a roadmap covering four domains: (i) National water management reform; (ii) Groundwater management; (iii) Water utility management improvement and reform; (iv) Water conservation strategy for industry. 12. In each case the individual roadmaps looked at the problem, the vision for the future, strategies and components and an action plan. The National Water Management Reform Road map looked at three parts: (i) Water resources management, (ii) main system irrigation management, and (iii) on-farm irrigation management, whilst the Groundwater Management roadmap made proposals related to the management of groundwater and conjunctive use.

13. Several of the issues and measures identified by the NWM and the 12th FYP sub-committees were identified in the World Bank Sector Review carried out in 1998, and formed the basis for the World Bank supported Water Sector Restructuring (WSR) projects in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh. The Sector Review report identified a number of issues in the water resources and irrigation sector, dividing these into physical/technical, institutional and financial/economic constraints. Based on the identified issues the report drew a diagram depicting the “vicious circle” which was then converted into a “virtuous circle” through a package of interventions. These issues, interventions and linkages are useful to this current study.

14. This report takes this previous work and endeavours to prepare a framework for assessing and improving the water use efficiency on MMI schemes. This framework comprises the following steps: i) Defining the problem. The first step is the need to be clear about the nature of the

problem, and to define it clearly. This is not always as straightforward as it might appear as the problem may look different to different people. This is particularly the case in irrigated agriculture where there are different disciplines involved and many different levels at which the problem (and potential solutions) might be experienced. In addition to defining the problem it is also necessary to be clear about what the desired outcome will be if the problem is addressed.

ii) Setting the boundaries. It is important to set the boundaries of the analysis. The boundaries can extend into several dimensions, not only spatial or temporal. In the case of MMI schemes in the spatial context it is necessary to decide if the boundary lies at the main system level, the hydraulic network level, the scheme level or the basin level. In other dimensions it is necessary to decide whether to extend the analysis to consider policy, institutions, etc.

iii) Identifying core processes. Having set the boundaries it is then necessary to identify the core processes which are involved in the problem and within which feasible solutions can be identified and implemented.

iv) Identifying key indicators. For each part of the core processes performance indicators can be identified to enable the scale and location of the problem to be identified.

v) Collecting and processing data. Selection and specification of the key indicators will determine the data that are required to analyse the problem.

vi) Analysing the problem. Using the data collected the problem can be analysed.

xii

vii) Identification of feasible solutions. The analysis will identify a number of factors which are contributing to the problem, for which solutions can be proposed. However not all solutions will be feasible, so a judgement has to be made on which solutions to proceed with.

viii) Implementation of identified solutions. Following identification of the issues and feasible solutions an action plan needs to be prepared and implemented.

ix) Monitor and evaluate implementation and outcomes. Following implementation the performance indicators can be used to monitor and evaluate progress with the implementation programme and the resultant outcomes.

15. The first issue to address is what is meant by the term “water use efficiency”, with a variety of definitions and measures being proposed. One of the more common questions is whether the term should just relate to the conveyance, distribution, application and use of irrigation water, or whether it should include the productivity element (“more crop per drop”). In this report a distinction is thus made between water use efficiency (WUE) and water use productivity (WUP), though, as shown in this report, increasing the WUE on a scheme will also increase the WUP, other production inputs being equal. 16. The problem is clearly defined by Dr Mihir Shah, former Member for Water, Planning Commission, Government of India.6

“India faces a major crisis of water as we move into the 21st century. This crisis threatens the basic right to drinking water of our citizens; it also puts the livelihoods of millions at risk. The demands of a rapidly industrialising economy and urbanising society come at a time when the potential for augmenting supply is limited, water tables are falling and water quality issues have increasingly come to the fore.”

17. In setting the boundaries it is essential that the role of reuse of seepage “losses” from canals and irrigation application are taken into account, as these can form an important recharge mechanism to groundwater. Such reuse is important to some farmers to augment surface water supplies, but also to other farmers, especially those at the tail end or periphery of the distribution system, that don’t get surface water supplies and thus rely on groundwater for irrigation. In this context the following definition is proposed for defining the WUE on MMI schemes:

“For the purposes of achieving the 12th Five Year Plan and National Water Mission Goal IV of increasing water use efficiency by 20 percent, water use efficiency for MMI schemes relates to the efficiency of delivering water from the intake of the irrigation system to the crop root zone for the purpose of beneficial crop evapotranspiration, taking account of any use or reuse of seepage or other conveyance, distribution or application losses as conventionally describe that might subsequently be used by farmers within the boundaries of the irrigation scheme.

The term thus relates to the fraction of irrigation water used for productive crop evapotranspiration within the boundaries of the scheme compared to the total volume of water diverted at the intake to the irrigation system.

For the purpose of clarification the use or reuse of conveyance, distribution or conveyance losses may relate to pumping from groundwater, direct use of seepage water, or other form of beneficial reuse within the boundaries of the scheme.

6 Taken from a Special Article in the Economic and Political Weekly, Vol XLVIII No.3, 19

th January, 2013

xiii

The improvement of the water use efficiency shall be measured against a baseline determined from a standardised survey of scheme performance, and subsequent seasonal and annual measurements as set out in the baseline survey protocol and report”

18. A suitable overall indicator for the determination of the WUE which takes account of the total water balance on the scheme is the ‘depleted fraction’ (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Definition of depleted fraction

Source: Molden, 1997; Bos et al, 2005

19. This indicator can be determined using flow measurements at the intake to the scheme and measurement of the actual crop evapotranspiration (ET) using remote sensing technology. A less precise but nevertheless useful starting point is to determine the potential (rather than actual) evapotranspiration from measurement of the crop area and type and determination of ET using packages such as CROPWAT. Crop area and type can also be determined using remote sensing, or using the field data collected by the ID or Revenue Department. In determining these indicators due attention has to be paid to time horizons and the groundwater storage component. 20. In determining the core processes this study has adopted the conventional approach of following the “water pathway” from water source to crop root zone and crop water uptake and use. This water pathway thus comprises the following processes:

Storage

Diversion

Conveyance

Distribution

Application

Rainwater

Groundwater

xiv

Crop production

Drainage 21. Taking these as the core processes7 one is then able to analyse the factors (such the legal framework, management entity, etc.) which influence or control these processes, as well as identify indicators which can assess their performance. This then produces an analytical framework or matrix, as presented in Figure 2. These core processes make a central contribution to the scheme objectives of agricultural production, poverty alleviation and farmer livelihoods.

Figure 2: Component parts of core processes

Source: Authors

22. Figure 3 shows the link between the water resources available to a farmer in an MMI irrigation scheme, which comprise rainfall, surface water supplies and pumped supplies from groundwater. Depending on the hydrogeology losses from the surface water system recharge of the groundwater will take place, and, if not impaired by the groundwater quality, will be re-used by farmers, either within or outside the MMI command area. Who uses groundwater, when, its quality and where it comes from are key questions which therefore need to be asked if a true water balance of any MMI scheme is to be determined. Resolving the surface water-groundwater nexus is one of the biggest issues in improving WUE on MMI schemes. 23. The relative quantities of water being lost at the different levels need to be looked at carefully. The largest volume of water being lost is usually at the field level where the wetted surface area is high and percolation below the root zone is also high. This is particularly the case where rice is grown with ponded water. The next largest volume of

7 These processes build on the six core areas identified by the DSDAP report which comprised of (i) storage,

(ii) conveyance including distribution; (iii) on-farm application; (iv) participatory efforts; (v) crop management and (vi) research and development (R&D).

xv

water lost is at the on-farm level, where water is distributed field-to-field or through field channels. The management losses are high at this level, as are the seepage losses as the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter is low8. Relative to these losses the seepage losses in the main canal network are relatively small, but the management losses can be high if the irrigation scheduling or the level of control and management is poor.

Figure 3: Linkage between different water sources in an irrigation system

Source: Authors

24. An additional area where significant water savings can be made is in active management of rainwater, either by rainwater harvesting9 on field plots or by allowing for rainfall events in scheduling of irrigation water supplies. Rainwater harvesting can be particularly relevant where paddy is being grown, increasing bund heights to retain larger portions of rainfall events during Kharif can make a significant contribution to conserving water in reservoir-fed systems, leaving more water available for a subsequent Rabi crop. 25. Following the identification of the core processes the report has identified key performance indicators (KPIs, Figure 4) which can be used to measure (i) the outputs from the MMI scheme and (ii) the performance of individual processes. Measurement of the outputs enables management to see how the scheme is performing overall, whereas measurement of the processes can be used in diagnostic analysis to identify where performance can be improved. 26. The DSDAP study (Dhingra and Sen, 2012) found a number of issues in each of the core processes as did the FAO MASSCOTE studies. The findings of these studies were combined with other work (including the 12th FYP sub-committee on MMI and CAD), contributions from the study team’s specialists10, and discussions at the two regional workshops to produce a comprehensive list of issues and potential solutions, which were then summarised in the “problem” tree which provides the structure of the proposed National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP). These issues can be summarised as:

8 The lower the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter the higher the relative losses from the channel.

9 Capturing and retaining rainfall on individual plots.

10 Four specialists were engaged covering irrigation water management, information technology, groundwater and conjunctive use and participatory irrigation management.

xvi

Irrigation Departments focussed on construction of new schemes rather than management of completed schemes.

Schemes designed for protective, rather than productive, irrigation, resulting in schemes where water scarcity is built in from the outset. Whilst this may possible be better in theory by imposing deficit irrigation on farmers, it aggravates the competition for water between farmers.

Poor communication and liaison with the customer, the farmers.

Political interference in water allocation decision-making

Reservoir storage not conserved in Kharif for Rabi crop

No water accounting carried out

Inadequate measurement of water delivery, and little or no assessment of scheme performance (except for Maharashtra with its benchmarking programme).

Little or no accountability of the ID to water users for the service delivered. Figure 4: Linking core processes to performance indicators, process outputs and

scheme objectives

Source: Authors

Proposed solutions to identified issues are often limited to technical interventions (e.g. canal lining, drip irrigation, repair of structures).

A failure to understand the fundamental role that management has to play in ensuring good scheme performance.

Water available to scheme impacted by upstream watershed development

Siltation of reservoirs has reduced their storage capacity.

Changed hydrology since design.

Head-works capacity limits intake flow rate.

Significant level of unauthorised abstractions, both within the command area and by lift irrigation from main canals out of the design command area.

Failure to allow for rainfall in irrigation schedules and canal operation.

xvii

Cross drainage systems not functioning properly due to inadequate provision or damaged infrastructure.

Inadequate escape structures.

Lack of control structures.

Lack of measurement.

Lack of adequate maintenance.

Lack of adequate finances for system MOM.

Excessive seepage losses in some systems.

Cropping patterns differ from the design cropping pattern.

Head-end farmers cropping water-intensive crops, thus depriving tail-end farmers of water.

Supplies not matching actual cropping pattern.

Lack of scientific scheduling.

Loss of water to drains.

Night irrigation – gates not closed at night so water flows to drains.

Failure to regulate gates.

Over-irrigation at the field level due to a variety of causes, including a lack of knowledge, unreliable supplies (store what you can, when you can) and lack of on-farm coordination of irrigation.

Lack of adoption by farmers of modern practices and technology at the farm and plot level.

Lack of scientific water management all round. 27. All of the above issues can be addressed by focussing on improving service delivery (Figure 5). This tenet lies at the heart of the proposal for the NWUEISP; by looking to improve service delivery service providers, such as the Irrigation Department and WUAs, are provided with a simple strategic principle by which to address, measure and improve MMI scheme performance, and thereby water use efficiency.

Figure 5: Core elements of service delivery (after Huppert and Urban, 1998)

28. Improving service delivery becomes important in the context of the National Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF), established under the 12th FYP. By improving service delivery (which will include measures to improve participation by water users in scheme MOM) the level of water charges11 collected can be increased, leading to an increase in the funds available to the ID from central government for improvements in the management, operation and maintenance of I&D systems. This is a chicken and egg

11

or service fees if the ID negotiates an acceptable service contract with water users

SC

Payment

ServiceS - Specification

C - Conditions

Service Agreement

Service Provider

Water User

xviii

situation, the finances required to make the improvements required to improve the level of service might only be available after the improvements have been made. 29. It is in this context that it is believed that the NWUEISP can help, by providing targeted support to finance and implement proposals from participating state governments which will contribute to measurable improvements in scheme performance and water use efficiency in the short term, within a framework of longer term institutional reform, particularly in relation to re-engagement with participatory irrigation management.

30. There is a need to identify the “low hanging fruit” – effective interventions which can be introduced quickly and at low cost (without, for example, waiting for expensive and time consuming rehabilitation) which will result in measurable improvements in performance, and thus user satisfaction with service delivery. This concept needs to be further developed under the follow-on TA, but are likely to include the following elements: Technical Targeted maintenance work, including desilting

Repair of old and installation of new control structures

Upgrading of existing and installation of new measuring structures

CAD works to improve water distribution at on-farm level, preferably with lined channels or buried pipes (head permitting)

Selective lining of distributaries and minors

Introduction of control and measurement structures for minor off-takes/outlets)

Institutional Re-engage with participatory irrigation management

Strengthen WALMIs and NGOs to support PIM

Educate the ID in benefits of farmer participation

Strengthen WUAs in water management and maintenance.

Support WUAs in employing field staff (water masters) by using rebates from the water charge

Management Set performance targets

Measure performance, including crop production

Establish modern data collection, processing and analysis procedures, based on ITES.

Liaise and work with water users

Train ID staff in MOM

Improve scheduling to allow for rainfall

Monitor deliveries, establish user feedback system

Establish incentives and reward system for ID staff related to scheme performance and achievement of targets

Legal Amend the PIM Act to be more farmer-friendly and less prescriptive (involve water users in the redrafting)

Finance Carry out asset management surveys and prepare asset management plans (AMPs) for individual schemes

Increase funding to match AMPs

Assess the benefit/cost of increasing maintenance budget

Policy Focus on performance management

Accept PIM and farmer involvement in scheme management

Accept that management plays a central role in improving

xix

agricultural production and water use efficiency

Change the culture of the ID, from construction to management focus

Make the ID a multi-disciplinary organisation, with specialist expertise in a wide range of disciplines (irrigation, groundwater, ITES, computing, PIM, agriculture, etc.)

31. The ability to implement these, or any other solutions, is governed by certain constraints that States face in implementing such measures. These issues and associated constraints were discussed at two regional workshops in Chandigarh and Hyderabad. The main constraints identified included:

Lack of resources for modernizing I&D schemes

Lack of adequate funds for system maintenance

Lack of coordination between departments

Lack of resources and capability in the use of modern tools, such as remote sensing, GIS, CAD (computer aided design), databases, etc.

Lack of knowledge of how to implement volumetric supply and water charging

Lack of knowledge on how to carry out water accounting

Lack of knowledge about groundwater and conjunctive use (particularly its management)

ID is not multi-disciplinary; cadre is limited to civil engineers.

Rigid policies, with a focus on construction rather than management

Political interference and apathy

Lack of reliable and timely data

Reluctance for departments to share data

Lack of knowledge and understanding of on-farm practices and needs

Lack of human resources in specialist areas (e.g. ITES, remote sensing, GIS)

Lack of skills and limited capacity building in specialist areas

Lack of equipment for ITES

Weak WALMIs

Poorly performing WUAs and farmer engagement

Poor knowledge and understanding amongst ID staff of service delivery concepts

Lack of a rapid performance appraisal tool

Lack of support from senior management for PIM

Lack of knowledge and understanding amongst middle level managers about PIM principles, processes and procedures

Lack of knowledge and understanding amongst water users about the role and benefits of PIM.

32. This study has identified and structured the nature and extent of the issues facing MMI schemes in relation to improving water use efficiency, and proposed solutions, as summarized in Table 1. A key finding is the need for the development of procedures for rapid performance assessment (RPA) of MMI schemes, such that targeted interventions can be identified and implemented. It is suggested that these procedures be based on the FAO MASSCOTE procedures, but that these are updated to allow for Indian conditions. In particular there is a need to take greater account of the issues created by designing systems for protective irrigation, and to allow (if possible) for the often high level of disparity between the design and theoretical cropping patterns and schedules, and actual reality. It is proposed that these RPA procedures be further developed and tested by the follow-on TA and that guidelines produced which can be applied by suitably trained specialist ID teams to assess the performance of MMI schemes in each state. This approach, which will build on the CWC WUE assessment guidelines, will then

xx

provide a standardised approach to performance assessment, plus providing a baseline for each scheme. These procedures will be developed and tested on two pilot schemes by the follow-on project12 which have been identified in consultation with MOWR. 33. The findings detailed in this report and the annexures in Volume 2 have formed the basis for the proposed National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP). The details of this proposed 12 year multitranche financing facility (MFF) are provided in Volume 3 – Draft Program Concept Paper.

34. The findings of the report were deliberated upon and accepted by an Inter-departmental Working Group and State level representatives during a meeting held on 19th March 2014. The matrix of recommendations of the participants of the meeting and the comments thereon of the ADB consultants are included in the main report. The general suggestions/comments of the Inter-departmental working group and state representatives would be considered during implementation of future phases of the project.

12

TA 7967-REG: Innovations for More Food with Less Water (Task 2), under which these Pilot Studies will be carried out, commenced in August 2013.

xxi

Table 1: Identified needs and proposed National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program activities

No. Identified need Possible ADB Support

Program activity Resources required Outputs/Outcomes

1. Reform of the Irrigation Department and CADAs, including:

Redefine roles and functions

Appointment of a new cadre of staff

Training of new and existing staff in water resources and irrigation management

Revised human resource management procedures

Modernised scheduling procedures

Introduction of performance management

Introduction of modern asset management procedures

Development of training programs for modern approaches to water resources and irrigation management. To include structured overseas training programs (such as at IHE-UNESCO in Delft) as well as capacity building of national and state institutions to provide training for ID staff in water resources and irrigation management (e.g. short 3 month intensive programs)

Exchange programs between states

Study tours to other states/countries (for WRM, IWM, PIM)

International and national TA (to assess training needs and identify training opportunities)

Identification of international and national education/training institutes/ universities

Scholarship program for ID staff from selected states

Scholarship programs for university/training institute staff from selected states (to build long term capacity in WRM and IWM)

Host countries with good examples of WRM, IWM, PIM

Funds for state exchange programs

More knowledgeable and skilled ID personnel

More knowledgeable and skilled teaching/training staff

Senior management strategic leadership program

International and national TA

International or national course on strategic leadership

Senior managers knowledgeable about strategic leadership, including change management

Senior management able to lead change and reform in the ID

Development of performance management systems for MMI schemes

Application of Rapid Performance Assessment (RPA) procedures (developed under TA 7967-REG)


State Government RPA Team

Senior and middle level managers monitoring and evaluating individual scheme performance

MMI schemes benchmarked, best practice schemes and performance gaps identified

Less well performing schemes supported and improved

Review of current scheduling processes and procedures on MMI schemes (in participating states) and recommendations for improvement,


Updated scheduling procedures which match supply to demand

Improved service delivery – more reliable, adequate and timely irrigation water

xxii

No. Identified need Possible ADB Support Program activity

Resources required Outputs/Outcomes

together with guidelines for implementation

supply

GW mapped in the commands and combined SW-GW scheduling

Modernising of ID’s data collection, processing and analysis processes and procedures incorporating ITES.


ITES equipment and software

Reliable, timely and accurate data and information for system management and performance monitoring

Trials to test procedures for volumetric water allocation, including water entitlements


Funds for installation of control and measuring structures

Funds for training of ID and WUA personnel, mass awareness campaign, etc.

Water allocated and charged on a volumetric basis

Increased performance

Increased transparency and accountability

Increased ISF income

Development of standard service contracts between the ID and water users


Pilot schemes

Agreed set of rules between ID and water users on levels of service to be provided and ISF payments to be made

Improved service delivery

Transparent fee setting to match MOM needs

ID held accountable for service delivery, water users held accountable for ISF payment

Introduction of asset management planning (AMP) procedures for I&D infrastructure


Pilot schemes

Asset management plans prepared for each MMI scheme, with associated identification of level of service to be provided and service fees to be charged

Value of assets and costs of maintenance, repair and replacement identified, together with valuation of lost production for different levels of maintenance funding

Funding matches maintenance needs

2. Reform of WALMIs , including:

Appointment of new staff

Creation of a

Development of training programs for modern approaches to water resources and irrigation management. To

Scholarship program for selected states and selected WALMI personnel

Funds to support

WALMIs capable of training ID, CADA and WUA personnel in water management

xxiii



permanent cadre of skilled trainers and researchers

Revised staffing levels and procedures

Creation of regional/district training centres and/or field training programs

Capacity building in water resources and irrigation management

Capacity building in PIM

include structured overseas training programs (such as at IHE-UNESCO in Delft)

Study tours to countries (for WRM, IWM, PIM)

Exchange and collaboration programs between WALMIs

Linkages with partner organisations in other countries

Liaison with other agencies/universities

Enhanced functions-support command extension services

exchange/ collaboration programs

3. Re-engagement with participatory irrigation management (PIM), including:

Revising PIM Acts

Creating specialist PIM Cells within the ID

Awareness raising and training of ID staff

Formation or re-formation of WUAs

Awareness raising amongst water users

Training of WUA management, particularly in operation and maintenance

Setting and collecting ISF for sustainable MOM

Supporting WUAs to employ executive staff (treasurers and water masters)

Participatory

Support for revision of PIM Acts


PIM Acts revised to be less prescriptive and more suited to community management approaches

Support for selected states to form PIM Cells


PIM Cells established in the ID which can then form and support WUAs

National WUA Capacity Building Program for NGOs

National TA from established NGOs (such as DSC in Gujarat)

State NGO capacity in PIM and WUA formation and support built to support state programs on PIM

Pilot trials for WUAs to employ staff

Selected functioning WUAs

National TA

Demonstration of the value of WUAs having paid staff to carry out key O&M functions

xxiv



M&E

4. Reform of the CAD&WM program, including:

Revised organisational framework and structures

Revised procedures

Revised objectives and functions

Modern surveying techniques

Increasing the pace of the programme

Strengthening Warabandi

Carry out study on improved on-farm and irrigation technologies, including shift to micro-irrigation (sprinkler/drip), on-farm storage, buried pipes, border strip, etc.in canal commands

Support for possible PPP on diversification

National TA from established water management institutions and NGOs

Private sector partner

Faster coverage of CAD activities

Shift to micro-irrigation wherever feasible

Improved on-farm water use efficiency through improved distribution and application

5. Upgrading and modernization of I&D system infrastructure for improved operation.

Targeted physical works to improve the operability of MMI schemes, specifically in relation to conveyance, control and measurement of irrigation water (works to include desilting, repair/replacement of old and installation of new control structures and installation of measuring structures).

Installation of modern control systems (automatic gates, remote control, telemetry, etc.)

International and national TA (to develop NWUEISP guidelines and advise on modern control systems)

State RPA teams

Improved levels of control and measurement, allowing closer alignment of planned and actual schedules of water delivery

Improved capacity of canals to convey planned discharges

Real-time operation of canal systems

Improved levels of service to water users, matching demand and supply

6. Modernisation of on-farm and in-field irrigation processes:

Introduction of modern irrigation application techniques (micro-irrigation, land levelling, etc.)

Irrigation scheduling

Water conservation approaches (SRI, AWD, etc.)

Conjunctive use of surface

Detailed study of how water is managed at the moment at the on-farm

International and national TA (possibly IWMI) supporting state university and/or WALMI

NGOs/ Private sector involvement

Knowledge of how irrigation water is currently used at the on-farm level

Recommendations and guidelines for improving water management at on-farm levels

Detailed study of how farmers use surface and groundwater conjunctively


Knowledge of conjunctive use of SW and GW at the on-farm level

Recommendations and guidelines for improving conjunctive use at the on-farm level together with at the main system level (i.e. allowance for conjunctive use in

xxv



and ground water resources

main system scheduling)

7. Improved water use efficiency through conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources

Support to establish pilot schemes where surface and groundwater can be managed conjunctively, including:

GW mapping

Identification of current conjunctive use

Opportunities for future conjunctive use

Options for GW recharge

WUA participation conjunctive use management


Collaboration between ID and GW Board

Funds for mapping, etc.

Functioning and active WUAs

Surface and groundwater resources managed in an integrated manner

WRM – Water resources management; IWM – Irrigation water management; PIM – Participatory irrigation management; AMP – Asset management planning; CADA – Command Area Development Authority

xxvi

1

I. INTRODUCTION

A. Purpose of the study

1. The purpose of the study is to deliver a program concept addressing states and central agencies constraints to successfully implement the National Water Mission and 12th Five Year Plan water use efficiency reform agendas1. The program concept more specifically focusses on addressing water use efficiency (WUE) on selected major and medium irrigation (MMI) schemes which represent about 80 percent of the government created irrigation potential in India. 2. The study seeks to answer the following questions: i) How should we define water use efficiency, and its improvement, on MMI schemes? ii) What is the current status of WUE on MMI schemes? iii) What are the issues facing Irrigation Departments in improving WUE to meet the

NWM/12th FYP targets, and how can these be resolved?

B. Overview of work carried out

3. To achieve this outcome the approach recommended by the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR) consisted of organising state consultation through regional and national workshops. These workshops provided a forum for presentation of findings and recommendations of previous ADB funded studies and discussion with state and central agency representatives on the issues they face with improving water use efficiency on MMI schemes, the constraints they face in implementing the NWM/12th Five Year Plan agendas and possible options to address these constraints. 4. Additional work was carried out to build on the analytical framework developed in the previous ADB-funded DASDP2 study and to develop a typology for MMI schemes based on WUE issues and opportunities. The MoWR guidelines for the preparation of Detailed Project Reports (DPRs) were reviewed and recommendations made for updating the guidelines to improve WUE in the project and basin context. Two pilot schemes were identified for which further studies are being carried out now under the ADB funded TA 7967-REG study which commenced on August 2013. A draft Project Concept Paper for a national water use efficiency improvement program was also prepared.

C. Structure of report

5. The report starts with providing background information to the study. This covers the National Water Mission (NWM) and 12th Five Year Plan (FYP) reform agendas, the DSDAP study and a review of selected other studies, together with a summary of approaches, definitions and terms used for addressing water use efficiency on irrigation schemes. This is followed with details of the work carried out during the study followed by identification of an analytical framework and potential measures for improving the water use efficiency on MMI schemes.

1 The Terms of Reference for the study are provided in Annexure I of volume-II of this report

2 ADB - RSC C13535 (IND) and C13696 (IND), July 2012, Sector Study on Development of Synthesis and

Action Plan for Improving Water Use Efficiency of Irrigated Agriculture in selected Indian States, Final Report; Amarjit S Dhingra and Rahul Sen, Consultants

2

II. BACKGROUND

A. Water resources development

6. India is endowed with water as a precious natural resource; however, its variability in different regions and over time limits its use for different purposes. Central Water Commission (CWC) has assessed India’s surface water potential at 1869 billion cubic meters (BCM), of which 690 BCM is considered utilizable, Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) has assessed additional replenishable groundwater resource as 433 BCM. The National Commission on Irrigation and Water Resources Development (NCIWRD) projected both low and high water use requirements for three scenarios of 2010, 2025 and 2050 as given in Table II.1 and concluded that India would fully utilize its water resources by 2050. Table II.1: Gross water availability and requirements of all water use in India under

different scenarios

Source

Average Annual Utilizable Water

Availability* (BCM)

Requirements** (BCM)

1997 2010 2025 2050

1997 Last

Assessed Low High Low High Low High

Surface Water 690 399 447 456 497 545 641 752

Ground Water 433 230 247 252 287 298 332 428

Total 1123 629 694 710 784 843 973 1180

Return Flows (SW+GW) 96 116 110 107 125 123 169

Unutilized Surface Water 334 295 284 263 219 140 42

Unutilized Ground Water 219 203 202 146 149 96 33

Unutilized Total 553 498 486 409 368 236 75

Source: * - CWC & CGWB; ** - NCIWRD

7. The indicative average annual water balance for India is shown in Table II.2. This table suggests a significant portion of the water loss occurs as natural and anthropogenic (related to human activity) evapotranspiration.

Table II.2: Indicative water balance for India, present and ultimate stage of development

Item Natural

Condition 1997 2050 Item

Natural Condition

1997 2050

Input Output

Rainfall (BCM) 4000 4000 4000 Evapo-Transpiration (Natural)

2347 2347 2347

Trans boundary Flow (BCM, Assumed by NCIRD)

300 300 300 Withdrawal (human activity related)

0 629 1180

Returns 0 186 259 Flows to sea and Trans-boundary

1953 1510 1032

Total Inputs (BCM) 4300 4486 4559 Total Output 4300 4486 4559

Anthropogenic evapotranspiration out of withdrawals (BCM) 0 443 921

Source: Report of the NCIWRD

8. The above tables show the water balance on a national scale, but the water balance differs from region to region and state to state. Table II.3 presents the total and average per capita water availability for the major river basins (Figure II.1). The data demonstrate the wide variability in the available water resource, ranging from a low of

3

409 m3/capita for the Westerly Flowing River (WFR1) basins in the northwest to 2,448 m3/capita for the Narmada basin.

Table II.3: Renewable and utilizable water resources of river basins

Source: Amarasinghe et al, 2004

9. Work by IWMI (Amarasinghe et al, 2004) categorized river basins according to water scarcity and food surplus/deficit. Figure II.2 summarizes the analysis, with water scarcity and food deficit in the north-west, and water and food surplus in the east. This study provides a broad analysis for the major river basins; it did not look at sub-basins, in which there may be localized water and food surpluses/deficits.

10. A further study by IWMI in 2007 (Amarasinghe et al, 2007) looked at India’s water future to 2025-2050, specifically to make estimates for the water demand for agriculture, domestic and industrial uses in 2025 and 2050. The study used the PODIUMSIM model3 which has four major components: (i) crop demand: (ii) crop production; (iii) water demand; and (iv) water accounting. The model assumed continuation of recent trends (i.e. business-as-usual, BAU) together with some analyses with variation of some of the key drivers.

11. The analysis showed some important changes in the balance of water resources utilization, with domestic and industrial use increasing significantly relative to irrigation (Table II.4). This represents a major change from the historical pattern of development in India, where horizontal expansion of the irrigated area has predominated.

3 The PODIUMSIM (Policy Dialogue) model was developed by IWMI as tool for simulating alternative scenarios for future variations of food and water demands (http://podium.iwmi.org/podium/).

Noa. River basin

Surface

water

Ground

waterc

Total Percentage from

groundwater

TRWR PUWR

km3

km3

km3

km3

% m3

m3

All basins 1,887 690 343 1,033 33% 2,025 1,108

17 basinsd

1,253 666 308 975 32% 1,411 1,098

1 Indus 73.3 46 14.3 60.3 24% 1,501 1,235

2 Mahi 11 3.1 3.5 6.6 53% 1,649 990

3 Narmada 45.6 35 9.4 43.9 21% 2,542 2,448

4 Sabarmati 3.8 1.9 2.9 4.8 60% 631 797

5 Tapi 14.9 14.5 6.7 21.2 32% 831 1,183

6 WFR1 15.1 15 9.1 24.1 38% 257 409

7 WFR2 200.9 36.2 15.6 51.8 30% 3,871 998

8 Brahmani and Baitarni 28.5 18.3 3.4 21.7 16% 1,703 1,296

9 Cauvery 21.4 19 8.8 27.8 32% 656 852

10 EFR1 22.5 13.1 12.8 25.9 49% 1,169 1,346

11 EFR2 16.5 16.7 12.7 29.4 43% 423 753

12 Ganga 525 250 136.5 386.5 35% 1,418 1,044

13 Godavari 110.5 76 33.5 109.8 31% 1,441 1,431

14 Krishna 78.1 58 19.9 77.9 26% 1,133 1,130

15 Mahanadi 66.9 50 13.6 63.6 21% 2,463 2,341

16 Pennar 6.3 6.3 4.0 10.9 37% 440 762

17 Subarnarekha 12.4 6.8 1.7 8.5 20% 829 568

18 Bramhaputra 585.6 24.3 25.7 48 54% 17,661 1,448

19 Meghna 48.4 1.7 8.5 10.2 83% 4,830 1,018

Notes: a. Refer to map given in Figure 5.

b. Source: CWC (2002).

c. The volume of potentially utilizable groundwater resources is the volume of groundwater replenished from normal natural discharge

d. All the basins except the Brahmaputra and Meghna.

Water resources available per

capita

Total renewable

water resource

(TRWR)

Westerly

flowing

rivers

Easterly

flowing

rivers

Potentially utilizable water resource (PUWR)b

4

Figure II.1: River basins of India

1. Indus 2. Mahi 3. Narmada 4. Sabarmati 5. Tapi 6. Westerly flowing rivers – Group 1

(WFR1) 7. Westerly flowing rivers – Group 2

(WFR2) 8. Brahmani and Baitarani 9. Cauvery 10. Easterly flowing rivers – Group 1

(EFR1) 11. Easterly flowing rivers – Group 2

(EFR2) 12. Ganga 13. Godavari 14. Krishna 15. Mahanadi 16. Pennar 17. Subarnarekha 18. Brahmaputra 19. Meghna


Figure II.2: River basins categorized on water scarcity and food surplus/deficit


5

12. The basic dynamics of irrigation development in India are changing. In the past there has been sufficient water and land available to expand the irrigated area. This is no longer the case, with both good quality land and adequate water now constraining further development in many states. Many states are now entering a period of vertical integration, where better management of existing irrigation systems rather than construction of new schemes predominate. This transition will require new skills and expertise within Irrigation Departments if they are to meet the current and upcoming challenges.

Table II.4: Business-as-usual scenario water projections, 2000-2050


13. Table II.5 highlights this situation by showing the estimated4 ultimate irrigation potential and the irrigation potential created in each State. The final column shows the remaining estimated potential, with minimal or zero potential for new development now remaining in several states, including Jharkhand, Kerala, Nagaland, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, and other states moving towards fulfillment of the estimated potential.

14. It is likely that the ultimate irrigation potential in each state needs to be reviewed in the light of the growth of the urban population and the increasing demand for water for industry. It may be that rather than developing further areas under irrigation the water should be used for other purposes. Whilst the political imperative has been to support irrigation as a means for lifting the rural population out of poverty, it may be that consideration now needs to be given to providing adequate water resources to the younger generation of farming families who are moving to the urban centers in search of work and livelihoods. 15. According to Amarasinghe et al (2007) as a result of the growth in demand for water many rivers will be physically water-scarce by 2050 (Figure II.3). Development of 10 river basins, with 75 percent of the total population, will be well over 60 percent by 2050. These basins will have developed all of the potentially utilizable water resources; water reallocation (and possibly conflict) between sectors will be a common occurrence in these basins.

16. In many basins groundwater, with the current levels of recharge and groundwater use patterns, will be in severe crisis. Solutions proposed to address this water scarcity are to:

(i) increase crop productivity for each unit of water used (“more crop per drop”); (ii) increase groundwater resources through artificial recharge;

4 The findings of the table II.5 are based on available data of the Planning Commission

Sector

Total Total Total

Bm3

Bm3

Bm3

2025 2050

Irrigation 605 45 675 45 637 51 12% 5%

Domestica

34 50 66 45 101 50 94% 197%

Industrialb

42 30 92 30 161 30 119% 283%

Total 680 44 833 43 900 47 23% 32%

a. Domestic withdrawals include demand from livestock

b. Industrial withdrawals include colling needs for power generation

Percentage

increases from % from

groundwater

% from

groundwater

% from

groundwater

2000 2025 2050

6

(iii) concentrate on economic activities where the value of water is very high5, or transfer water from water-rich basins.

Figure II.3: Indicators of growing water scarcity, 2000 -2025


5 The value of water can be assessed in a variety of ways, including in terms of wealth created, livelihoods

supported (whether rural or urban), votes obtained, basic needs (food security) and protection of the environment.

7

Table II.5: Comparison of feasible irrigable area, irrigation potential created and actual areas irrigated in selected States (Conclusions drawn in this table are notional and reflect trend of development. Actual level of development in states may differ as on date)

Major irrigation states Large (>3mha) High (>80%) High (>80%) High (>60%) High (>80%) Large (>50%)

Key irrigation states Moderate (1-3mha) Mod. (40-80%)Mod. (40-80%)Med. (30-60%)Mod. (40-80%)Mod. (20-50%)

Small (<1mha) Low (<40%) Low (<40%) Low (<30%) Low (<40%) Small (<20%)

Created Utilized Created Utilized Created Utilized

Col.1 Col.2 Col.3 Col.4 Col.5 Col.6 Col.7 Col.8 Col.9 Col.10 Col.11 Col.12 Col.13 Col.4/Col.

2

Col.7/Col.4 Col.12/Col.7 Col.13/Col.1

2

(Col.7-

Col.12)/

Andhra Pradesh 27.51 10.41 12.76 5 6.26 11.26 3.6 3.24 3.09 2.84 6.69 6.09 46% 88% 59% 91% 41%

Arunachal Pradesh 8.37 0.16 0.27 0 0.17 0.17 0 0 0.11 0.09 0.12 0.09 3% 63% 71% 75% 29%

Assam 7.84 2.73 3.96 0.97 1.9 2.87 0.3 0.21 0.63 0.51 0.93 0.72 51% 72% 32% 77% 68%

Bihar 9.42 5.66 7.9 5.22 5.66 10.89 2.88 1.81 4.76 3.79 7.64 5.61 84% 138% 70% 73% 30%

Chattisgarh 13.52 4.8 5.6 1.15 0.57 1.72 0.57 0.95 0.66 0.53 1.23 1.47 41% 31% 72% 120% 28%

Goa 0.37 0.14 0.17 0.06 0.05 0.12 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.05 46% 71% 50% 83% 50%

Gujarat 19.6 9.62 10.73 3 3.1 6.1 2.23 1.84 2.02 1.89 4.25 3.73 55% 57% 70% 88% 30%

Haryana 4.42 3.57 6.32 3 1.51 4.51 2.19 1.89 1.64 1.58 3.83 3.48 143% 71% 85% 91% 15%

Himachal Pradesh 5.57 0.55 0.96 0.05 0.3 0.35 0.02 0.01 0.17 0.14 0.19 0.15 17% 36% 54% 79% 46%

Jammu & Kashmir 22.22 0.75 1.11 0.25 1.11 1.36 0.22 0.18 0.45 0.4 0.68 0.58 5% 123% 50% 85% 50%

Jharkhand 7.97 1.77 2.09 1.28 1.18 2.46 2.13 0.24 1.59 1.55 3.72 1.78 26% 118% 151% 48% 0%

Karnataka 19.18 10.03 11.67 2.5 3.47 5.97 1.13 2.12 0.7 0.65 1.82 2.77 61% 51% 30% 152% 70%

Kerala 3.89 2.19 2.99 1 1.68 2.68 1.45 0.59 2.3 2.18 3.75 2.77 77% 90% 140% 74% 0%

Madhya Pradesh 30.83 14.86 19.04 4.85 11.36 16.21 1.47 1.17 0.57 0.39 2.04 1.56 62% 85% 13% 76% 87%

Maharashtra 30.77 17.62 22.38 4.1 4.85 8.95 3.49 2.31 3.06 2.65 6.55 4.96 73% 40% 73% 76% 27%

Manipur 2.23 0.14 0.22 0.14 0.47 0.6 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.07 0.2 0.15 10% 273% 33% 75% 67%

Meghalaya 2.24 0.23 0.28 0.02 0.15 0.17 0 0 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.05 13% 61% 35% 83% 65%

Mizoram 2.11 0.12 0.12 0 0.07 0.07 0 0 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 6% 58% 29% 50% 71%

Nagaland 1.66 0.33 0.38 0.01 0.08 0.09 0 0 0.09 0.07 0.09 0.07 23% 24% 99% 78% 1%

Orissa 15.57 5.85 8.8 3.6 5.2 8.8 1.97 1.88 1.65 1.44 3.62 3.32 57% 100% 41% 92% 59%

Punjab 5.04 4.25 7.99 3 2.97 5.97 2.57 2.51 3.43 3.37 6 5.88 159% 75% 101% 98% 0%

Rajasthan 34.22 16.77 20.8 2.75 2.38 5.13 2.86 2.53 2.47 2.37 5.33 4.9 61% 25% 104% 92% 0%

Sikkim 0.71 0.1 0.13 0.02 0.05 0.07 0 0 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 18% 54% 43% 100% 57%

Tamil Nadu 13.01 5.17 6.23 1.5 4.03 5.53 1.56 1.56 2.14 2.13 3.7 3.69 48% 89% 67% 100% 33%

Tripura 1.05 0.28 0.42 0.1 0.18 0.28 0.01 0.01 0.13 0.12 0.15 0.13 40% 67% 54% 87% 46%

Uttar Pradesh 24.09 16.81 25.82 12.15 17.48 29.64 8.78 6.81 23.6 18.87 32.39 25.68 107% 115% 109% 79% 0%

Uttarakhand 5.35 0.79 1.22 0.35 0.52 0.86 0.29 0.19 0.52 0.41 0.81 0.6 23% 70% 94% 74% 6%

West Bengal 8.88 5.52 9.78 2.3 4.62 6.92 1.75 1.57 4.02 3.28 5.78 4.86 110% 71% 84% 84% 16%

Total 328.73 141.35 190.28 58.47 81.43 139.89 41.64 33.74 60.1 51.48 101.74 85.22 58% 74% 73% 84% 2.7

Source: Data for use of Deputy Chairman, Planning Commission, May 2011, Government of India

Remaining

estimated

potential

area to be

developed

IndicatorsState/UTs Net

Cultivat

ed Area

(mha)

Gross

Cultivate

d Area

(mha)

Ultimate Irrigation Potential

(mha)

Irrigation Potential created till March 2007 (mha)

Major &

Medium

Irrigation

Minor

Irrigation

Total Major & Medium

Irrigation

Minor Irrigation Total

Utilized

Irrigated

Area/ Total

Created

Total

Land

Area

(mha)

Total Gross

cultivated

area/ Total

land area

Ultimate

Irrigation

Potential/

Gross

Cultivated

Total

Created

Irrigated

Area/

Ultimate

8

17. There are two key drivers for the future development of water resources in India, population growth and economic development. Using demographic projection data from the UN (UN, 2002) Mohan and Dasgupta (2004) argue that the twenty first century will be the “Asian urban century”. This is based on analysis of the data (Figure II.4) which show that in Asia the urban population will have increased from 0.25 billion in 1950 to an estimated 2.8 billion in 2030. In India this would mean 40 percent of the population would live in urban centers by 2030, increasing to between 48-60 percent by 2050 (Verma and Phansalkar, 2007);

Figure II.4: Growth in urban population, 1950-2030

18. Figure II.5 also points towards the growing importance of the urban and industrial sectors in the Indian economy. Whist agricultural production has just managed to keep up with population growth the GDP has risen sharply since 1980-81. This sharp increase cannot be attributed to the agricultural sector; its growth has been relatively low over the last 30 years. Urban-based economic activity, industry and the service sectors are the most likely contributors to this change in the GDP, reflecting in turn increased employment and levels of income for an increasingly significant proportion of the population.

Figure II.5: Population growth, GDP and food grain production, 1950-2011

Source: Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner (ORGCC), 2011

Source: UN 2002; Mohan and Dasgupta, 2004

9

B. National Water Policy (2012)

19. Goal 5 listed in the National Water Mission document outlined as ‘promotion of basin level integrated water resources’ recognizes the need to review the ‘national water policy’ document (2002) inter-alia to ensure in the long run the universal set of ‘IWRM’ for conserving water, minimizing wastages, and ensuring more equitable distribution while developing basin level management strategies and appropriate entitlement and pricing under regulatory mechanism. The short term objective of increasing WUE of MMI projects should thus be considered as a small but very relevant sub-set and thus strategies considered responsible for enhancing WUE have to be fully inter-woven within the overall frame work of IWRM. National Water Policy now stands thoroughly revised22. While it is not within the purview this study to analyse the entire text of NWP, the following key provisions and the observations there on are outlined here precisely in the context of enhancing WUE for MMI. 20. Preamble - India recognizes water as a scarce national resource fundamental to life, livelihood, food security and sustainable development. Recognizing that the availability of utilizable water under further constraints is leading to competition among different users, there is a growing concern on spreading scarcity due to its life sustaining characteristics and its economic value, mismanagement, poor governance, minimum ecological needs, inefficient use and rising pollution. The National water Policy (NWP) thus takes cognizance of the situation and has sketched a framework of creation of a system of laws and institutions and has drawn a plan of action considering water as a unified resource. 21. Water framework law – Considering that water is a state subject and the States have exclusive right to frame policies, laws and regulations on development and management of water, NWP has rightly recognized the need to evolve a broad over-arching national legal framework of general principles on water to lead the way for essential legislation on water governance in every State and UT and devolution of necessary authority to the local governments to deal with water in an effective lawful manner. To achieve this objective, the NWP suggests that water held by the States need be managed as a community resource under public trust doctrine to achieve food security, livelihood, and equitable sustainable development for all. To achieve this aim comprehensive legislation supporting inter-state coordination on scientific planning of land and water resources with basin as unit and with unified perspectives of water in all forms 23 and ensuring holistic and balanced development of the catchments and command areas. This is essentially the fundamental principle of IWRM leading to a systematic approach to basin planning and management in a coordinated spirit. 22. Priority on use of water – NWP recognized the need for different use and suggests optimized utilisations for diverse use for which awareness on water as a scarce resource should be fostered. Governance institutions must ensure access to a minimum quantity of potable water for essential health and hygiene to all its citizens at their household. Ecological needs should be determined through scientific studies and a portion of water in rivers should be kept aside to meet ecological requirements. Regulated use of ground water should also consider contribution of base-flow to the river during lean seasons through regulated ground water use. This is a much needed clear deviation from the past policies24 wherein priorities on diverse use were defined with a remark that priorities can be modified in particular region and area specific conditions.

22

Nation Water Council approved the NWP in its 6th meeting held on 28

th December 2012 at New

Delhi with minor changes. 23

All forms of water include water as precipitation, soil moisture, ground and surface water 24

GOI, NWP (1987) and NWP (2002)

10

Scarcity conditions forced review of the policy on this regard with a rider that minimum requirements for health & hygiene and ecology would alone be prioritized for human survival; otherwise water should be treated as an economic good with higher priorities towards basic livelihood support to poor and ensuring national food security. Critics view this shift in policy would render agriculture irrelevant in the interest of industrialization. However, this shift ensures optimum economic sustainability to water resources utilization in the long run and thus is very much within the purview of IWRM and increase in WUE within short term context of IWRM. 23. NWP on impact of climate change – NWP recognizes the importance of adaptation to the impacts of climate change by the community through resilient technologies and endorses adaptation to strategies on increasing storages25, demand management26, stake holder’s participation27, and paradigm shift in design of river valley projects in coping with strategies to mitigate the impacts of climate change. 24. Enhancing water availability for different use – The availability of water should be periodically and scientifically reviewed and reassessed in various basins every five years considering changing trends in climate change and accounted for in the planning process. Aquifers need be mapped to reassess their potential as well and trends in declining water levels due to over-exploitation need be reversed. Integrated watershed development activities with groundwater perspectives need be adopted to enhance soil moisture, reduce sediment yield, and increase overall land use productivity of rural development schemes.

25. Demand management – The policy recommends evolution of a system of benchmarks for water uses for different uses, water footprints, and water auditing to promote and incentivize efficient use of water with clear emphasis on improving ‘project’ and ‘basin’ water use efficiencies through appropriate water balance and water accounting studies. Institutional arrangements for promotion, regulation and evolving mechanisms for efficient use of water at basin/sub-basin level need be established. Project appraisal and environmental impact assessment for water uses to inter-alia include: (i) analysis of water foot prints, (ii) recycle and reuse including return flows to be a general norm, (iii) incentivizing economic use of water to facilitate competition, (iv) adaptation to water saving means in agriculture such as controlled cropping patterns in endowment with climate, micro irrigation, recycling canal seepage through planned conjunctive use, (v) monitoring a performance and (vi) reclamation of commands from waterlogging, salinity and alkalinity. 26. Regulation of water prices – Principle of differential pricing is retained for pre-emptive and high priority use for sustaining eco-system for ensuring food security and supporting livelihood for the poor. Other than these consideration, water should be subjected to allocation and pricing on economic principles. A water regulatory authority should be established in each state to fix and periodically review and regulate the water tariff system and charges according to the principles of NWP. Volumetric assessment and allocation, entitlement and distribution should be the criteria to ensure equity,

25

Increase in storages in all forms namely soil moisture, ponds, groundwater, small and large reservoirs, and their combination to provide a mechanism for increased availability of water is recognized.

26 Demand management is considered compatible to agricultural strategies such as cropping patterns and improved water application methods (land levelling, shift to drip, sprinkler etc.) as they enhance water use efficiency

27 Stakeholders participation is envisaged in the fields of land-soil-water management with scientific inputs from local and academic institutions to evolve different agricultural strategies, reducing soil erosion and improving soil fertility.

11

efficiency and economic principles. WUAs need be given statutory powers to collect and retain a portion of water charges and reuse of recycled water should be incentivized.

27. Project planning & implementation – The NWP document recognises the need for planning the water resources projects as per efficiency benchmarks to address the challenge of impeding climate change factors. The projects should incorporate social and environmental aspects in addition to the techno-economic aspects through consultative processes with governments, local bodies, project affected people, beneficiaries and stakeholders. The projects should be developed pari-passu so that benefits accrue from day one, which implies there is no gap in potential creation and that utilization.

28. Institutional arrangements – The policy has inter-alia suggested a need for establishing institutions on: (i) establishing a forum at the national level to deliberate upon issues relating to water and evolve consensus, (ii) similar mechanism at the State/UT level to amicably resolve the differences in competing demands among different users, (iii) basin specific institutions dealing with collection, collation and analysis of data and dissemination information in a transparent manner, (iv) institutions on monitoring water quality of each river basin etc. The existing institutions departments, organizations at both state and central level should be restructured and made multi-disciplinary to promote IWRM. 29. Data base and information needs – The policy stresses the need for establishing a ‘national water informatics centre’ to collect, collate and process all hydrologic and water related information (other than those of classified nature) and maintain all information in an open and transparent manner on a GIS platform.

30. Capacity building, research and training needs – The NWP emphasises on the need for continuous research and advancement of technology, implementing newer research findings, importance of water balance in spatial and temporal context, water auditing for projects and hydrological systems, bench marking and performance evaluation. The policy stresses on the need for adaptation of advanced information technologies and analytical technologies in both public and private sectors and suggests establishment of an autonomous centre for research in water policy to evaluate the impacts of policy decisions and frame newer policy charters. Need for regular training of the manpower for skill in water management is also recognized. 31. The provisions of the new NWP are clearly endorsing the principles of IWRM and suggesting that the framework for water planning, development and management should be clearly governed by these principles. Any strategic action taken from now on should thus follow a systematic holistic advancement towards achieving IWRM goals. C. National Water Mission reform agenda

32. The National Water Mission (NWM) was identified as one of eight key areas requiring strategic interventions under the National Action Plan for Climate Change (NAPCC). The main objective of the NWM is stated as being (NWM, 2011):

“conservation of water, minimizing wastage and ensuring its more equitable distribution both across and within States through integrated water resources development and management”.

33. In its guiding document (NWM, 2011) the Mission has identified various strategies leading towards integrated planning for sustainable development and efficient management of the nation’s water resources with the active participation of stakeholders. The Mission’s concern is that climate change and changes in land use will affect the

12

quantity and quality of the available water resources, with the most vulnerable areas being: (i) drought prone areas, (ii) flood prone areas, (iii) the coastal regions, (iv) the region with deficient rainfall, (v) areas with over-exploited, critical and semi-critical stage of ground water development, (vi) water quality affected areas, and (vii) snow-fed river basins. 34. This concern has led to the development of a strategy for mitigation and management with five identified goals: (i) creation of a comprehensive water data base in the public domain and assessment of the impact of climate change on water resources; (ii) promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and preservation; (iii) focused attention on vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas; (iv) increasing water use efficiency by 20%, and (v) promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.

35. The key components of these goals are outlined below: (i) Creating a comprehensive water data base in the public domain and assessment of

the impact of climate change on water resources

All available data to be placed in the public domain by 2012

Review, collection and posting of additional data needs by March 2012

Review of basin-wise water status by March 2012

Identified priority areas are targeted by 2012.

(ii) Promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and preservation.

Empowerment and involvement of key stakeholders, including Panchayati Raj and Water Users’ Associations

Promotion of participatory irrigation management

Engagement of NGOs in water resources management activities

Involve and encourage corporate sector/industries to engage in water conservation and preservation

Sensitize relevant stakeholders in dark and grey blocks by 2011-12

(iii) Focused attention on vulnerable areas including over-exploited areas

Complete comprehensive assessment of groundwater resources by March 2011

Put revised master plan for groundwater recharge in the public domain by September 2011

All over-exploited areas to be covered by groundwater recharge by end of 12th Fiver Year Plan

Expeditious implementation and completion of water resources projects, particularly multi-purpose projects with carry-over storage in drought and rain deficit areas

Promotion of traditional systems of water conservation

Conservation and preservation of wetlands

Adoption of a systematic approach to flood management.

(iv) Increasing water use efficiency by 20%, and

Increase water use efficiency by 2017

Reduction of the gap of about 15 percent between irrigation potential created and irrigation potential utilised by half by 2017

Production of guidelines on recycling of water, including wastewater, by March 2011

13

Promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies, including micro irrigation and “Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Programme”

Implement Pilot Projects for improved water use efficiency by March 2012

Promotion of Water Regulatory Authorities for equitable water distribution and rational water charges.

(v) Promotion of basin level integrated water resources management.

Review of National Water Policy by Ministry of Water Resources by 2011

Preparation of guidelines for different uses of water in a basin context by March 2012.

36. In order to address the multidisciplinary nature of issues related to water resources development and management the National Water Mission constituted six Sub-Committees covering: (i) Policy and Institutional Framework; (ii) Surface Water Management; (iii) Ground Water Management; (iv) Domestic and Industrial Water Management; (v) Efficient Use of Water for Various Purposes; and (vi) Basin Level Planning and Management. These Sub-Committees contributed to the formulation of the goals and actions stated above.

37. The Mission’s Comprehensive Mission Document (CMD) sets out in detail the strategies and actions to be followed to achieve the above goals, with each strategy seeking to address key areas of concern highlighted in the NAPCC. In relation to this study the key points to be addressed are summarised in Table II.6 below. 38. From the actions detailed in the Main Report and Annexures to the CMD the following key points in relation to improving the WUE on MMI schemes are noted: (i) There is seen to be an important role for Water Regulatory Authorities for ensuring

equitable water distribution and rational charges to cover the costs of service provision;

(ii) For MMI schemes, even those with storage facilities, there can be significant annual variations in the water supply available. This can have a significant impact on the efficiency of water use, with efficiencies generally being higher when water is scarce;

(iii) A comprehensive water resources information system (WIS) needs to be established;

(iv) Measurement processes and procedures need to be updated using modern technology, including remote sensing, GIS and MIS;

(v) In general there needs to be a far more “scientific” approach to irrigation water management, at all levels from the main system down to the crop root zone;

(vi) Empowerment and involvement of Panchayati Raj institutions, Water Users’ Associations and NGOs in water resources and irrigation management is important. Promotion of participatory irrigation management is seen as particularly important;

(vii) A better understanding of groundwater aquifers and resources is required, coupled with improved procedures for conjunctive use of surface and groundwater supplies.

(viii) Groundwater recharge needs to be considered in relevant cases; (ix) A better understanding of groundwater aquifers and resources can usefully be

linked to improved community engagement in aquifer management (as practiced in Andhra Pradesh);

(x) There are significant opportunities for improving water use efficiency and productivity at the on-farm level, as has been demonstrated by the Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Programme (FPARP);

14

(xi) Further research is required into measures to improve water use efficiency, and to measure the relative benefits of different measures;

(xii) For each MMI system a complete water assessment and water audit 28 , benchmarking and performance evaluation needs to be carried out (and published) periodically, taking account of all sources of water available to farmers;

(xiii) Management of the main system needs to be improved through the use of modern approaches, including computer-aided scheduling systems, automated control systems, improved demand estimation, etc.;

(xiv) Drainage water needs to be assessed and reused before it reaches saline “sinks”; (xv) Canal lining as a method of seepage control should be used with care as seepage

water is often reused29; (xvi) Improvements in water use efficiency should include both “hard” and “soft”

measures. Hard measures might include installing proportional distribution structures, lining of canals, land levelling, piped distribution, sprinkler and drip irrigation, etc. Soft measures might include introducing rotational supply, awareness raising of water saving measures, participatory management, etc.

39. The general conclusions from the Working Group on Surface Water Management were:

Water conveyance systems need to be made and managed much more efficiently.

When calculating efficiency as a ratio, in mathematical / scientific terms, define both the numerator and the denominator properly.

The Basin efficiency concept is scientifically superior, since the effective use of the return flows gets counted, and this encourages the optimum use of water, through conjunctive use, re-cycling and re-use.

Attempts should be made to increase the basin efficiencies, in potential or actual closed basins, to say 80% and above. The reduction of inadvertent evapo-transpiration, reducing returns to sinks, and conjunctive use, recycling and re-use would be the main strategies.

System efficiencies of any individual conveyance system also need to be improved, for better energy efficiency and improved management of financial resources. However, the externalities, in regard to uses outside this system, also need to be evaluated.

40. The general recommendations in relation to the irrigation sector from the Working Group on Efficient Use of Water for Various Purposes were:

Restructure and re-train the ID/WRDs for the purpose of sustainable water resources management;

To strengthen WALMIs to facilitate training and technical support to IDs/WRDs and WUAs

Adopt the motto “More crop per drop” as a guiding principle;

Carry out periodic evaluation studies of water resources projects;

Benchmarking can be an effective tool to assess the relative performance of I&D schemes;

Accurate measurement of water is essential for management. Based on this water audits should periodically be carried out of I&D systems;

28

The NWM envisages that this will be made a mandatory requirement to ensure proper water use

29 Canal lining, particularly in lower order canals, can be beneficial for other purposes such as significantly increased travel times and reduction in regular maintenance requirements.

15

Judicious use of canal lining can reduce losses;

Improved field irrigation methods can significantly improve water use efficiency (graded border, furrow, surge irrigation, pressurised irrigation, etc.)

Adoption of scientific water management practices, including determining and matching actual crop water needs rather than applying water duties, adoption of more efficient irrigation scheduling policies and rules;

Mass awareness campaigns to advise farmers on improved irrigation scheduling;

Ensuring adequate and timely irrigation water supplies through the use of modern technology, processes and procedures;

More responsibility needs to be given to users’ groups in the management, operation and maintenance of I&D schemes. PIM needs to be promoted and supported.

Drainage on I&D schemes needs to be improved to reduce problems of waterlogging and salinity;

Greater attention needs to be paid to managing conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources

Water resources development and management should be on the basis of the hydrological unit – the basin or sub-basin;

Water charges are low and not able to meet the O&M costs. These rates should be increased to enable sustainable O&M of systems, but with a match agreement from the ID to provide quality service delivery with reliable and timely water delivery;

Incentives and penalties should be provided, including volumetric water charging with irrigation charges linked to service delivery, awards for good performance, incentives for WUAs to encourage efficient use of water, and penalties for growing high water demand crops in water scarce schemes.

Incentive systems need to be established to promote artificial recharge of groundwater resources;

Table II.6: National Water Mission objectives and proposed actions Source: Comprehensive Mission Document, National Water Mission, Volume 1, April 2011

Page Issues identified/Reform proposed Relevance to

NWUEI-SP study

v, vi Objectives: Goal 2: Promotion of citizen and state actions for water conservation, augmentation and preservation

Empowerment and involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions, urban local bodies, Water Users’ Associations and primary stake holders in management of water resources with focus on water conservation, augmentation and preservation

Promote participatory irrigation management

Encourage participation of NGOs in various activities related to water resources management, particularly in planning, capacity building and mass awareness

Involve and encourage corporate sector / industries to take up support and promote water conservation, augmentation and preservation within the industry and as part of corporate social responsibility

Sensitization of all Panchayat members and their functionaries in dark and grey blocks will be completed by 2011-12.

Goal 4: Increasing water use efficiency by 20%

The timeline for action would be to increase water use efficiency by 20% by the year 2017

The gap of about 15% between the irrigation potential created and the irrigation potential utilized would also be reduced by half by the year 2017

Development of guidelines for incentivizing recycling of water including wastewater by March 2011.

Promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies including (a) promotion of micro irrigation techniques such as sprinkler and drip irrigation and (b) expansion of “Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Programme”

Sets the guidelines for the NWUEI-SP study.

16


NWUEI-SP study

Undertake Pilot projects for improvement in water use efficiency in collaboration with States by March 2012.

Promote Water Regulatory Authorities for ensuring equitable water distribution and rational charges for water facilities

Promote mandatory water audit including those for drinking water purposes

Adequate provision for operation & maintenance of water resources projects

Incentive through award for water conservation & efficient use of water

Incentivize use of efficient irrigation practices and fully utilize the created facilities

p.13 Table 3.2

Goal – 2: Promotion of citizen and state action for water conservation, augmentation and preservation

Strategy II.1: Empowerment and involvement of Panchayati Raj Institutions, urban local bodies, Water Users’ Associations and primary stake holders in management of water resources with focus on water conservation, augmentation and preservation:

a. Interactive session with policy makers for sensitization. b. Capacity Building for organizations associated with water resources development and management. c. Promotion of do-it-yourself action by citizens through intensive social communication.

Strategy II.2: Promote participatory irrigation management a. Encourage participatory irrigation management through “Command Area Development and Water Management Programme”. b. Encourage States to enact appropriate Participatory Irrigation Management (PIM) Act.

Strategy II.5: Encourage participation of NGOs in various activities related to water resources management, particularly in planning, capacity building and mass awareness

Important area for MMI schemes

Look for successful examples of engagement with water users in the management of I&D systems

Assess individual states position and current status in relation to this goal

P19. Goal – 4: Increasing water use efficiency by 20%

Increased productivity at the farm/field level through Farmers Participatory Action Research Programme (FPARP) working through Agricultural Universities, ICAR institutes, engineering colleges and WALMIs. Encouraging results so far, programme to be expanded.

This focus on on-farm improvements is important

Identify key actions leading to improved water savings and water use productivity

Need to carefully define WUE, identify relevant indicators and then measure current WUE and monitor system performance following WUE improvement interventions.

P21. Waghad Irrigation Scheme given as an example of enhanced water productivity through PIM. System now managed by 24 WUAs under the Waghad Project Level Water Users Association (PLWUA) with assistance from the WRD. Water supplied volumetrically between WUAs and shared between farmers on a time-share basis. Significant improvement in performance before WUA formation and after.

Item Units Value before formation of PLWUA

Value after formation of PLWUA

Uses the term “water productivity” rather than “water use efficiency”

Could use Waghad as one of the case study examples

17


NWUEI-SP study

Irrigable area ha 9642 9642 Area irrigated ha 3212 10750 Mode of water supply - Area based Volumetric Average water charge collected

Rs 300,000 2,200,000

Recovery of water charges

% 60% 100%

Cropping pattern - Restricted Unrestricted Water entitlement - None Agreed,

transparent and enforced

Indicators: Average farmer’s income

Rs/ha 60,000 (2003/4)

120,000 (2008/9)

Cropping intensity % 33% 111% Fee recovery ratio % 60% 100% Fee recovery per unit area

Rs/ha 31 228

for WUE improvement measures.

Could use data from Waghad as benchmark for performance on other schemes

Find other similar case studies (such as Dharoi in Gujarat) and use data as benchmarks

P22 Table 3.4

Goal – 4: Increasing water use efficiency by 20%

Strategy IV.1: Research in area of increasing water use efficiency and maintaining its quality in agriculture, industry and domestic sector. Areas of interest:

Minimising evaporation losses

Increase storage - in groundwater, in reservoirs

Increase water use efficiency – reuse of drainage water, modernization of canals and distribution systems

PIM

Adaptation of crops and cropping patterns and water application Strategy IV.6 : Promotion of water efficient techniques and technologies

a. Promotion of micro irrigation techniques such as sprinkler and drip irrigation. b. Expand “Farmers’ Participatory Action Research Programme”.

Strategy IV.7 : Undertake Pilot projects for improvement in water use efficiency in collaboration with States

a. Pilot project for improving water use efficiency. b. Pilot project for improving efficiency of water system.

Strategy IV.8: Promote Water Regulatory Authorities for ensuring equitable water distribution and rational charges for water facilities Strategy IV.9: Promote mandatory water audit (including those for drinking water purposes)

a. Preparation of guidelines and manuals. Strategy IV.10: Adequate provision for operation & maintenance of water resources projects

a. Provisions for operation and maintenance of the projects to be appropriately enhanced. b. Pursue the implementation with State governments and other agencies.

Strategy IV.11: Incentive through award for water conservation & efficient use of water. Strategy IV.12: Incentivize use of efficient irrigation practices and fully utilize the created facilities

a. Preparation of appropriate guidelines. b. Initiation of actions by the States and other agencies.

Use as guidance for the approach to NWUEI-SP

Refer to recommendations of the Sub-Committees (Volume II of Mission document)

D. Twelfth Five Year Plan reform agenda

41. The 12th Five Year Plan proposes a fundamental change in the way that water resources and irrigation are managed in India. The proposed paradigm shift is the result of a new and inclusive approach to formulation of the plan which brought together

18

professionals and practitioners from government, civil society, academia and industry. The proposed paradigm shift comprises ten elements: (i) Large irrigation reform (ii) Participatory aquifer management (iii) Breaking the groundwater-energy nexus (iv) Watershed restoration and groundwater recharge (v) New approaches to rural drinking water and sanitation (vi) Conjoint water and wastewater management (vii) Industrial water (viii) Renewed focus on non-structural mechanisms for flood management (ix) Water database development and management (x) New institutional and legal framework. 42. The Plan recognises the growing crisis in the water sector, with increasing demands from a rapidly industrialising economy, fresh challenges from climate change, increased levels of conflict over water, declining groundwater levels and growing pressure on water eco-systems.

43. With over 80 percent of the currently available water being used for irrigation the Plan recognises the importance of improving the performance in the irrigation sector, in particular in major and medium irrigation (MMI) schemes where the water use efficiency is low. Despite the developed command area having increased from 9.7 million ha in the pre-Plan period to around 46 million ha by the Eleventh Plan utilisation of this created potential has failed to keep place. The 12th Five Year Plan thus sets a goal of increasing water use efficiency in the irrigation sector by 20 percent, thereby making more water available, not only for agriculture but also for other sectors of the economy. 44. The plan argues that Irrigation Departments have failed to keep up with growing MMI investments and have failed to manage them efficiently. One key area is a considerable backlog of deferred maintenance, with the World Bank estimating (in 2005) that Rs 19,000 crore would need to be spent on annual maintenance to redress the balance, some 20 times the current annual spending. Such a poor level of maintenance greatly limits the ID’s ability to provide good quality service. 45. To address these issues the Plan strongly recommends that IDs move away from their engineering-construction-centric focus to a multi-disciplinary participatory management approach with an emphasis on CAD and improved WUE. To incentivise states to take up this challenge the Plan has established the National Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF) which is a non-lapsable fund which will provide additional funds to the state for system MOM based on the state’s irrigation service fee (ISF) collection on a 1:1 basis. Under the NIMF there will be additional contributions if (i) WUAs collect and retain a portion of the ISF and (ii) ISF is collected on the basis of volumetric water supply. In this context the Plan sees empowering WUAs as central to the process of making the process of pricing of water and ISF collection more transparent and accountable.

46. Other elements of the proposed reform include IDs broadening their cadre of disciplines, to include agricultural engineers, social scientists, agronomists, etc. and re-orientating civil engineers to irrigation management rather than construction. To support this process of training and capacity building the Plan will provide support to national institutes to establish centres of excellence in irrigation management for research, education and training for senior managers.

19

47. Through this process the Plan envisages IDs moving towards performance management, utilising benchmarking and other management tools, and strengthened management information systems (MIS) to provide real-time information on system performance. 48. Under the Plan Command Area Development (CAD) will be revamped with all irrigation development to include CAD works from the very beginning, thus ensuring that each project proposal will plan for delivery of irrigation water from the reservoir to the farm gate (farmer’s field). CAD works will be carried out simultaneously with head works and main canal works, and the potential created only recognised after complete hydraulic connectivity is achieved from the reservoir to the farm gate. 49. The key issues and water reforms proposed by the 12th FYP30 document related to MMI schemes and the objectives of this study are detailed in Annexure II of this report and summarized below:

Move away from narrow engineering-construction-centric approach to more multidisciplinary, participatory management approach on MMI schemes with central emphasis on command area development and improving water use efficiency;

Mapping of groundwater aquifers and participatory approach to groundwater management, with increased research into understanding and managing the relationship between surface water hydrology units (watersheds, river basins, irrigation systems) and hydro-geologic units (aquifers);

Vastly improved systems of data collection, processing and analysis, using modern technology and systems;

Lack of capacity in human resources;

Increasing gap between irrigation potential (IPC) created and utilised (IPU). Due to a number of reasons including the definition of irrigation potential, faulty designs, institutional weakness, lack of water, unequal water distribution, incorrect recording of irrigated area, difficulties in financing recurrent costs and collecting water charges, etc. Annexure III of this report provides more information on the possible causes and measures for bridging the gap in irrigation potential;

Command Area Development (CAD) should play a key part in bridging the IPC-PIU gap, but has not performed well to date;

Low water use efficiency due to poor maintenance, siltation of canals, damaged lining, damaged gates, poor management practices, etc.;

National Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF) proposed to catalyse and support demand for improved irrigation management and institutional reform. Aims to address issues related to inadequate maintenance, poor ID level of service to farmers, zero or low ISF collection rates, poor or non-existent accountability loop between ID and farmers, WUAs with obligations but no rights;

Institutional and management reform will require major incentives. Funding will be allocated to national institutes for practical problem-solving research and associated education and training. WALMIs to receive Rs 5 crore/year over 5 years to strengthen their training, research and extension work;

AIBP and CAD programmes to be modified;

Water Regulatory Authorities to be established to determine entitlements and water charges.

30

Twelfth Five Year Plan (2012-17). Volume –I on ‘Faster, More Inclusive and Sustainable Growth; Planning Commission (2012): http://planningcommission.nic.in

20

E. Literature review

1. DSDAP study

50. The Development of Synthesis and Draft Action Plan for Improving WUE of Irrigated Agriculture in Selected Indian States (DSDAP) study sought to assist the GoI to take initial steps towards implementing the National Water Mission (NWM) through synthesizing of an analytical framework, options, lessons and best practices to improve water use efficiency and productivity of irrigated agriculture, together with a practical and implementable action plan. 30 WUE studies carried out by the CWC in 4 states were studied and concerns highlighted in relation to reservoirs, canals, conjunctive use and system management. The report recommended that priority attention be paid to six areas: (i) storage; (ii) conveyance including distribution; (iii) on-farm application including drainage; (iv) participatory irrigation management; (v) crop management; and (vi) research and development (R&D). The study also recommended that opportunities for involving the private sector should be investigated and policies of irrigation/Water resources departments and Water and Land Management Institutes (ID/DWR/WALMI) and institutional arrangements should be reviewed. A final recommendation was that 2-3 pilot projects should be established to test out measures aimed at improving the water use efficiency on irrigation schemes.

2. National Water Resources Framework study

51. The National Water Resources Framework Study (NWRFS, CEEW, 2011a) was carried out by a team of international and national specialists to address 53 key questions posed by the National Planning Commission as part of the preparation for the 12th Five Year Plan. The study was financed by the International Finance Corporation (IFC), part of the World Bank Group. 52. The report looked to provide three outputs: (i) an evidence base for proposing reforms in the water resources and irrigation sectors, (ii) answers to policy makers on a set of key questions, and (iii) a framework for the sustainable management of India’s water resources. 53. The study covers the full range of water-related issues: from participatory irrigation management to sustainable management of groundwater resources; from reform and capacity building of I&D departments to the role of water regulators; from water utility management to regulating the entrepreneurial sector providing water services; from promoting water conservation in industry to exploring legal, regulatory and institutional reforms. The study draws together the different interventions and shows how the successes of interventions in one domain are contingent on action in others. The study contains 13 Working Papers, 8 of which deal with the irrigation sector (Table II.7).

Table II.7: NWRMS irrigation-related working papers

Working Paper No. Title/Subject matter

1. Overview of Working Papers

2. Re-engaging with Participatory Irrigation Management

3. Reforming management in the I&D sector

4. Performance management in the I&D sector

5. Managing groundwater for multiple uses

6. Water resources management

7. The role of the water regulator in water resources management

8. Perspectives on legal frameworks for water resources management

21

54. Based on the initial work following presentation to the National Water Commission and members of the NWC’s Working Groups a roadmap for reform was developed (CEEW, 2011b). This Roadmap covered four domains: (i) National water management reform; (ii) Groundwater management; (iii) Water utility management improvement and reform; (iv) Water conservation strategy for industry. 55. In each case the individual roadmaps looked at the problem, the vision for the future, strategies and components and an action plan. The National Water Management Reform Road map looking at three parts: (i) Water resources management, (ii) main system irrigation management, and (iii) on-farm irrigation management. All three components are relevant to this study. 56. The Groundwater Management Roadmap is also relevant as it covers the conjunctive use of surface and irrigation water, and makes several concrete proposals based on proven experience with groundwater management in India.

3. World Bank sector review

57. Recognizing the impending water crisis in India the World Bank carried out a study in the mid-1990s to identify the current situation in the irrigation sector and to make proposals for the way forward. The report (World Bank, 1998) sets out the need for a “second irrigated agriculture revolution” and provides a reform agenda to achieve this. The proposed Reform Agenda covers the following domains (Table II.8):

Institutional reforms, comprising irrigation management transfer and restructuring State irrigation institutions and the need for setting up a system of performance review of the institutions;

Financial viability and sustainability, comprising measures to achieve financial self-sufficiency, prioritizing expenditure and accessing credit, private sector and capital markets;

Technical actions, comprising system improvements and agricultural technology.

58. The report was the basis for the Water Sector Restructuring (WSR) projects established by the World Bank in Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh, and forms a valuable input to the NWUEI study. Table II.8: Irrigation sector issues and proposed solutions identified World Bank

report on the irrigation sector (World Bank, 1998) Problems/issues

Physical Constraints

Poor maintenance

Ineffective control structures

Institutional constraints

A public sector approach without accountability (in ID)

Limited specialization and staff skills (in ID)

Lack of coordination among private sector agencies

Weak agriculture-irrigation linkages

Minimal involvement of farmers in irrigation management

Financial and economic constraints

Insufficient cost recovery

Inadequate O&M allocations

Poor incentives

Proposed solutions

A. Institutional reforms and reorientation

i) Promoting irrigation management transfer

Democratic grassroots base

Demand and client-led approach

22

Financial viability

Clear legal framework with a clear State level Vision Document that focuses on sustainable management of water resources demand versus supply (other than current water policy)

A hydrology and whole command based approach for surface and groundwater resources management

Investment and technical support

“Big Bang” versus gradualism/phasing out approach

Ensuring participation of women, deprived groups and minorities

Establishing water rights and allocations

Possible wider functions for WUAs and financial incentives for WUAs for their higher level participation in scheme management

Capacity building and handholding support to the WUAs and their higher level Farmers’ Organizations

ii) Restructuring the state irrigation institutions iii) Establishing autonomous water service agencies iv) Improving the service agencies (ID/WSA)

Decentralization

Reorganization and specialization

Upgrading staff skills and performance

Improving staff incentives and improving performance v) Creating a farmer government partnership

WUA/ID/CGWB/AD/Rural Development Dept. partnership

Government/WUA/Civil society partnership vi) Involving the private sector

Unbundling and contracting out

Promoting innovations

Research piloting and training

Management contracts for irrigation schemes

Assistance in WSA or ID Management

B. Achieving financial viability and sustainability

i) Cost recovery and financial self-sufficiency

Substantially increase water charges to cover O&M

Direct collection of water charges to WUAs, WSAs and ID

Improve collection rates

Additional revenue sources

Introduce volumetric supply and pricing

Improve cost effectiveness of O&M and tapping funds for appropriate O&M from various sources i.e. CADA, AIBP and NREG, etc.

Client-driven service improvements

Investment cost sharing

Financial capacity building

Transparent billing and cost monitoring

Establish an independent price regulating agency

Assess and pilot water markets ii) Expenditure prioritization iii) Accessing credit, private sector and capital markets

Institutional financing

Private investment in irrigation development

Funding from capital and debt markets

C. Technical actions to improve irrigation performance

i) Improving water operations management ii) Upgrading maintenance and rehabilitating and modernizing systems

Maintenance

Rehabilitation

Modernization iii) Improving agricultural technology

23

On-farm water and agricultural technology

Refocusing and expanding crop diversification efforts iv) Improving design and construction quality

Design

Construction quality

ID – Irrigation Department; CGWB – Central Ground Water Board; WSA – Water Service Agency; AD – Agricultural Department; WUA – Water Users Association; O&M – Operation and maintenance

4. Other related studies and programs

a. Mid-term Appraisal Report of the 11th Five Year Plan

59. This appraisal identifies measures to bridge the gap between the irrigation potential created and the irrigation potential utilized for MMI and minor irrigation (MI) schemes.

b. Working Group report on MMI and CAD for 12th Five Year Plan

60. This Working Group was constituted by the Planning Commission to advice on measures to improve the performance of MMI and command area development (CAD) under the 12th Five Year Plan. The Working Group provided detailed recommendations on the issues facing MMI schemes and CAD which are summarized in Annexure –III. The key recommendations are:

Historic role of water resources departments as water resources assessment, planning and construction leaving other downstream activities being left to agriculture extension and other departments needs to be reviewed. A multi-disciplinary mechanism under one umbrella should look into all aspects of MMI project management in a holistic manner with empathetic focus on efficient operation and maintenance through participation of beneficiaries.

A number of challenges have plagued the irrigation sector. These include inadequate utilization of created irrigation potential, low levels of WUE, unsure physical and financial sustainability of MMI projects, irrational service fee and low rates of its collection, inadequate incentivization of participatory irrigation management and volumetric pricing and delivery to water user associations.

National institutions like CWC should be restructured into a statuary high powered inter-disciplinary Commission with maximum autonomy to deal with policy and reforms in order to address the various issues in water resources sector. States may follow suit.

A new institutional structure with existing governmental powers be developed to regulate water use and apportion entitlements to use water between different categories of use, to establish water tariff system as well as fix criteria for water charges.

The gap between the created and the utilized irrigation potential be bridged through additional investments on CAD works and modernization of MMI projects as well as irrigation management reforms. For this purpose a striking balance is required between development activities and irrigation reforms and capacity building of state irrigation agencies. Investment gap between new development projects and improving the pace of old projects need be reduced.

Water resources information system (WRIS) being implemented by CWC/MOWR should be augmented to monitor the performance of the targets of 12th FYP. The monitor-able targets during 12th Plan could be: (i) reduce the gap in created and utilized potential by 10 mha, (ii) create additional potential of 7.9 mha, (iii) improve

24

current level of WUE from 30% to 36%, (iv) restore 2.2 mha of lost created potential through ERM of MMI projects, (v) increase collection of water charges through WUAs as recommended by 13th Finance commission, (vi) ensure volumetric water delivery irrigation services to at least 1 mha, (vii) encourage volumetric water supply and pricing through PIM, and (viii) foster partnership between irrigation agencies and WUAs.

In order to improve WUE of irrigated agriculture both structural and non-structural measures should be undertaken.

Structural measures include: (i) regular/periodic maintenance of canals by clearing off weeds/vegetation, (ii) restoring all canal sections to their design standards, (iii) repair of damaged lining in canal reaches in permeable strata and progressive avoidance to further damage to the lining, (iv) lining of field and water courses wherever high losses are observed, (v) repair/replacement of damaged shutters/gates to avoid leakage, (vi) improving water control in distribution through appropriate control structures, (vii) install water meters to ensure volumetric supplies and (viii) rehabilitation and restoration of cross drainage and cross masonry structures.

Non-structural measures include: (i) involvement of farmers in irrigation system for ensuring equitable distribution and efficient use of irrigation water, (ii) formulation and empowerment of WUAs through capacity building and training, (iii) adopting PIM practices, (iv) education through training of farmers on various issues relating adaptation of best crop and on-farm practices, (v) ensuring agricultural extension services within the command, (vi) appropriate pricing policy for irrigation water to avoid wastage.

Some other measures to improve WUE of irrigated agriculture need be adopted. These include: (i) improving data/information system, (ii) encouraging and popularizing water saving technologies like sprinkler/drip wherever feasible, (iii) increased emphasis on development of CAD works.

c. Technical assistance to support the National Water Mission

61. The ADB funded this study31 in 2011 to identify specific interventions that would assist in the implementation of the NWM. The report made a number of recommendations related to measures to improve water use efficiency and utilization.

d. Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Program (AIBP).

62. The AIBP was launched in 1996-97 to complete MMI projects which were at an advanced stage of completion which could relatively easily be completed and add to the irrigation potential created. Progress with implementation of the AIBP has been slow, with only 47% of the schemes taken up to date having been completed.

e. Command Area Development and Water Management (CAD&WM) Programme

63. The Command Area Development program was initiated in 1974-75 in all States and UTs with a view to (i) systematically improve land, water and crop management for sustainable optimum agricultural production and productivity of irrigated commands of MMI projects and to (ii) improve the socio-economic condition of farmers though the integration of various activities related to irrigated agriculture.

31

ADB: TA7417-IND Support for the National Action Plan for Climate Change (S-NAPCC)

25

64. The objectives of the scheme were to be achieved through multi-disciplinary teams under a Command Area Development Authority (CADA) responsible for not more than 1 lakh ha of the irrigated command. Each CADA was to be headed by an Administrative Officer to be assisted by technical officers deputed from various departments in all allied disciplines. The intention was to fully develop each outlet command with a package of 17 components, including full topographic and soil surveys, adoption of appropriate cropping patterns, consolidation of landholdings, land leveling, streamlining farm inputs, providing extension support based on sound research and development. Over time, due to a number of factors, the program has slimmed down such that it now focusses mainly on engineering aspects covering including survey, design of on-farm works and field canals and drains, reclamation of waterlogged, saline and alkaline soils and correction of canal deficiencies above the outlet. There are some non-engineering activities, including adaptive trials and demonstration, training of farmers and support for WUA establishment.

f. Artificial Groundwater Recharge Scheme

65. This scheme seeks to improve the ground water situation in some 1180 over-exploited, critical and semi-critical blocks in seven states (Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh). Under the program it is planned to artificially recharge over 4 million dug wells. The scheme is to be funded through NABARD.

26

III. MEASURES FOR ASSESSING AND IMPROVING WATER USE EFFICIENCY ON MMI SCHEMES

A. What do we mean by the term “water use efficiency?”

66. An extensive review of the literature on water use efficiency has been carried out and reported in the DSDAP report. This work, and some additional information, is summarised in Annexure IV and the sections below. 67. As identified in the DSDAP study the terms “water use efficiency” in an economic sense is commonly used when referring to productivity, which is an amount of any given resource that must be expended (input) to produce one unit of goods or services (output) (CEPIS, 1989). In engineering terms, however, efficiency more often relates to the amount of output achieved per unit of input, such as with pump efficiency. In irrigation terms efficiency is generally taken as the water delivered at a given point (output) compared to the water abstracted at the water source (input). The ICID (Figure III.1) take the definition of efficiency for irrigation systems a stage further and take into consideration the fact that water “lost” from canal conveyance might be later be reused when a farmer pumps from groundwater. In this context ICID argues that improving irrigation efficiency needs to focus on increasing beneficial consumption and reducing non-beneficial consumption and the non-recoverable fraction.

Figure III.1: ICID concept of water use efficiency

Source: Water conservation and irrigation web page, ICID, New Delhi (http://www.icid.org),

68. In the context of irrigated agriculture the term water use efficiency can also be taken as relating to the productivity of the agricultural output, of which water is a part. The main indicator of water use efficiency/productivity is thus the production (in kilograms) of the agricultural produce per unit of water consumed, utilised or diverted. In this context many other inputs (seed, fertilizer, labour, extension) come into play and influence the efficiency with which the water contributes to agricultural production. As agricultural production is the fundamental purpose of irrigation it is essential that the influence of all factors which feed into the production process are considered. 69. Maximising the efficiency and productivity per unit of water diverted from a river becomes particularly important when there are other uses or users of the river water. Water saved or conserved in an irrigation scheme can be used to expand the irrigated area in that scheme or can be diverted for use on another scheme. As expressed in a study of water use efficiency in Australia:

http://www.icid.org/

27

“The irrigation sector must be able to use the resources efficiently (with minimal losses and deterioration of quality) and effectively (with maximum productive output). It is these principles, efficiency and effectiveness, that are encompassed by the concept of water use efficiency”. (Fairweather et al, 2003)

70. The complexity of analysing irrigation systems is usefully summarised by Small and Svendsen (1992) in their IFPRI publication setting a framework for assessment of irrigation and drainage schemes (Figure III.2). Using a systems approach they divided irrigation into five inter-related systems– (i) irrigation and drainage systems,(ii) irrigated agriculture system, (iii) agricultural economic system, (iv) rural economic system and (v) politico-economic system. This framework identifies the inputs and outputs to each system, and then moves on to identify performance indicators for each of these systems thus facilitating assessment of the performance (including efficiencies) of each system. It also facilitates assessment of performance across systems by considering inputs and outputs across selected (contiguous) systems.

Figure III.2: Irrigation and drainage functions in the context of nested systems

Source: Small and Svendsen, 1992

71. From the above discussion it is clear that there are several different perspectives and performance measures for defining water use efficiency. The sections below seek to identify a definition which suits the needs for the implementation of the NWM and 12th FYP reform agendas on MMI schemes.

B. Commonly used definitions of WUE

72. Over the years there have been many definitions of water use efficiency applied at a variety of levels in an irrigation system (Table III.1).

IRRIGATION and

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE SYSTEM

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM

RURAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM

POLITICO-ECONOMIC SYSTEM6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1

Inputs/outputs to each system

Operation of irrigation facilities1 Agricultural production3

Incomes in rural sector4Supply of water to crops2

Rural economic development5

National development6

Other inputsOther inputs

IRRIGATION and

DRAINAGE SYSTEM

IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE SYSTEM

AGRICULTURAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM

RURAL ECONOMIC SYSTEM

POLITICO-ECONOMIC SYSTEM666 6

5 5

44 44

33 33

22 22

11


Operation of irrigation facilities1 Agricultural production3

Incomes in rural sector4Supply of water to crops2

Rural economic development5

National development6


Operation of irrigation facilities1 Operation of irrigation facilities1 Operation of irrigation facilities1 Agricultural production3 Agricultural production3

Incomes in rural sector4 Incomes in rural sector4Supply of water to crops2 Supply of water to crops2

Rural economic development5 Rural economic development5

National development6 National development6

Other inputsOther inputsOther inputsOther inputs

28

Table III.1: Examples of water use efficiency terms developed by different practitioners

Term Definition Units Level Referenced in

Overall Project (Scheme) Efficiency

Volume of water needed by crop (Etp –Pe)

Volume of water diverted from source

% Scheme Israelsen, 193232

; Bos and Nugteren, 1974; Bos, 1985; ICID, 1978

Irrigation system efficiency

Volume of water received at field

Volume of water diverted from source

% Scheme Bos and Nugteren, 1974; Bos,1985; ICID, 1978

Conveyance Efficiency

Total outflow from supply system

Total water inflow into the system

% Main system

Bos and Nugteren, 1974; Bos,1985

Distribution Efficiency

Water received at field inlets

Total outflow from supply system

% On-farm Bos and Nugteren, 1974; Bos, 1985

Field Application Efficiency

Irrigation water available to the crop

Water received at the field inlet

% Field/plot Bos and Nugteren, 1974; Bos, 1985

Distribution Uniformity

Average lower quartile infiltration depth

Average depth infiltrated

% Field/plot Merriam and Keller, 1978

Water use efficiency

Crop water demand

Total water supply

% Field/plot Merriam et al., 1983; Merriam and Keller, 1978

Seepage loss ratio Average seepage rate

Target seepage rate

- All levels of canal

Bos et al.,1993, 1994

Specific Yield/Water Use Efficiency

Total crop production

Total volume of water supplied

Kg/m3

Scheme ICID,1978; Mao Zhi, 1989, amongst others

Relative Productivity of Water

Potential crop production

Total volume of water supplied

Kg/m3

Scheme Abernathy, 1986; Mao Zhi, 1989; amongst others

Crop Water Use Index (WUI)

Crop yield

Evapotranspiration

Kg/mm Field/plot Fairweather et al., 2003; Molden et al, 1998

Irrigation Water Use Index

Crop yield

Irrigation water applied

Kg/m3

Field/plot Fairweather et al., 2003; Molden et al, 1998

Crop Economic WUI

Crop gross return

Evapotranspiration

$/m3


Gross Production Economic WUI

Crop gross return

Total water applied

$/m3


Irrigation Economic WUI

Crop gross return

Irrigation water delivered to the field

$/m3


73. The Comprehensive Mission Document of the National Water Mission makes the following statement in relation to improving water use efficiency:

The National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development (NCIWRDM-1999) observed that 35-40 percent in surface water irrigation and 65-

32

Israelsen defined irrigation efficiency as “the ratio of irrigation water transpired by the crops of an irrigation farm or project during their growth period to the water diverted from a river or other natural source into the farm or project canal or canals during the same period of time.”

29

70 per cent efficiencies in ground water irrigation have been achieved. The proposed National Water Mission aims at increasing these efficiencies by 20 percent. (p. V/10, Volume II, NWM, 2011)

74. Barrett, Purcell and Associates (1999) point out that the relationship between water (as an input) and crop (as an output), often expressed in terms of kg/m3, is in fact an index rather than an efficiency. They describe efficiency as a dimensionless term obtained by dividing the figures with the same units, i.e. volume of water consumed divided by volume of water supplied. They note that the application of the term “water use efficiency” to terms relating agricultural production to water used has caused great confusion amongst irrigation practitioners. To reduce the confusion over terminology they state that:

“the term ‘Water Use Efficiency’ should be restricted to a generic label for any performance indicators used to study water use in crop production. This label, Water Use Efficiency, need not be defined but should be considered like a label on a toolbox. Inside the toolbox are many specific performance indicators that should be referred to as Water Use Indices. Any water use index (within this toolbox) should be clearly defined with specific units when used.”

C. Proposed definition of water use efficiency

75. It is proposed that the following definition is used to describe the water use efficiency improvement measures that are being looked for by the NWM and the 12th Five Year Plan for MMI schemes:

“For the purposes of achieving the 12th Five Year Plan and National Water Mission Goal IV of increasing water use efficiency by 20 percent, water use efficiency for MMI schemes relates to the efficiency of delivering water from the intake of the irrigation system to the crop root zone for the purpose of beneficial crop evapotranspiration, taking account of any use or reuse of seepage or other conveyance, distribution or application losses as conventionally describe that might subsequently be used by farmers within the boundaries of the irrigation scheme.

The term thus relates to the fraction of irrigation water used for productive crop evapotranspiration within the boundaries of the scheme compared to the total volume of water diverted at the intake to the irrigation system.

For the purpose of clarification the use or reuse of conveyance, distribution or conveyance losses may relate to pumping from groundwater, direct use of seepage water, or other form of beneficial reuse within the boundaries of the scheme.

The improvement of the water use efficiency shall be measured against a baseline determined from a standardised survey of scheme performance, and subsequent seasonal and annual measurements as set out in the baseline survey protocol and report”

D. Framework for analysis

1. Overview

76. The proposed framework for analysis of measures to improve water use efficiency on MMI schemes is set out in Figure III.3 below. The process follows a relatively standard pathway of problem definition, identification and implementation of feasible solutions. The steps include:

30

(i) Defining the problem. The first step is the need to be clear about the nature of the problem, and to define it clearly. This is not always as straightforward as it might appear as the problem may look different to different people. This is particularly the case in irrigated agriculture where there are different disciplines involved and many different levels at which the problem (and potential solutions) might be experienced. As well as defining the problem it is also necessary to be clear about what the desired outcome will be if the problem is addressed.

(ii) Setting the boundaries. It is important to set the boundaries of the analysis. The boundaries can extend into several dimensions, not only spatial or temporal. In the case of MMI schemes in the spatial context it is necessary to decide if the boundary lies at the main system level, the hydraulic network level, the scheme level or the basin level. In other dimensions it is necessary to decide whether to extend the analysis to consider policy, institutions, etc.

(iii) Identifying core processes. Having set the boundaries it is then necessary to identify the core processes which are involved in the problem and within which feasible solutions can be identified and implemented.

(iv) Identifying key indicators. For each part of the core processes performance indicators can be identified to enable the scale and location of the problem to be identified.

(v) Collecting and processing data. Selection and specification of the key indicators will determine the data that are required to analyse the problem.

(vi) Analysing the problem. Using the data collected the problem can be analysed.

(vii) Identification of feasible solutions. The analysis will identify a number of factors which are contributing to the problem, for which solutions can be proposed. However not all solutions will be feasible, so a judgement has to be made on which solutions to proceed with.

(viii) Implementation of identified solutions. Following identification of the issues and feasible solutions an action plan needs to be prepared and implemented.

(ix) Monitor and evaluate implementation and outcomes. Following implementation the performance indicators can be used to monitor and evaluate progress with the implementation programme and the resultant outcomes.

2. Defining the problem

“India faces a major crisis of water as we move into the 21st century. This crisis threatens the basic right to drinking water of our citizens; it also puts the livelihoods of millions at risk. The demands of a rapidly industrialising economy and urbanising society come at a time when the potential for augmenting supply is limited, water tables are falling and water quality issues have increasingly come to the fore.” Mihir Shah, Member for Water, Planning Commission, Government of India.33

77. The above statement aptly sums up the problem, many river basins and sub-basins in India are short of water, some of them desperately so, and increased measures need to be taken to make better use of available supplies. In addition, there are

33

Taken from a Special Article in the Economic and Political Weekly, Volume XLVIII No.3, 19th

January, 2013

31

increasing concerns about the impact of climate change on available water resources, a concern that has led to the establishment of the National Water Mission. 78. In order to conserve water the National Water Mission and the 12th Five Year Plan have set a target of increasing water use efficiency on irrigation schemes by 20 percent34. Figure III.3: Proposed framework to identify measures to improve performance and

water use efficiency on MMI schemes

3. Setting the boundaries

79. This study is restricted to looking at measures to improve water use efficiency in MMI schemes. Within this context five levels of analysis can be defined: (i) basin; (ii) main system; (iii) on-farm system; (iv) field and (v) aquifer. Consideration of the basin is important in that it influences the surface water supply available to the scheme, whilst the aquifer is important as it receives water originating as losses from the main, on-farm and field levels. In relation to other dimensions the analysis needs to consider additional factors than just the physical and technical, and thus must look at institutional, social and economic factors which might influence water use efficiency. 80. Further boundaries that might need to be considered are those formed by the different perspectives of the various disciplines engaged in irrigated agricultural (Table III.2).

34

The NWM also extends this target into other sectors

32

Table III.2: Perspectives of irrigation performance by different stakeholders Discipline Main area(s) of

interest (system) Performance measures

Irrigation and drainage engineer

Irrigation and drainage system

Volume of water diverted to water delivered at outlet

Timing and quantity of water delivered

Condition of infrastructure

Cost of delivery (financial and other resources)

Irrigation agronomist

Irrigated agricultural system

Crop production

Soil condition

Crop marketing

Agricultural economist

Agricultural economic system

Economic and financial value of crop production

Crop budgets

Farm budgets

Farmer livelihoods

Economist Rural economic system

Economic and financial value of rural production systems

Economic development

Community livelihoods and rural poverty

Political scientist/ Sociologist

Politico-economic system

Employment

Livelihoods and rural poverty

Social welfare

Community participation/engagement

Farmer All systems Agricultural production (for subsistence or cash)

Livelihood

Crop and farm budgets

Market opportunities

Sustainability and security of farming system

4. Identifying core processes

81. There are a number of ways to “cut the cake” in terms of identifying core processes affecting water use efficiency on MMI schemes (Figure III.4) depending on whether the irrigation scheme is seen as a physical, technical, social, economic, institutional or political system. Taking the core processes to be those related to the diversion, conveyance, application and use of irrigation water, then each part of this total process may be affected by cross cutting physical, technical, economic, social, institutional or political factors. The physical terrain and type of soil will affect the decisions on whether to line a canal, or the method of irrigation application. Political intervention might in some cases adversely affect water distribution on a scheme, or it might be necessary and highly beneficial in supporting change and setting policies for the sector. It is essential that these cross cutting factors are identified, it may be, for example, that political or economic factors have a greater influence on farmer behaviour and scheme performance than technical factors. 82. Overlying these core processes and cross-cutting factors, in a third dimension, are the various organisations involved, each with different functions and responsibilities, cultures and management processes which will clearly have a significant part to play in how the scheme performs.

33

Figure III.4: Identifying core processes by discipline

Cross cutting factors

Physical Technical Economic Social Institutional Political C

ore

pro

ce

sses

Storage

Diversion

Conveyance

Distribution

Application

Groundwater reuse

Agricultural production

Drainage

- Areas where cross-cutting factors might influence scheme performance

83. Small and Svendsen’s (1992) nested systems framework referred to in Section III (figure III.1). A follows a similar philosophy and sets the irrigation scheme and irrigated agricultural production in its wider context. A more focussed approach to identifying the core processes was developed by Fairweather et al. (2003) based on work by Barrett, Purcell and Associates (1999) follows the water pathway from the source to the crop root zone (Figure III.5.) This approach focusses on the key processes involved in delivering irrigation water from the water source to the crop root zone, together with the performance indicators used to measure water use at the different stages. This framework very usefully identifies and defines the water delivery process and the associated performance indicators. What the framework does not appear to show is the water that is lost (from the canal network or from the irrigated fields) and is then reused by pumping from groundwater. This feature is a key factor in many India irrigation schemes.

84. There is considerable logic to adopting a form of analysis which focusses on the water pathway (the route taken by any individual drop of water) – it is straightforward to comprehend and follow, one can use it as a framework to look at factors which influence each part of the water pathway, and it divides down easily into management responsibilities and professional structures. 85. Following this logic the following core processes have been identified in relation to improving water use efficiency and productivity on MMI schemes:

Storage

Diversion

Conveyance

Distribution

Application

Rainwater

Groundwater

Crop production

Drainage

86. Taking these as the core processes one is then able to analyse the factors which influence or control these processes, as well as identify indicators which can assess their performance (Figure III.6). These core processes make a central contribution to the scheme objectives of agricultural production, poverty alleviation and farmer livelihoods.

34

Figure III.5: Framework for defining water use efficiency (Fairweather et al, 2003, adapted from Barrett, Purcell and Associates, 1999)

87. There is a growing awareness of the central role played by groundwater in MMI schemes and the need for conjunctive use of surface and ground water to achieve optimum levels of agricultural production. There are some (Shah, 2009) who advocate strongly for the need to allow seepage losses from canals in order that they can recharge groundwater resources. 88. Figure III.7 shows the link between the water resources available to a farmer in an MMI irrigation scheme, which comprise rainfall, surface water supplies and pumped supplies from groundwater. Depending on the hydrogeology losses from the surface water system will recharge the groundwater, and, if not impaired by the groundwater quality, will be re-used by farmers, either within or outside the MMI command area. Who

35

uses groundwater, when, its quality and where it comes from are key questions which ID systems managers are often not asking and which they are generally not able to answer due to a lack of enquiry, data and resources for data collection, processing and analysis. Sorting out the surface water-groundwater nexus is one of the biggest issues in improving WUE on MMI schemes.

Figure III.6: Component parts of core processes

Source: Authors

89. The relative quantities of water being lost at the different levels need to be looked at carefully. The largest volume of water being lost is usually at the field level where the wetted surface area is high and percolation below the root zone is also high. This is particularly the case where rice is grown with ponded water. The next largest volume of water lost is at the on-farm level, where water is distributed field-to-field or through field channels. The management losses are high at this level, as are the seepage losses as the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter is low35. Relative to these losses the seepage losses in the main canal network are relatively small, but the management losses can be high if the irrigation scheduling or the level of control and management is poor. 90. A further issue that is often missed in the discussion on water use efficiency is the generally poor use made of rainfall on MMI schemes. Inadequate scheduling procedures means that rainfall in the command area is not taken into account when releasing water into the irrigation system, resulting in farmers who have received adequate water supplies from rainfall diverting irrigation water into drains. This has two serious consequences: (i) for reservoir supplied systems water is discharged to the

35

The lower the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter the higher the relative losses from the channel.

36

system which could have been conserved for use at a later (drier) period36, and (ii) from run-of-the-river systems unnecessary silt load is carried into the system, resulting in additional maintenance need and cost.

Figure III.7: Linkage between different water sources in an irrigation system

Source: Authors

91. In addition to improving the scheduling, considerable savings in irrigation water demand can be obtained by developing and encouraging water harvesting practices during the Kharif season. Figure III.8 presents the irrigation scheduling requirement at the plot level if the depth at which water spills out of the bund is 120 mm37. In this case 4 irrigations are required, with the interval between irrigations decreasing in September and October as the rainfall decreases. With a total estimated 1090 mm irrigation demand during the season rainfall contributes 690 mm out of the total rainfall of 844 mm, representing an effectiveness of 82 percent. If the spill height is increased to 150 mm only 3 irrigations are required and the rainfall effectiveness rises to 94 percent (790 mm used out of a total of 844 mm). As this scheme has a reservoir the saved irrigation can then be used in the Rabi season. 92. The benefits of keeping water levels relatively low in rice plots in order to store rainfall can be seen in Figure III.9 where the available storage capacity varies from 10 to 40 mm. With 40 mm available storage capacity during August 377 mm out of 451 mm rainfall (83%) is effective, whilst with 20 mm and 10 mm storage capacity the figures are 262 mm (58%) and 160 mm (35%) respectively.

5. Identifying key indicators

93. Having identified the core processes the performance indicators for each part of the process can be identified. These indicators are used to quantify the performance of individual processes as well as the scheme overall, and are used in the analysis to identify key areas which need addressing. Once feasible solutions are identified these

36

This is particularly important and economically valuable if water can be conserved in Kharif for use in the Rabi season.

37 Information taken from the World Bank funded Orissa Community Tank Management Project (OCTMP, 2011).

37

performance indicators are then used to monitor progress with implementation, and can be measured against the initial (baseline) data to assess the degree of improvement.

Figure III.8: Example of scheduling irrigation water for paddy during Kharif season

in Odisha

Source: Authors

Figure III.9: Example of volumes of rainwater utilised in Kharif for different storage capacities

Source: Authors

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

1 4 7 10 13 16 19 22 25 28 31 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 2 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29

July August September October

Rai

nfa

ll (m

m)

Wat

er

leve

l/d

ep

th (

mm

)

Paddy field water level profile for 120 mm spill heightKharif season, Orissa, July-October, 2006

Irrigation Rainfall Crop water demand Water balance Spill

450.6

159.6

262.2

377.4

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

500

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

August

Dai

ly r

ain

fall

(mm

)

Cu

mu

lati

ve r

ain

fall

sto

red

on

fie

ld (

mm

)

Plot of cumulative rainfall stored for different available storage capacitiesAugust 2006

Daily rainfall Cum. daily rainfall Storage <10 mm Storage <20 mm Storage <40 mm

38

94. Bos et al (2005) provide a useful framework for linking and clarify the terms performance criteria, objectives, performance indicators and targets (Box III.1). A distinction needs to be made between output and outcome indicators and process indicators. Process indicators will measure the process of water allocation, distribution and use, whilst output and outcome indicators will measure the output and outcomes resulting from the processes. Thus the key steps for performance assessment are:

(i) Identify and quantify the outputs and outcomes (ii) Identify and quantify the performance of the core processes

Identify which core processes can/need to be improved to achieve target values of outputs and outcomes.

95. In the case of this study the desired outcome is an improvement by 20 percent in the efficiency of irrigation water, which means either that: (i) 20 percent less water is lost in conveying water from the source to the crop root

zone; or (ii) 20 percent less water is used for irrigation of the same cropped area; or (iii) 20 percent less water is used for the same levels of agricultural production; or (iv) A 20 percent increase in irrigated area is achieved from the same amount of diverted

water; or (v) A 20 percent increase in total crop production is achieved from the same amount of

diverted water. 96. The first outcome is relatively straightforward, and relates to measuring the total flow entering the irrigation system and comparing it with the volume stored in the crop root zone. The other measures relate to how the water is used relative to agricultural production, and the benefits achieved from such use. 97. The NWM Comprehensive Mission Document gives some mixed messages on the issue. Whilst it states that there is a need to increase water use efficiency by 20%, it also advocates a policy of “more crop per drop”. It is also not clear if the 20 percent conserved water is to be used elsewhere in the river basin (i.e. supplies to the scheme are cut by 20 percent as a result of the water saving measures) or if the saved water is to be used to increase the irrigated area and crop production on the scheme itself. 98. Table III.3 and Figure III.10 shows an example of the argument. In this case a low Overall Scheme Efficiency (OSE) of 35 percent means that only 20,000 ha are irrigated. If WUE improvements are made and the OSE increases to 45 percent and then 60 percent and the crop water demand continues to be matched at the field level, then the irrigated area increases to 28,714 ha with an OSE of 45 percent and then 34,286 ha with and OSE of 60 percent. Though the gross income per unit area might remain the same in all cases, more area is cropped and thus more farmers are benefitted, plus the total production for the scheme increases by a third from 66,800 tonnes to 85,886 tonnes. If,

Box III.1: Framework for linking common performance related terms

i) Objectives are made up of criteria:

a. "To maximise agricultural production" b. "To ensure equity of water supply to all farmers" c. "To optimise the efficiency of water distribution”

ii) Criteria can be measured using performance indicators

iii) Defining performance indicators identifies data requirements

iv) Data can then be collected, processed and analysed

v) If target, standard, reference or benchmark values of

performance indicators are set or known then performance can be assessed

Source: Bos et al, 2005

39

due to the water efficiencies made, the total supply to the scheme is reduced by 20 percent then the irrigated area and production is still increased from the baseline to 27,429 ha and 91,611 tonnes respectively. 99. It is worth noting that the productivity per unit of (diverted) water is closely linked to the water use efficiency. As the scheme water use efficiency rises from 35 to 60 percent the gross income per unit of water diverted increases by 70 percent from Rs 9.02/m3 to Rs 15.46/m3. Thus if the water use efficiency is improved de facto the productivity of water is improved.

Table III.3: Example of measures for water saving and possible impacts

Source: Calculations based on data from adaptive research trials for the Madhya Pradesh Water Sector Restructuring Project (JNKVV, 2012)

Figure III.10: Example of improving crop production with increased WUE

Source: Authors

100. As noted in Box III.1 the performance of the core processes can be assessed through process indicators. Figure III.11 shows the how the core processes, their indicators and outputs can be measured to achieve the desired scheme objectives.

Water

supply

at

intake

(MCM)

Scheme

water use

efficiency

(%)

Irrigated

area

(ha)

Total crop

production

(t)

Irrigation

water

supply

(scheme)

Crop

water

demand

Production

per unit

water

Gross

income

per unit

area

Gross

income

per unit

water

diverted

(MCM) (%) (ha) (t) (m3/ha) (m3/ha) (kg/m3) (Rs/ha) (Rs/m3)

1 Base conditionUnlined canals;

border irrigationWheat 100 35% 20,000 66,800 5000 1750 1.9 45,090 9.02

2

Same water supply,

more efficient use -

Main Canal only

Wholly lined canal;

border irrigationWheat 100 45% 25,714 85,886 3889 1750 1.9 45,090 11.59

3

Same water supply,

more efficient use -

Main Canal + On-

farm

Wholly lined canal;

drip and trickle

irrigation

Wheat 100 60% 34,286 114,514 2917 1750 1.9 45,090 15.46

4

Reduced water

supply, more

efficient use

Wholly lined canal;

drip and trickle

irrigation

Wheat 80 60% 27,429 91,611 2917 1750 1.9 45,090 15.46

No.

Crop

IndicatorsData

MeasuresScenario

40

Figure III.11: Linking core processes to performance indicators, process outputs and scheme objectives

Source: Authors

101. The key indicators identified for assessing scheme performance related to water use efficiency for each of the core processes are detailed in Table III.4. These indicators show a mix of output/outcome indicators and process indicators. The output indicators are used to assess the performance of the scheme overall, and will allow the scheme to be benchmarked against other similar schemes. The process indicators allow the deeper analysis of scheme performance through diagnostic analysis, and facilitate the location of problem areas. The process indicators can also be benchmarked against those in similar schemes. 102. As has been seen from the example given in Table III.3 above the processing and analysis of the output/outcome indicators allows senior management the opportunity to (a) understand how each scheme is performing against set targets or norms, and (b) initiate corrective action where performance is poor or inadequate. 103. Note that the indicators listed in Table III.4 are predominantly for the purposes of assessing performance related to improving water use efficiency; there are additional indicators if more general performance assessment is required.

Table III.4: Key indicators identified for the scheme and its core processes

Process/Indicator Definition Remarks/Reference

Scheme overall (output indicators)

Seasonal Water Storage (m3)

Volume stored in reservoir at start of irrigation season

This indicator is used to determine the area that can be irrigated in the coming crop season. Used in Madhya Pradesh at the start of the

41


Rabi cropping season in mid-September to set targets for the irrigated area (on the basis of 1 MCM stored water supplying 180 ha)

Seasonal Irrigated Area (ha)

Seasonal irrigated area – Kharif Seasonal irrigation area – Rabi Seasonal irrigated area - Dry

This indicator is linked to the water supply available at the scheme intake, and in Kharif to the rainfall. The indicator should be compiled from the irrigated area of each crop type.

Annual Irrigated Area (ha)

Annual irrigated area This indicator is linked to the water supply available at the scheme intake and is compiled from the seasonal irrigated area data.

Seasonal/Annual Cropping Intensity (%)

Seasonal/annual area irrigated Design irrigated area

This is a key indicator which measures the proportion of the total command area cropped each season and during the year

Total annual volume of inflow to scheme (m3)

Total annual volume of inflow to scheme Annual flows into schemes may vary each year due to the climatic conditions. This indicator needs to be monitored each year and used as a base indicator to monitor with other indicators.

Total annual value of production (Rs)

(i) Total annual value of crop production at baseline prices (ii) Total annual value of crop production at current market prices

Facilitates the monitoring of the economic value of the scheme. The indicator is determined for two conditions, (i) using baseline prices for comparison between years and schemes, and (ii) using current prices to measure actual production values.

Average seasonal/annual volume of supply per unit command area (m3/ha)

Total seasonal/ annual volume of inflow to scheme Cultivable command area (CCA)

Measures the seasonal/annual inflow against a fixed base, the CCA. Useful for comparison between years as the CCA is fixed.

Average seasonal/annual volume of supply per unit irrigated area (m3/ha)

Total seasonal/ annual volume of inflow to scheme Seasonal/annual irrigated area

Measures the seasonal/annual inflow against the irrigated area. Useful for measuring the average depth applied to the cropped area.

Total annual average value of production per unit area (Rs/ha)

(i) Total annual average value of crop production per unit area at baseline prices (ii) Total annual average value of crop production per unit area at current market prices

Facilitates the monitoring of the economic value of the scheme and comparison with other schemes on a per hectare basis. The indicator is determined for two conditions, as noted above.

Scheme overall (process indicators)

Overall Project (Scheme) Efficiency/ Overall Consumed Ratio

Etp - Pe Volume of water supplied to the scheme

Israelson,1932; Bos and Nugteren, 1974; Bos et al, 2005

Depleted Fraction Actual crop evapotranspiration (ETa) Total rainfall and surface water inflows to scheme (Pe + Vc)

Relates the actual evapotranspiration to the sum of the rainfall and surface water inflows to the scheme (Figure III.12) Molden, 1998; Molden and Sakthivadivel, 1999; Bos et al, 2005.

Irrigation System Efficiency (%)

Volume of water received in crop root zone Bos and Nugteren, 1974, 1985; ICID,

42


Volume of water diverted from source 1978

Storage

Reservoir Efficiency Total inflow to the reservoir Total outflow from the reservoir

DSDAP, 2012

Annual Reservoir Filling Efficiency

Annual maximum volume filled Design maximum volume

DSDAP, 2012

Diversion

Discharge Capacity Ratio

Actual discharge capacity of headwork Design discharge capacity of headwork

Bos et al, 2005; DSDAP, 2012

Conveyance

Conveyance Efficiency

Total outflow from supply system Total water inflow into the system

Bos et al, 2005; Bos and Nugteren, 1974; ICID, 1985


Actual discharge capacity Design discharge capacity

Bos et al, 2005.

Distribution

Distribution Efficiency

Water received at field inlets Total outflow from supply system

Bos et al, 2005; Bos and Nugteren, 1974; ICID, 1985

Delivery Performance Ratio

Actual flow of water (at control point) Intended (or planned) flow of water

Measures operational performance, relatively simple to determine. Can be applied to continuous or rotated supply systems. Murray-Rust and Snellen, 1993; Bos et al, 2005


Actual discharge capacity Design discharge capacity

Bos et al, 2005.

Application

Application Efficiency Irrigation water available to the crop (Etp- Re) Water received at the field inlet

Bos and Nugteren, 1974; ICID, 1985; Bos et al, 2005

Groundwater

Depth to Groundwater

Depth to groundwater Bos et al. 2005

Agricultural production and marketing

Productivity of water per unit water consumed (kg/m3)

Total crop production Total water consumed by crop (ETa)

Bos et al. 2005

Productivity of water per unit water diverted (kg/m3)

Total crop production Total water diverted at source

Bos et al. 2005

Drainage

Drainage affected area ratio (%)

Total irrigable area affected by waterlogging and salinity Total cultivable command area

Measures the percentage of the productive area affected by drainage problems

Source: Authors

104. A suitable overall indicator for the determination of the WUE which takes account of the total water balance on the scheme is the ‘depleted fraction’ (Figure III.12). 105. Some values for the common conveyance, distribution, application and overall scheme indicators for Indian surface irrigation systems are presented in Table III.5 below from the IWRS Theme Paper on “Efficiency of Water Resources” (IWRS, 2004).

43

Figure III.12: Definition of depleted fraction

Source: Molden, 1997; Bos et al, 2005

Table III.5: Water use efficiencies in Indian irrigation systems (IWRS, 2004)

Efficiency Observed irrigation efficiencies on selected schemes (%)

1. Conveyance efficiency Nazare Manyad Nirguna Asola Mendha

Kalote Mokashi

a) Main canal 92 84 85 94 86

b) Distributary/Minor 79 83 75 75 89

c) Field channel 68 64 72 No channel 67

Overall conveyance efficiency (Ec)

49 44 46 70 51

2. Field application efficiency (Ea)

77 69 83 58 59 – Paddy 52 - Groundnut

3. Project efficiency (Ep) 38 31 38 41 30

106. An issue with the assessment of performance of any irrigation scheme is the annual variability in the climatic conditions. In general the annual evapotranspiration rates do not vary much from year to year, but there are often marked variations in the quantity and timing of rainfall. This variability in the annual rainfall pattern makes comparison of performance between years difficult, it is often necessary to look for trends rather than make specific comparisons of one year with another. 107. This is clearly seen in the case of the Nizam Sagar Scheme in Andhra Pradesh where there is wide variability in the annual rainfall, the volume stored in the reservoir, the water released and the area irrigated (Figures III.13, III.14). This variation will, in turn, have an impact on crop yields and total production.

44

Figure III.13: Annual rainfall, reservoir storage and releases, Nizam Sagar Scheme, 1995-2006

Source: Authors

Figure III.14: Seasonal and total cropped areas compared to Cultivable Command area, Nizam Sagar Scheme, 1995-2006

Source: Authors

6. Data collection

108. Following the identification of the indicators the data can be collected. In some cases when looking at the number of indicators the amount of data can appear to be quite daunting, but as some data is used for several indicators the actual data needs are less (Table III.6).

45

Table III.6: Linking performance indicators to data collection

Data required Units

Indicator

Cro

pp

ing

inte

nsity (

%)

Cro

p y

ield

(kg

/ha

)

Ove

rall

Co

nsum

ed

Ra

tio

Wa

ter

Pro

du

ctivity

(kg

/m3)

De

live

ry

Pe

rfo

rma

nce

Ra

tio

Ou

tpu

t pe

r u

nit

cro

ppe

d a

rea

(Rs/h

a)

Ou

tpu

t pe

r u

nit

Irri

ga

tio

n

su

pply

(R

s/m

3)

Irrigable area ha

Crop production kg Actual cropped area ha

Crop yield kg/ha

Crop water demand mm

Rainfall mm

Actual discharge m3/s

Actual duration of flow hrs Intended discharge m

3/s

Intended duration of flow hrs

Crop market price Rs/kg Source: Burton, 2010

7. Analysis of the problem

a. Overview

109. Analysis of the problem will show a number of potential causes, but these are initially unstructured (Figure III.15). Analysis of the problem enables the issues to be grouped and structured (Figure III.16)38. 110. It is in relation to this structuring of the problems that the study produced a typology which grouped the issues occurring on MMI schemes with the intention that a package of actions might be proposed for each category of MMI scheme. This typology is discussed in a later section.

b. DSDAP study analysis

111. The CWC carried out WUE studies for 30 MMI schemes which were analysed and reviewed by the DSDAP team. These studies were not carried out according to the framework provided herein but do provide insights (Table III.7) into the issues that are being faced on MMI schemes. The assessment concluded that: (i) Nearly all the schemes are integrated in nature, with functions other that for

irrigation; (ii) The current hydrological pattern of supply to the schemes varies from the original

design conditions; (iii) There are concerns over dam safety due to lack of adequate maintenance;

38

This is the “problem tree” as used in project preparation using the logical framework approach (European Commission, 2004)

46

Figure III.15: Unstructured problem analysis

Source: Authors

Figure III.16: Structured problem analysis

Source: Authors

(iv) Excessive siltation of reservoirs has reduced their capacity and ability to supply the

required volumes of water; (v) Many of the medium and low storage volume reservoirs have a large surface area

relative to their depth, resulting in high seepage and evaporation losses;

47

(vi) In many cases the irrigation system is not able to supply the intended demands. This is due to a number of reasons, including non-availability of flows, inadequate capacity at the head-works, excessive losses (including unauthorized abstractions), inadequate capacity of canals, inadequate operating practices;

(vii) In many cases there are problems with cross drainage – either due to the inadequate provision of cross-drainage infrastructure, or damaged or broken infrastructure;

(viii) Control and regulation of irrigation flows is hampered by a lack of functioning control structures, including cross and head regulators;

(ix) Discharge measurement is limited; (x) Implementation of participatory irrigation management is often limited or non-

existent; (xi) Rotation of water supplies or Warabandi is mainly limited to Punjab and Haryana,

though Andhra Pradesh is re-introducing such practices; (xii) Actual cropping patterns vary from the design cropping patterns, resulting in a

number of issues. These include head-enders growing more water intensive crops (than designed) resulting in inadequate availability at the tail-ends of schemes, and irrigation schedules based on design cropping patterns which fail to match actual needs;

(xiii) Irrigation from groundwater, ponds and tanks co-exists with the surface water irrigation system, and forms an important part of the farmers decision-making on which crops to grow;

(xiv) In some cases where water scarcity exists scheme authorities have proposed diversification away from paddy to irrigated dry crops without assessing the impact on farmers’ livelihood;

(xv) In the projects studied drainage is not a concern. 112. As a result of analysis of these case studies, and other reports the DSDAP study concluded that there were six core areas requiring priority attention for improving water use efficiency. These were: Domain Required action

Storage Consistent and continuous efforts are required to improve the performance of storage facilities in order to enhance the availability of supplies to the irrigation schemes

Conveyance Improvements are required in the design and the management of the conveyance systems

On-farm application On-farm and field irrigation practices need to be improved in order to increase crop production and water use efficiency

Participatory efforts Beneficiaries need to play an increasing role in the management of the I&D systems

Crop management A variety of actions are required to improve WUE, including crop diversification, low water use crops, better farm management, micro-irrigation systems and provision of quality inputs

Research and development (R&D)

Further R&D is required into water auditing, scheme monitoring and evaluation and benchmarking

113. These domains largely coincide with the core processes set out in the proposed framework, with the participatory efforts and R&D being cross-cutting themes which influence the core processes. 114. In the CWC summary report (CWC, 2010) the results of the studies for each scheme are summarised and an overall summary provided of the common reasons for low water use efficiency and common recommendations for improvement (Table III.7).

48

Table III.7: Common reasons and recommendations for low WUE from studies of 30 irrigation systems (CWC, 2010)

Common reasons for low WUE Common recommendations for improvement of WUE

Damaged structures

Silting in the canal system

Poor maintenance

Weed growth in the canal system

Seepage in the system

Over-irrigation

Illiterate farmers

Changing the cropping pattern

Rehabilitation and restoration of damaged/silted canal system

Proper and timely maintenance of the system

Selective lining of the canal and distribution system

Realistic and scientific system operation

Revision of cropping pattern, if needed

Restoration/provision of appropriate control structures

Efficient and reliable communication system

Reliable and accurate water measuring system

Conjunctive use of ground and surface water

Regular revision of water rate

Encouragement for formation of Water Users’ Association

Training to farmers

Micro-credit facilities

Agricultural extension services

Encouragement to farmers for raising livestock

115. There are some issues with the CWC study in that it concentrated on measuring the traditional performance indicators – conveyance efficiency, distribution efficiency, application efficiency and drainage efficiency, and did not make use of more recent approaches to measurement of water use efficiency, particularly the use of remote sensing. In addition the studies did not make any assessment of the quantity of seepage or percolation losses that might subsequently have been reused by farmers, in particular from groundwater. 116. The summary report does not provide any information or data on any mass balances carried out on the schemes (measurement of total seasonal/annual volume of inflow compared to estimated irrigation water requirements from actual irrigated area). Such analysis might give a more comprehensive, quicker and cheaper overview of the water use efficiency than the very detailed samples taken of conveyance, distribution and application efficiency.

c. FAO MASSCOTE approach to rapid appraisal of I&D schemes

117. A relatively well used approach to analysing system performance has been developed by the Land and Water Division of FAO called MASSCOTE (Mapping System and Services for Canal Operation Techniques). The process integrates tools including rapid appraisal process (RAP) and benchmarking to provide a detailed assessment of issues influencing the management, operation and maintenance of I&D schemes. FAO (2008) describe MASSCOTE as:

“A methodology aiming at the evaluation of current processes and performance of irrigation systems and the development of a project for modernization of canal operation”.

118. The process looks at the service to users, the cost of providing these services, system performance, constraints on the water resources and constraints of the physical system. The “11 steps” of the MASSCOTE approach are summarised in Table III.8.

49

119. The process makes use of the rapid appraisal procedures (RAP) developed by Burt and Styles (1999; Box III.2) for assessing the opportunities for, and impact of, modernization of irrigation systems. The RAP built on the World Bank Technical Paper No.246 – Modern Water Control in Irrigation (Plusquellec et al, 1994), and was applied to 16 irrigation schemes in 10 countries. The RAP was centred around a questionnaire which comprised around 580 questions/data entry points ranging from general questions on soil type to detailed questions related to the physical infrastructure and operational procedures. The questionnaire sought to identify the constraints and factors influencing service quality and assess the level of service provided and the results achieved.

Table III.8: MASSCOTE 11 steps (FAO, 2008)

Step Description

Phase A – Gathering baseline information

1. Assessing system performance (RAP)

Initial rapid system diagnosis and performance assessment through the RAP. The primary objective of the RAP is to allow qualified personnel to determine systematically and quickly key indicators of the system in order to identify and prioritize modernization improvements. The second objective is to start mobilizing the energy of the actors (managers and users) for modernization. The third objective is to generate a baseline assessment, against which progress can be measured.

2. The capacity and sensitivity of the system

The assessment of the physical capacity of irrigation structures to perform their function of conveyance, control, measurement, etc.

The assessment of the sensitivity of irrigation structures (offtakes and cross-regulators), identification of singular points. Mapping the sensitivity of the system.

3. The perturbations (water level fluctuations)

Perturbations analysis: causes, magnitudes, frequency and options for coping.

4. The networks and water balances

This step consists of assessing the hierarchical structure and the main features of the irrigation and drainage networks, on the basis of which water balances at system and subsystem levels can be determined. Surface water and groundwater mapping of the opportunities and constraints.

5. The cost of O&M Mapping the costs associated with current operational techniques and resulting services, disaggregating the different cost elements; cost analysis of options for various levels of services with current techniques and with improved techniques.

Phase B – Vision of service-orientated management and modernization of canal operation

6. The service to users Mapping and economic analysis of the potential range of services to be provided to users.

7. The management units The irrigation system and the service area should be divided into sub-units (sub-systems and/or unit areas for service) that are uniform and/or separate from one another with well-defined boundaries.

8. The demand for operation

Assessing the resources, opportunities and demand for improved canal operation. A spatial analysis of the entire service area, with preliminary identification of sub-system units (management, service, O&M, etc.).

9. The options for canal operation improvements/units

Identifying improvement options (service and economic feasibility) for each management unit for: (i) water management, (ii) water control, and (iii) canal operation.

10. The integration of Integration of the preferred options at the system level, and functional

Box III.2: Description of the FAO RAP process

The Rapid Appraisal Process (RAP) for irrigation projects is a 1-2 week process of collection and analysis of data both in the office and in the field. The process examines external inputs such as water supplies, and outputs such as water destinations (ET, surface runoff, etc.). It provides a systematic examination of the hardware and processes used to convey and distribute water internally to all levels within the project (from the source to the fields). External indicators and internal indicators are developed to provide (i) a baseline of information for comparison against future performance after modernization, (ii) benchmarking for comparison against other irrigation projects, and (iii) a basis for making specific recommendations for modernization and improvement of water delivery service.

50

Step Description

service-orientated management (SOM) options

cohesiveness check.

Consolidation and design of an overall information management system for supporting operation.

11. A vision and a plan for modernization and M&E

Consolidating a vision for the Irrigation scheme.

Finalizing a modernization strategy and progressive capacity development.

Selecting/choosing/deciding/phasing the options for improvements.

A plan for M&E of the project inputs and outcomes.

120. FAO applied the MASSCOTE approach to 8 schemes in Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh as part of a collaborative programme with the state governments and system operators to look at the re-engineering/modernisation of selected irrigation systems. As part of the assessment, which generally takes 10-12 days for each scheme, the FAO team worked with staff from the system management entity which included the gathering and assessment of data through RAP, field inspections and workshops. Following the workshops a report was produced with the following objectives:

“This MASSCOTE draft report has several purposes:

Produce food for thought for decision-makers in Karnataka before engaging in investment plans, particularly on how to ensure that diagnosis and solutions are investigated properly in modernization projects;

Suggest some specific strategies to managers of KNNL-Bhadra on how they should make the best use of the modernization investment plan which is about to start with mainly work of canal lining.

Lay the foundations of a more elaborate modernization plan, with some initial steps planned for 2008”. (FAO, 2008)

121. The MASSCOTE approach provides a useful framework on which to base a rapid appraisal process for assessment of the water use efficiency on MMI schemes, with the following caveats:

The MASSCOTE approach has been designed for the purpose of looking at constraints to system performance and opportunities for modernisation of irrigation systems. It has at its core the investigation of the operation of the canal system and the performance of the control structures and measuring structures. As such, though it does include some analysis of the institutional and social aspects affecting a scheme’s performance, it does not look in sufficient detail at these issues;

The approach has an excessive focus on the perturbations (water level fluctuations) in the canal system. Whilst these are important they are often not the main cause of inadequate irrigation supplies to farmers, other factors such as inadequate scheduling and weak operation rules, processes and procedures, and inadequately trained O&M personnel are core factors for overall poor performance. In addition there is often a high degree of anarchy with unauthorised abstraction of water by head-end farmers, tampering with control structures, unauthorised outlets on the main and secondary canals, unauthorized cropping of high water demand crops, etc. Much of this unauthorised activity by farmers can be attributed to severe competition for water, which is heavily influenced by the design of the system for protective, rather than productive, irrigation.

MASSCOTE seems to focus more on the “what” than the “why”, it may identify key issues, but does not necessarily identify the potential solutions, particularly in relation to the root cause of many of the problems;

Insufficient use is made of remote sensing in the assessment process.

51

122. Subject to the caveats described above it is recommended that the MASSCOTE approach be used as the starting point for rapid performance assessment (RPA) of MMI schemes. It is proposed that this be a core task of TA 7967_REG which will follow on from this study. Suggested adjustments to the MASSCOTE approach include:

A primary focus on improving the water use efficiency, from source to sink, using the framework outlined in this report;

Greater attention to institutional and organisational factors influencing scheme performance;

Greater attention to the realities of “external” factors influencing water allocation, distribution and use, particularly related to issues related to unauthorised abstraction and use of water;

Greater attention to the process of scheduling irrigation water, and the role of ID/WRD staff in allocation, distribution, regulation and monitoring of irrigation water supplies;

Greater attention to the incentives (or lack thereof) for ID/WRD staff to properly manage the irrigation system;

Greater attention to maintenance and asset condition and performance. It is suggested that asset management planning (AMP; Burton et al, 1996) be used as the basis for such assessment.

123. The need for this changed focus can be seen from the summaries (Table III.9) of the reports prepared for the 8 schemes studied by FAO in 2007-08 which show:

A lack of adequate control and measurement of irrigation supplies;

The significant occurrence and influence of unauthorised activities;

Severe budget constraints;

Inadequate maintenance;

Inadequate planning and scheduling of irrigation supplies;

Wastage of irrigation supplies in Kharif by failing to take account of rainfall events in the command area;

No accounting for water;

No assessment or review by the scheme operator of water use, water use efficiency or water productivity;

Inadequate engagement and involvement of water users; non-functioning WUAs;

Farmers not following the design cropping pattern;

Service provider not engaging with water users in assessing actual cropped area and irrigation demands for scheduling purposes;

Inadequate irrigation supplies. 124. All these issues point to the need for designing a revised rapid appraisal approach to cover the conditions found on Indian irrigation schemes.

Table III.9: Summary of FAO MASSCOTE studies in Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh

No. Scheme Summary details Issues

1 Almatti Lift Irrigation Systems

State: Karnataka

Study dates: 13-21st May 2008

Scheme Type: Lift from reservoir

CCA: 60,985 ha (ALBC, ARBC, Mulwad LIS)

Land productivity: Rs 28,110/ha ($620/ha)

Water productivity: Rs 1.68/ha ($0.037/ha)

Low productive system: semidry crops – intensity low

Irrigation development low

Irrigation services are poor

Weak farmer organisations, WUAs not functional

Maintenance is deficient

Control of discharge is weak

Poor water level control – cross-reg structures on MC, none on secondary.

52


Operating costs: Rs 6000/ha

Field level water balance: 40% SW; 24% GW; 36% rainwater

Overall efficiency: 56-63%

No capacity constraints

Many temporary cross-reg structures.

No accurate measurement

Siltation a serious problem.

High inequity along MC, insufficient water at tail-end

Access road difficult (Jungle)

Absence of indications on most structures

High return flow (65%) – wastage of pumped water

2 Bhadra Scheme

State: Karnataka

Study dates: 17 Jan – 2 Feb, 2007

Scheme type: Reservoir; Multi-purpose

CCA: 121,500 ha

Irrigated area: 105, 570 ha


Water productivity: Rs 9.1/ha ($0.2/m

3)

Water allocation: 1607 MCM; 0.82 l/s/ha

Have structured proportional division (from WB NWMP

Water supply: Kharif – adequate; Rabi - shortage

O&M cost: Rs 715/ha

Groundwater: Supplements SW – 4600 wells

No accounting for rainfall in Kharif, stored supplies wasted and not available for Rabi crop

Lack of participatory development, WUAs not functioning

Insufficient maintenance

No water accounting

Poor control – gates not used

Measurement poor/non-existent. Limited number of measuring structures and measurement

3 Ghataprabha Scheme

State: Karnataka

Study dates: 6-20 October 2006

Scheme type: River weir diversion

CCA: 161,871 ha (but may be up to 220,000 ha)

Crops: Sugarcane; bananas

Rainfall: 500-550 mm


Water productivity: Rs 10.42/ha ($0.23/ha)

Costs: Rs 205 Million/year; Rs 1,266/ha CCA

Spend: Maintenance (17%); improvements (16%); rehab (9%); staffing (45%)

General: No major physical problems; good asset condition; good drainage; good communication

No water accounting

Poor processes

Actual crop area not recorded properly

No adjustments made for rainfall over the CCA

Poor service delivery

Lack of control and poor measurement at all levels

Severe budget constraints

Failing PIM programme, WUAs not functioning

Operational issues

High level of chaos

4 Gandorinala and Bennithora Schemes

State: Karnataka

Study dates: 9-16 December, 2006

Scheme type: Multi-purpose, reservoir-fed, new scheme, construction on-going

CCA: 21,854ha + ??? ha

Crops: Irrigated dry – Tur, pulses, groundnut, maize

Rainfall: 630 mm

Crop productivity:

Cross regulators on MC left wide open,

no adjustment

No measuring structures

Insufficient escapes

Little water level control – temporary

structures

Degradation of canal lining – poor

construction

Expansion of irrigated area due to

pumping from main canal

53


Water productivity:

Costs: O&M costs Rs 23 million/year = Rs 800/ha/year, 80% on staffing costs

Water supply: Adequate for design cropping

General: No major physical problems; good asset condition; good drainage; good communication

Likely change of cropping pattern to high

water demand crops - sugarcane

5 Hemavathi Scheme

State: Karnataka

Study dates: 17-29 June, 2007

Scheme type: Reservoir-fed

CCA: 109,671 ha + 19 lift irrigation units (16,666 ha)

Crops: Rice (40%); sugarcane (21%), gardens (32%)

Rainfall:

Crop productivity: Rs 54,408/ha ($1200/ha)

Water productivity:

Costs: Rs 420 mill/year; Rs 3818/ha/year (includes pumping)

Poor level of service to farmers

No flow measurement

High recycling

High water consuming crops – rice, sugarcane, garden, deviating from official cropping pattern

Kharif area and Rabi area cropping not followed

Rotation not carried out properly in upper reaches

Absence of water control and measurement – at all levels

Severe inequity

Poor system operation

Insufficient maintenance

Fragmented management

Low involvement of water users

Low farmer skills in on-farm water management

6 Jaunpur Branch Canal System

State: Uttar Pradesh

Study dates: 1-19th December,

2007

Scheme type: Run-of-the-river, multi-purpose, no storage, no silt exclusion

Gross CA: 554,000 ha

CCA: 275,000 ha (part of Sardar Sahayak Scheme of 1 million ha). Part of World Bank funded UPWSRP

Canal network: 13 No. distributaries, 5 Districts

Crops: Kharif (89%) – Rice, jowar, bajra, maize, urd, arhar, etc.; Rabi (98%) – wheat, gram. Pea, potato, oil seeds, etc.; Zaid (1%) – cereals, pulses, sugarcane).

Irrigation intensity: 188%

Rainfall:

Water accounting: Not carried out. FAO calcs: SW Kharif – 1362 MCM (16%); SW Rabi 1134 MCM (13%); SW Zaid 694 MCM (8%); rainfall over GCA 5566 MCM (64%); Total 8756 MCM (31,840 m

3/ha CCA,

16,936 m3/irrig. ha – high value)


Water productivity: Rs 3.49/m3

($0.077/m3)

Water control: 12 x-regs on BC,

No adjustment of gates for rainfall.

It is a genuine conjunctive use system.

Diversification and agriculture efficiency are inversely proportional to canal water supply: the less canal water you get the more diversified and efficient you are.

No water control (level or discharge) at secondary canal level (distys and minors).

No scientific scheduling of irrigation water.

Inaccurate or improper measuring structures at all levels.

Water logging in upstream reaches, shortages at tail-end

Highly sensitive offtakes along distributaries and minors leading to chaos in water distribution.

Limited conveyance capacity due to siltation. Canal freeboards encroached.

Siltation is a serious problem – costly maintenance.

High density of illegal direct outlets (51 No.) along the BC.

Offtake gates to minors are non-existent or damaged.

Very low (1.2 from 4) service to farmers – unreliable, unequal and inadequate supplies to many users. Poor system operation.

Low engagement of WUAs and water users

Escapes rarely used – choked with weeds/vegetation.

54


condition good.

Measurement: Some measurement on BC, low measurement skills.

Costs: Rs 16 crores/year (US$ 3.55 million), Rs 662/ha/year ($14.60/ha/year), including staffing.

Poor communication – no telemetry system

7 Main Ganga Canal System (Meerut Division)

State: Uttar Pradesh

Study dates: 16-25th

September, 2008

Scheme type: Run-of-the-river, multi-purpose, no storage, no silt exclusion, water abundant

CCA: 52,211 ha covering 5 distributaries. Part of the 907,690 ha Upper Ganga Canal.

Crops: Largely sugarcane

Rainfall: 1000 mm/annum

Groundwater: Abundant - wide use of groundwater to supplement SW supplies

Control: Control to head of distributary, thereafter designed for proportional distribution (with flow at FSL)

Measurement: Flumes at head of distys but not used properly

Crop productivity: Rs 59,190/ha ($1500/ha) – High


($0.10/m3) - Low

Costs: Rs 929/ha

Income: Agriculture Rs 300/ha; total, incl. domestic Rs 1574/ha

Water balance (FAO): SW Kharif 33%; SW Rabi 18%; SW Zaid 10%; Rainfall 39%.

Eto: ETo = 1434 mm (2700 MCM/year), 30% of the total water inputs

GW recharge: Active GW recharge through canals

Canal conveyance reduced by high levels of siltation

Water is abundant but high inequity in surface water deliveries (compensated by wells in the downstream reaches)

Head-end farmers do not follow rotation plans – Kharif 3 weeks on, 1 week off; Rabi 2 weeks on, 2 weeks off.

Farmers using hybrid varieties of crops – more water demanding

Many farmers growing sugarcane, not following crop rotation plan

Paddy farmers change standing water frequently.

Farmers do not want to irrigate at night.

Many unauthorised offtakes constructed by farmers

Breaches caused by cattle and buffalo watering.

Agriculture fairly good: high intensity (2 to 3 crops/year) Cash crops is dominant (Sugarcane 70% Rice 20% others 10%)

No operation below head of distributary - gates blocked opened.

No water level control along distributary & minors (supposedly proportional flow)

Some minors watered only at 50% of their length.

Measurement at head of distributary only (some poorly located & calibrated)

WUAs non-existent

Distributaries concrete lined for water savings.

Urbanization toll: 2 minors abandoned.

Multiple uses of water: serving thirsty towns within and large major cities outside Delhi and Agra.

Major water feeder to Agra irrigation canals

8 Upper Krishna Scheme

State: Karnataka

Study dates: 31 January – 10 February, 2009

Age of scheme: New scheme, operational from 2003

Scheme type: Mix of gravity and lift irrigation

GCA: 601,000 ha

CCA: 513,000 ha

Water level control: At MC level, none below MC level

Measurement: Flumes at some locations

Crops: Kharif – Maize, sunflower, cotton, tur dal, paddy, sugarcane, etc.; Rabi –

Inequitable distribution of water between head and tail-ends

Main and secondary canals are lined but showing significant deterioration already

Cross regulators left fully open on Main Canal

Measurement is extremely poor, no systematic procedures

Lack of management - Rotation plan is not followed by upstream users, causing deficiency at tail-end; multiple uses/users of water including towns, villages; numerous illegal pumps along canals.

Drainage management does not exist.

Limited engagement by water users in management (only 5% of WUAs functioning)

55


wheat, jowar, cotton, sunflower, paddy, sugarcane, groundnut, etc.

Rainfall/Eto: Rainfall - ??mm; ETo - 1753 mm



($0.184/m3)

Costs: Rs 2131/ha of which Rs 700/ha used for electricity). Energy costs are high – Rs 0.32/m

3 and Rs 0.37/m

3 for

each of RLIS two stages.

Water accounting (FAO): SW 5260 MCM (73%); rainfall 1956 MCM (27%).

Extensive cultivation of high water consuming crops (rice) in some locations

Water distribution not controlled

Lack of gates below distributary make rotation at this level impossible.

Inequity between head and tail of distributaries

Lack of adequate funds for maintenance

Pumps only operating for 12 hrs/day (designed for 24hrs/day)

69% of water entering the command not used by planned cropping

d. Current study’s findings

125. For the current study specialists were engaged in irrigation institutions, irrigation and water management, information technology, groundwater and conjunctive use and participatory irrigation management. The specialists were asked to: (i) review the National Water Mission and the 12th Five Year Plan to identify areas of

intervention required in key areas related to this study and the possible constraints

states might face in implementing these interventions, and propose measures to

overcome or mitigate such constraints;

(ii) provide technical support to the study and the state consultation workshops in

relation to the identification of priority action areas;

(iii) identify through state consultation and field visits key priority action that can be

taken up by subsequent ADB or Government of India support package including

future and on-going ADB Technical Assistance (TA) grant (e.g. purpose driven

studies, pilots on WUE, PIM, ground water management, etc.);

(iv) contribute to proposal writing for consideration by ADB and/or Government of

India.

126. Each specialist prepared a report which is appended in Annexure V. A summary of the key findings and proposals from each of these specialist studies is provided in the sections below.

i. Irrigation institutions

127. This analysis drew on experience with a previous study in Karnataka where an institutional setup was devised based on international and national experience. The key features of the analysis and proposed reform are:

A six-tier organisational set up comprising a Minister’s Council or Cabinet Sub Committee, a Standing/Steering Committee, the WRD, a Regulatory Authority, Stakeholder’s Consultative Committees and bulk water supply utilities;

Realignment of WRDs/IDs into two separate units, one part responsible for basin management, the other responsible for irrigation water management;

The Water Management Organisation (WMO) would focus on irrigation management, with operational units responsible for ITES, irrigation scheduling and system operation, maintenance, command area development, training and capacity building

56

(WALMI) and M&E. The role and functions of the WMO are provided in detail in Annexure V.1.

ii. Irrigation and water management

128. The irrigation and water management report provides:

background information on the status of irrigation development in India with data on the ultimate irrigation potential in each State, the irrigation potential created (by category of scheme – major, medium and minor), and the irrigation potential utilised;

details of required and actual operation and maintenance expenditure for different states and irrigation revenue assessed and realised. The data show that maintenance is badly under-funded in many states, and that water charge recovery is generally poor;

an overview of the status of irrigation management in India, and a discussion of the central role that designing irrigation systems for protective irrigation has on scheme performance. Under protective irrigation water is spread thinly over the command area, with the designed expectation that only a portion of the total command will be irrigated in any one season. This design feature is contrary to that in many countries where irrigation systems are designed such that 100 percent of the command area is irrigated in at least one season (termed “productive” irrigation). In such systems head-tail differences and unauthorised abstractions are considerably reduced as there is generally sufficient water in at least one season. Disparities may arise, however, in the second season when water supplies are scarce39. A summary is made of the differences between protective and “productive” irrigation;

a summary and discussion of forms of rotation of irrigation supplies (Warabandi, localization and Shejpali) in different regions in India;

a discussion on measures for improving water use efficiency on major and medium irrigation projects. Four key measures are proposed, and discussed in turn:

Strengthening of Water User Association for effectively managing system management operation and maintenance (MOM);

Improving Irrigation Service Delivery by Irrigation Departments;

Regular monitoring of irrigation system performance and management by identifying and assessing performance gaps and required actions to address them (incorporating participatory benchmarking);

Systematic planning and execution of operation, maintenance and management of irrigation projects using an Asset Management Planning (AMP) approach.

A summary of the impacts of the proposed measures on water use efficiency and scheme performance, and the potential constraints that states, Irrigation Departments and farmers might face in implementing the proposed measures.

iii. Information technology

129. This report draws on extensive experience of establishing ITES for water resources and irrigation schemes in Andhra Pradesh, together with examples from other states and countries. The report provides:

39

This is the case in East Java, Indonesia, where irrigation supplies are adequate for the paddy crop during the wet season, but insufficient for all parts of the command area in the dry season. During the dry season farmers apply for authorisation to grow water intensive crops, such as paddy.

57

Background to the use of ITES in the water resources, irrigation and drainage sectors and the potential benefits of using ITES;

An outline and discussion of the opportunities for using ITES for water resources and I&D management, Examples of different ITES applications are provided, with spatial maps showing different aspects of water resources availability and irrigation scheme performance. These applications include tools for real time irrigation water demand estimation, irrigation system performance assessment, participatory situational analysis, estimation of irrigation area, reservoir storage monitoring and canal network flow monitoring;

For each of the examples a SWOC (Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Constraints) matrix, where the constraints relate to the difficulties likely to be encountered in implementing a particular ITES system;

Several of the applications make use of the wide availability of mobile phones and SMS messaging to transmit data from the field. These data are stored in a central database which can then be accessed via the web, with different levels of accessibility depending on the designation of the user;

A discussion on the possibilities and constraints in using remote sensing and GIS;

An example of the costs of establishing a Geographic Management Information System (GMIS).

iv. Groundwater and conjunctive use

130. This report provides a broad overview of the status of groundwater development in India and then goes on to provide:

Discussion of conjunctive use and management of surface and groundwater resources with examples of studies carried out in India and internationally to assess the opportunities for conjunctive use;

Discussion and proposal for modelling of surface and groundwater systems on irrigation commands to support system operation based on conjunctive use;

Different measures for artificial recharge of groundwater with examples of experience in India and internationally;

Experience with participatory aquifer management;

A problem and solution matrix covering the main issues related to groundwater and conjunctive use and management. This matrix covers issues related to the availability of groundwater resources, waterlogging and salinity, saline intrusion, managed groundwater recharge, conjunctive use management and institutional and legal deficiencies.

v. Participatory irrigation management

131. This report provides background to the some of the issues facing Indian irrigation at the current time, a major one of which is the increasing number of small and marginal landholdings. This feature is considered central to many of the issues facing irrigation water management and scheme performance. The report provides:

The rationale for promoting PIM through the formation of Water Users Associations, and provides a summary of the history, current status and impact of PIM in India, with examples of where PIM has been successful, as in the Dharoi and Waghad schemes in Gujarat and Maharashtra;

A comprehensive discussion of the reasons why WUAs fail, ranging from a lack of legal back up and political and bureaucratic support through to issues of weak leadership, politicisation and lack of engagement with members within WUAs. This is followed by the identification of 15 key elements required for successful PIM in India, with a comprehensive discussion of each of these elements. The need for

58

understanding the basic mechanism for implementing change, such as the process advocated by Kotter (1996), is emphasised;

A checklist is provided of criteria for selecting states and schemes where water use efficiency can be improved through PIM and the formation of WUAs together with discussion and examples of the practical mechanisms by which PIM and formation of WUAs can contribute to improvement in water use efficiency and performance. Such measures include WUAs employing field staff (water masters), introduction of volumetric water deliveries, concerted group pressure on the ID for improved levels of communication and service delivery, social control of unauthorized activities related to water withdrawals, off-takes, cropping, etc., formalised and communally agreed schedules, involvement of the WUA in conjunctive use management;

Additional insights to those provided in the groundwater and conjunctive use section on how WUAs can be involved in the management of both surface and ground water resources within their command area, with discussion on governance and operational (scheduling) measures;

A problem and solution matrix which details the consequences of identified problems and proposed actions to address them. The matrix covers incentive mechanisms, integration of surface and ground water management, physical/technical issues, organizational structure and training and capacity building.

e. Summary of key factors influencing WUE

132. From the information provided in Annexure V and the discussion in the sections above the issues facing MMI schemes can be summarised as:

Irrigation Departments focussed on construction of new schemes rather than management of completed schemes.

Schemes designed for protective, rather than productive, irrigation, resulting in schemes where water scarcity is built in from the outset. Whilst this may possible be better in theory by imposing deficit irrigation on farmers, it aggravates the competition for water between farmers.

Poor communication and liaison with the customer, the farmers.

Political interference in water allocation decision-making

Reservoir storage not conserved in Kharif for Rabi crop

No water accounting carried out

Inadequate measurement of water delivery, and little or no assessment of scheme performance (except for Maharashtra with its benchmarking programme).

Little or no accountability of the ID to water users for the service delivered.

Proposed solutions to identified issues are often limited to technical interventions (e.g. canal lining, drip irrigation, repair of structures).

A failure to understand the fundamental role that management has to play in ensuring good scheme performance.

Water available to scheme impacted by upstream watershed development

Siltation of reservoirs has reduced their storage capacity.

Changed hydrology since design.

Head-works capacity limits intake flow rate.

Significant level of unauthorised abstractions, both within the command area and by lift irrigation from main canals out of the design command area.

Failure to allow for rainfall in irrigation schedules and canal operation.

Cross drainage systems not functioning properly due to inadequate provision or damaged infrastructure, and inadequate escape structures.

Lack of control structures, and lack of measurement.

Lack of adequate maintenance.

59

Lack of adequate finances for system MOM.

Excessive seepage losses in some systems.

Cropping patterns differ from the design cropping pattern.

Head-end farmers cropping water-intensive crops, thus depriving tail-end farmers of water.

Supplies not matching actual cropping pattern, and lack of scientific scheduling.

Loss of water to drains.

Night irrigation – gates not closed at night so water flows to drains.

Failure to regulate gates.

Over-irrigation at the field level due to a variety of causes, including a lack of knowledge, unreliable supplies (store what you can, when you can) and lack of on-farm coordination of irrigation.

Lack of scientific water management all round. 133. These factors can be grouped together and summarised into a problem tree as presented in Figure III.17 together with the broad areas on interventions. This problem tree can then be used as the basis for formulating and implementing possible solutions, as discussed in the sections below.

f. Approach to identifying feasible solutions 134. As with the analysis of the problem the identification of feasible solutions needs to take an holistic account of the irrigation water supply and delivery complex. Some interventions are relatively straightforward, and independent of other interventions (e.g. canal lining), but other interventions, which might have a major impact on improving water use efficiency (such as PIM or reform of the ID) are complex and rely on complementary interventions (such as strengthening of WALMIs, changing attitudes within the ID, etc.) to be effective.

Figure III.17: Restructuring the “problem tree” into a “solution tree”

Source: Authors

PDOImproved irrigation service deliveryand water management supportingincreased agricultural production

ActivityDesilt main canal

Activity Repair existing and install new measuring structures

Output Canals able to pass

design discharge

OutputEffective fee setting and

collection mechanisms

OutcomeReliable, adequate and timely

service delivery to WUAs

OutcomeFully functioning and

operable canal network

OutputIrrigation supplies match

water users’ demands

Activity Training in scheduling of available water supplies

Activity Formation of WUA

OutcomeEffective and viable

WUAs formed

Component 1:

Irrigation system

rehabilitation

Component 2:

Improved system

MOM

Component 3:

Formation of effective,

functioning WUAs

Problem analysis – Formulating a solution tree

60

135. Following on from the approach to identify and categorise the problem in the previous section the “solution tree” (European Commission, 2004) can be prepared (Figure III.18). This process structures the solutions to the problem such that they can be formed into a project or programme.

136. The identification of solutions needs to take into account the feasibility of implementing the solutions – a solution is not a solution until it has been effectively implemented. In general for every solution there are constraints, it is the ability to resolve these constraints that makes for a feasible solution. PIM might be a solution to some of the issues facing MMI schemes, but it is not a feasible solution until the environment and actions required to make it work are in place (e.g. adequate legislation, changed attitudes in the ID, re-vamped WALMI capable of training ID staff, WUA management and water users, etc.). This approach is summarised in Table III.10 which provides an example of identification of problems and their potential solutions, and constraints on identified solutions. 137. Table III.11 shows the possible solutions given for the problems identified in the section above, together with the possible causes of the identified problems. The solutions have been categorised under the following headings:

Design

Finance

Institutions

Legal

Management40

Policy

Politics

138. As can be seen there are a substantial number of items under the management category, implying that that a change in the management norms, policies and practices will have a noticeable impact on scheme performance and water use efficiency. 139. This “long list” of possible interventions is narrowed down in Chapter VI where a proposed strategy is set out for a National Water User Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP) which can be supported by the Asian Development Bank, other international financing institutions and the Government of India. Targeted interventions are proposed which complement existing GoI programmes (such as the NIMF, AIBP, CAD&WM, NAMP, etc.) but which are feasible in the context of such support and funding. 140. In the 12th FYP significant emphasis is placed on improving the level of service to water users, and in greater engagement of water users in the management, operation and maintenance of I&D systems. This emphasis is reflected in the proposed solutions outlined in Table III.11. The core elements of service delivery are presented in Figure III.19 which show the service provider (the ID) providing the service to the water user (the WUA), for which a service fee is paid. This service fee (ISF) should cover the full costs of providing the service, including management and staffing costs, operation and maintenance costs. The terms of the service delivery and ISF are governed by the service agreement, with specifications detailing the level of service to be provided and fees to be paid, and a set of conditions covering how the services will be provided and fees paid. Such service agreements, if developed in a participatory manner, can have a significant impact on the way that the ID and the water users work together (Malano and van Hofwegen, 1999).

40

This includes system operation and maintenance

61

Figure III.18: MMI water use efficiency improvement problem tree

Source: Authors

62

Table III.10: Matrix for identifying feasible solutions

Source: Authors

Domain Issue Consequence Possible solution(s) Intended outcome Constraint on solution

Lack of awareness on

the benefits and potential

applications of ITES

Unable to use new techniques which

are better able to diagnose potential

problems and assess the desirability

of alternative plans

Conduct Awareness programmes on new

technologies – multi-disciplinary programmes

Better and optimum utilization of the new

technologies

None

Lack of real-time data

collection / storage and

retrieval / processing /

analysis / reporting and

decision support

systems

1. Difficult to find out the amount of

water available in the reservoirs and

water that can be allocated to users

2. Unable to calculate water releases

and crop water requirements

3. Not able to take quick decisions

1. Develop an application to capture reservoir

inflows, levels and outflows in all major irrigation

reservoirs and medium irrigation projects which

enables to monitor the storage levels and releases

to each sector.

2. Develop an application to capture canal flows in

all Major & Medium Irrigation Projects, monitors

release of water to canals against the water release

schedule and necessary decisions for optimum

utilization of water.

3. Need to establish an institutional framework to

ensure that the required data are regularly collected

and updated.

4. Automating routine tasks and communication

1 . Remote monitoring of the irrigation systems

2. Improving preventive maintenance and

performance management using real-time data

3 Water resources information system could be

developed for effective water management and

better use of water resources.

4. Data collection, information analysis and

decision-making services can be developed,

allowing water users and managers to have

timely information and a useful decision-making

tool for irrigation water management.

5. Automation makes work more simpler and

easier

Lack of data sharing 1. Duplication of the data

2. Multiplicity of the data from various

sources leading to tremondous data

inconsistency

3. Wastage of money, time and

manpower

1. Establish a web enabled system that would bring

together scientific data, educational information, and

geographic information systems (GIS) maps related

to water resources useful for easy decision making.

2. Formation of a central body that coordinates data

acquisition and distribution will be the key to an

efficient exchange of data among the departments.

1. Easy accessible to reliable and authentic

water resources data to all water resources

departments at the regional, State and National

levels

2. Improve performance management through

access to timely data.

1. Lack of funds

2. Lack of knowledge in the new

technologies

3. Lack of experts and software in the

departments

4. Finding out an agency / organization

responsible for updating the data regularly

and maintaining the data

IT enabled

Services

63

Figure III.19: Core elements of service delivery (after Huppert and Urban, 1998)

141. Other important elements of possible solutions linked to improving the level of service provision on MMI schemes are shown in the photographs in Figure III.20. In the Dharoi system the water users have been working in partnership with the ID on the upgrading of sections of the main canal system (distributaries and minors), and have installed simple flow measuring devices (cut throat flumes) to enable volumetric allocation and charging of water supplies. The WUA Management Committee and water users have a good working relationship with the Executive Engineer, which enables them to meet and discuss issues. 142. On the Dharoi Irrigation Scheme the development of the WUAs has been supported by an NGO (Development Support Centre, Ahmedabad) whilst in Andhra Pradesh the development and support for the WUAs has been promoted by a PIM Cell within the CAD&WM Department. This development has been such that some of the best practice WUAs have been used (for an agreed fee) by the CAD&WM Department as training centres for other WUAs and visitors to the state.

Figure III.20: Key elements for improving the level of irrigation service provision

Photo1: Well maintained, lined distributary canal, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat

Photo 2: Volumetric water delivery to a WUA with measurement using a cut throat flume, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat

64

Photo 3: WUA Chairman and Treasurer with a map of their system, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat

Photo 4: Poster showing the water allocations and charges, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat

Photo 5: WUA Treasurer showing the WUA budget, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat

Photo 6: Executive Engineer (in right foreground) discussing issues in the field, with WUA Management Committee members, Dharoi Irrigation Scheme, Gujarat

Photo 7: WUA Chairman (standing) in discussions with training workshop participants, Nizam Sagar Irrigation Scheme, Andhra Pradesh

Photo 8: Distributary Committee office, Nizam Sagar Irrigation Scheme, Andhra Pradesh

65

Table III.11: Structuring the issues and possible solutions facing MMI irrigation schemes

No. Issues Possible cause(s) Possible solution(s) Category (of solution)

1 Irrigation Departments focussed on construction of new schemes rather than management of built schemes.

Historical development of I&D sector

ID employs mainly civil engineers who prefer design and construction to system management

Change focus of ID to management

Employ different cadres, including agricultural engineers, agriculturalists, social scientists, ETES specialists, hydrologists

Re-train civil engineers into irrigation and water management engineers

Policy

Management

Institutional

2 Schemes designed for protective, rather than productive, irrigation resulting in designs with water scarcity, and thus competition for water, built it.

Historical, systems set up to spread available water thinly to benefit more users

Considered to be more socially just than productive irrigation (benefitting the few vs the many)

Difficult, as systems already exist. For new systems consider designing for productive irrigation.

Improve dialogue between water users at head and tail-ends.

Improve transparency of designed and planned water distribution vs actual.

Establish effective WUAs/farmer groups

Policy

Management

Institutional

3 Poor communication and liaison with the customer, the farmers.

Cultural within the ID, not trained to work and liaise with farmers.

Poor communications infrastructure

Reform the ID as in (1) above

Increase transparency and accountability to farmers

Introduce levels of service contracts between the ID and water users (WUAs)

Measure scheme performance

Establish effective WUAs

Policy

Management

Institutional

4 Political interference in water allocation decision-making

Insufficient accountability and transparency

Politicians too powerful relative to the bureaucracy

Increase transparency and accountability


Political

Policy

Management

Institutional

5 Reservoir storage not conserved in Kharif for Rabi

Failure to allow for use of rainfall over the command area during Kharif

Inadequate scheduling and system operation to allow for rainfall

Establish automatic weather stations and allow for rainfall in schedules and scheme operation

Make scheme managers accountable for water conservation and use

Policy

Management

6 No water accounting carried out

Lack of knowledge and/or motivation

ID senior management to insist on detailed seasonal and annual water budgets using actual, not design, data

Include both authorised and unauthorised cropping

Policy

Management

66


7 Inadequate measurement of water delivery, and little or no assessment of scheme performance (except for Maharashtra with its benchmarking programme).

Weak ethos in ID of management, performance assessment and accountability

Establish performance management systems and monitor performance

Establish and enforce service delivery charters

Draw up enforceable service delivery agreements


Policy

Management

Institutional

8 Little or no accountability to water users for the service delivered.

Historical, high level of patronage in the past towards farmers

Cultural - ID does not see itself as accountable to farmers




Policy

Management

Institutional

9 Proposed solutions to identified issues are often limited to technical interventions (e.g. canal lining, drip irrigation, repair of structures).

Limited understanding by ID civil engineers of wider issues

ID staff remain in their comfort zone for solutions


Policy

Management

Institutional

10 A failure to understand the fundamental role that management has to play in ensuring good scheme performance.

Limited understanding by ID civil engineers of irrigation management

Lack of adequately trained and knowledgeable staff

Limited accountability for poor performance




Policy

Management

11 Water available to scheme impacted by upstream watershed development

Lack of knowledge of changes in watershed characteristics

Lack of coordination of developments and activities in watersheds between agencies

Monitor watershed development using modern systems (remote sensing, etc.)

Improve coordination between agencies

Model impacts

Policy

Management

12 Siltation of reservoirs has reduced their storage capacity.

Developments in the watershed

Erosion in catchment


Model impacts

Management

13 Changed hydrology since design.

Developments in the watershed

Climate change


Model impacts

Management

14 Head-works capacity limits intake flow rate.

Design

Lack of maintenance

Carry out remedial works

Carry out adequate maintenance

Management

15 Significant level of unauthorised abstractions, both within the command area and by lift irrigation from main canals out of the design command area.

Lack of enforceable legal power by ID

Lack of transparency (with downstream users)

Lack of adequate water supply (due to design)

Quantify and highlight the unauthorised areas

Include lift irrigation areas in scheme command area and charge service fee


Policy

Legal

Management

Institutions

67


16 Failure to allow for rainfall in irrigation schedules and canal operation.

Lack of understanding, knowledge and capability of ID staff

Lack of motivation

Measure scheme performance (to evaluate the possible contribution from rainfall)

Train existing ID staff or bring in new staff with knowledge (agricultural engineers)

Policy

Management

17 Cross drainage systems not functioning properly due to inadequate provision or damaged infrastructure.

Inadequate design

Lack of maintenance



Design

Management

18 Inadequate escape structures and/or inadequate operation of escape structures

Inadequate design

Inadequate operational procedures

Lack of motivation by ID staff

Lack of understanding, knowledge and skills of ID staff



Train ID staff

Design

Management

19 Lack of control structures.

Inadequate design Carry out remedial works

Make designers aware of the issue through training

Design

20 Lack of measurement. Inadequate design Carry out remedial works

Make designers aware of the issue through training

Design

21 Lack of adequate maintenance.

Lack of funds

Poor use of available funds (not cost-effective)

Lack of knowledge of preventative maintenance and prioritisation

Misuse of maintenance funds

Carry out assessment (using asset management planning) of maintenance and repair funding needs. Increase funding if found necessary

Train ID staff in cost-effective use of maintenance funds

Increase transparency and accountability


Finance

Management

Institutional

22 Lack of adequate finances for system MOM.

Lack of understanding of the costs of failing to properly manage, operate and maintain I&D systems.

Funds allocated to new build rather than existing schemes

Carry out an assessment of the costs of inadequate funding (lost production, inequity, greater costs if rehabilitation needed, etc.

Assess adequate funding needs

Increase funding, if merited

Finance

Policy

Management

23 Excessive seepage losses in some systems.

Soil type Assess situation, and if merited, line canal

Consider possible impacts, including reuse of groundwater

Management

68


24 Cropping patterns differ from the design cropping pattern.

Design cropping patterns outdated, or do not match farmers’ needs

Some farmers with better access to water prefer to grown different crops or greater areas of crop than design

Assess the current cropping pattern and the impact on the water demand. If water available match schedule to current cropping pattern, if not then look to reduce overuse

Establish effective WUAs to increase dialogue between farmers

Management

Institutional

25 Head-end farmers cropping water-intensive crops, thus depriving tail-end farmers of water.

Lack of enforceable legal power by ID

System designed for protective irrigation, so by design water supply will always be short

Difficult to enforce

Assess situation and publish results

Levy higher charges for excessive use (if enforceable)

Establish effective WUAs to increase dialogue between farmers

Policy

Legal

Management

Institutional

26 Supplies not matching actual cropping pattern.

Designed for protective irrigation, low average water duty

Inadequate supplies (below design values) due to siltation, lack of maintenance, etc.

Climate change

Establish cause of shortfall – design, lack of system capacity due to siltation, etc.

Establish effective WUAs to try to reduce gap between supply and demand

Management

Institutional

27 Lack of scientific scheduling.

Lack of understanding, knowledge and skills by ID staff

Lack of motivation

Outdated processes and procedures

Train ID staff

Bring in new cadre of irrigation managers

Change norms for scheme operation

Management

28 Loss of water to drains.

Poor system operation and monitoring

Weak accountability

Measure scheme performance to assess water use and water balance

Hold ID managers accountable

Management

29 Night irrigation – gates not closed at night so water flows to drains.

Lack of motivation

Lack of field staff and/or transport

Measure scheme performance to assess water use and water balance

Hold ID managers accountable

Management

30 Failure to regulate gates.

Lack of motivation

Lack of field staff and/or transport

Cross regulator gates in upstream reaches deliberately left open to allow scarce water through to tail-end

Scheme managers to monitor gate operation (field checks)

Monitor scheme performance (actual water deliveries vs planned)

Management

31 Over-irrigation at the field level

Many possible reasons: o Lack of knowledge o Unreliable supplies

(store what you can, when you can)

o Lack of on-farm

Carry out study the actual causes (by WALMI or Agricultural University)

Implement remedial measures – awareness

Management

Institutions

69


coordination of irrigation, etc.

raising and training of WUAs and farmers, improving reliability of main system supply, etc.

Establish effective WUAs to better manage on-farm distribution

32 Lack of scientific water management all round

Lack of focus on management

Lack of knowledgeable and skilled ID staff

Lack of incentives and motivation

Assess performance of schemes and benchmark against best practice

Train existing ID staff or bring in new cadres (agricultural engineers)

Management

Policy

Source: Authors

g. Typology of MMI schemes based on WUE issues and opportunities

143. An initial typology for classifying MMI schemes was prepared at the start of this study and included in Technical Note No. 1 (NWUEISP, 2013). This typology included 18 descriptors or attributes of MMI schemes:

Responsiveness of state to change

Importance of irrigation to the state

Type of scheme

Degree of water scarcity (at the source)

Size of the scheme

Average size of landholdings

Cropping pattern

Design and actual irrigation cropping intensity

(Main) Irrigation season

Agro-climate

Quality of the system (age and condition)

Extent of CAD works

System utilisation

Extent/use of groundwater

Status of groundwater

Existence and functionality of WUAs

Water charge collection and feedback

Annual expenditure on maintenance and repair

144. Further to this analysis it was concluded that this list of attributes related more to categorisation of different types of MMI schemes, rather than a typology based on WUE issues and opportunities, as requested in the study Terms of Reference. A revised typology (Table III.12) and set of attributes has thus been prepared based on the issues and opportunities described in the sections above. This typology comprises 11 attributes:

Type of scheme (storage vs run-of-the-river

Size of scheme

Degree of water scarcity and annual variability

General physical condition of the scheme

Groundwater stratum (alluvial vs hard rock)

Quality of management by the Irrigation Department

Level of unauthorised activities (to measure management control)

Level of finance for management, operation and maintenance

Predominant cropping pattern

Degree of on farm development (CAD)

Existence and functionality of WUAs

145. Using this typology it is suggested that following the Rapid Performance Assessment (RPA) these attributes can be used to prioritise the order in which schemes

70

will be taken up for remedial action. The criteria for selection will include the following factors:

the scale of the interventions required

the cost and resources required

the likelihood of the interventions being successful (based on risk assessment)

the time scale to implement the interventions and realise the benefits 146. This priority list might well seek to select the most cost-effective schemes first (the “low hanging fruit”, Figure III.21) but will need to consider the other criteria, particularly the likelihood that the interventions will have the desired impact.

Table III.12: Revised typology for MMI schemes based on identified issues and

opportunities No. Attribute Scale Remarks

1 Type of scheme

Storage

Diversion

Lift

Mixed (show percentage each)

In general storage-based systems should be more efficient as management and farmers can plan ahead. Diversion and lift will rely on the river hydrology, which is more difficult to predict. Lift has the added problem of reliability of the pumps and their power supply. In addition run-of-the-river systems often have higher sediment loads entering from the river, and consequently bigger issues with maintenance and reduction in canal capacity.

2 Size of scheme Major 1: >50,000 ha

Major 2: 25,000 – 50, 000 ha

Major 3: 10,000 - 25,000 ha

Medium 1: 5,000 -10,000 ha

Medium 2: 2,000 - 5,000 ha

In theory smaller schemes should be easier to manage. WUAs will have a greater influence in smaller schemes, farmer participation is likely to be easier to organise. Generally medium schemes (2000-10000ha) are more vulnerable to hydrology distortion, damage to the system, and siltation as most of the schemes are in the plains and have wide spread reservoir area as well as high rates of siltation.

3 Degree of water scarcity and annual variability

Water scarcity:

Severe scarcity

Significant

Moderate

None Annual variability:

Very variable

Moderately variable

Little variability

In theory water scarce systems should be more efficient, but the equity of distribution may be poor as the head-enders may take most of the water. Schemes with no water scarcity are a lower order of priority. Water scarcity can be influenced/governed by a variety of sources – the river supply, the design, unauthorised cropping (rice or sugarcane on schemes designed for irrigated dry), etc. The variability of the water supply between years has an impact on how the system is managed. Schemes with high variation of water availability between years are likely to be more difficult to manage.

4 General physical condition of the scheme

Condition:

Good condition – no constraints to operation

Moderate condition – some constraints to operation

Poor condition – serious constraints to operation

Very poor – major constraints to operation

Condition and performance are inter-related. Condition and performance of the infrastructure affect the ID’s ability to manage water delivery. This indicator will also take account of the age of the scheme and whether or not it has been rehabilitated or upgraded since construction.

5 Groundwater stratum

Alluvial

Hard rock

The groundwater stratum will greatly influence the availability, accessibility and recharge capability of groundwater.

71

No. Attribute Scale Remarks

6 Quality of management by the Irrigation Department

Very good

Good

Moderate

Poor

Very poor

As shown in the analysis of the issues facing MMI schemes the quality of the management of the main system is fundamental to the performance and water use efficiency of the scheme. Whilst the assessment of the quality of management might be partly qualitative, it can be accessed quantitatively by analysis of key management activities – such as irrigation planning, scheduling, organisation of maintenance, etc.

7 Level of unauthorised activities (to measure management control)

Very high

High

Moderate

Low

None

From the analysis of the issues facing MMI schemes there are several key factors which are related to unauthorised behaviour – unauthorised cropping, offtakes, abstraction, etc. These behaviours are evidence of lack of control within the system, and as such can significantly influence the level of scheme performance and water use efficiency.

8 Level of finance for management, operation and maintenance

Adequate

Inadequate

Very inadequate

The level of finance available for scheme MOM greatly affects how the system is operated and maintained. When levels of funding are low it is generally maintenance that suffers the most.

9 Predominant cropping pattern

Predominantly Kharif irrigation

Predominantly Rabi irrigation

Mixed Kharif and Rabi

Mixed Kharif, Rabi and Summer/Perennial)

Different approaches will be required for rice vs irrigated dry cropping systems, such as wheat, maize, cotton, etc. Different interventions will suit different crops. Micro-irrigation (drip, trickle) is suitable for row crops such as maize, sugarcane, fruit crops but not suitable for paddy rice. On the other hand controlled irrigation, such as with SRI, is a suitable intervention for paddy rice.

10 Degree of on-farm development (CAD)

CAD works completed

CAD works on-going

No CAD works started

To ascertain the extent of the CAD works and what still needs to be done. May need a sub-division to state what percentage of the command area has had CAD works. Many states have separate departments of CAD under different departments; Even if within WRD/ID, these have separate identity. Pertinent question would be if CAD in states should be split and merged with field ID units

11 Existence and functionality of WUAs.

WUAs formed and functioning well (in MMI command area)

WUAS formed but not functioning

WUAs not formed, not functioning

Shows the level of participation in scheme management and whether more effort is required in this area.

Source: Authors

8. Constraints on implementation of identified solutions

147. Broad constraints identified during this study which affect the implementation of solutions are summarized in Table III.13 below, whilst more detailed constraints for particular interventions are provided in each of the specialists’ reports in Annexure V.

9. Monitor and evaluate implementation and outcomes

148. As with the implementation of any project or programme it will be important to monitor and evaluate the interventions for improving scheme performance and water use efficiency. The indicators selected will depend on the nature of the interventions but will need to measure both the impact of the measure itself and its wider overall impact on scheme performance. The core indicators set out in Table III.4 in Section III.D.5 will

72

need to be included in the M&E programme monitoring as they will form the baseline for the performance evaluation and assessment of improvement in the water use efficiency.

Figure III.21: Decision matrix prioritising action to improve performance & WUE

Source: Authors

Table III.13: Broad constraints to the implementation of WUE improvement solutions

Constraint Explanation

Political Politics and the I&D sector are closely intertwined. Political vested interests can be a significant constraint on attempts to modernise the ID or to improve the efficiency and equity of water allocation and distribution.

Institutional (including legal)

Many states have outdated Irrigation and Drainage Acts, only one state, Gujarat, has enacted a separate Water Resources Act. The Irrigation Department’s focus on construction of new schemes is not appropriate in states where the ultimate irrigation potential has been reached and water resources are scarce.

Organisational The Irrigation Department was established to plan, design, construct, operate and maintain I&D schemes. Due to the pressure to create new irrigation areas to support a growing population the focus has been on planning, design and construction, not management. The ID is not currently equipped with the right cadres of staff, modern skills and expertise required to efficiently and effectively manage I&D systems.

Technical Again, in the government sector, the focus has been on construction of new schemes, rather than better management of existing schemes. There is not the knowledge and understanding within the ID which enables it to modernize its processes and procedures for efficient management, operation and maintenance of I&D systems.

Financial Finance will be a constraint as long as adequate funds are not provided to sustain the built infrastructure. Lack of adequate finance for sustainable MOM of I&D schemes is a major constraint to adequate levels of service provision and scheme performance.

Economic Small landholdings and subsistence cropping result in many farmers living in poverty. Their economic condition influences their options and decision-making, which may sometimes be optimal for them but sub-optimal for the scheme. Payment of even small sums for the ISF is an issue for many smallholders and/or tenant farmers who lack financial resources.

Social The large number of smallholder farmers on I&D schemes makes it difficult to implement some measures (such as laser landlevelling) and to change on-farm practices.

Source: Authors

73

E. Testing the process – Pilot Schemes

1. Purpose and outputs from the pilot schemes

149. The main purpose of the pilot schemes is to develop procedures for rapid appraisal of the performance of MMI schemes and identification and, where possible implementation, of measures for improvement, in particular in relation to water use efficiency. As such it is intended that the work carried out on the pilot schemes will be based on and develop the work carried out under this study. 150. The request for a rapid appraisal process (RAP) was made by the MoWR during the course of this study, and fits well with the identified need for a systematic and robust approach to performance assessment of MMI schemes, including their water use efficiency. The proposals made below are based on the understanding that the by rapid appraisal the MoWR require the following:

a quick and reliable method of assessing how a scheme is performing and what the WUE is for the scheme overall

a method that identifies where action should be taken and the costs and benefits

provides a baseline to be used later as the reference to measure improvements in WUE/performance for the scheme

151. The outputs from the work will comprise: (i) A report on the current performance of the scheme and cost proposals for action to

improve performance, particularly in relation to water use efficiency. This report will contain proposals for measures that can be adopted relatively easily and in a short time frame to improve water use efficiency on the scheme;

(ii) Guidelines for performance assessment of MMI schemes, including a rapid appraisal component for use by WRD/ID staff as a baseline for WUE improvement programmes and studies related to rehabilitation and modernization of MMI schemes;

(iii) Analysis of the impact of water saving innovations proposed in the initial study of the scheme and implemented by the WRD/ID.

2. Mechanism for implementation

152. The work will be carried out by the team of consultants contracted by ADB for TA 7967-REG: Innovations for More Food with Less Water. The scope of work of the TA is given as:

“[the task] will involve country studies and capacity building to support the application of innovative water-efficient technologies and management systems in the design and implementation of ADB investment projects in Bangladesh, India, and Nepal.”

153. The consultant’s team in India will comprise the following specialists and inputs:

i) Irrigation Management Specialist/Team Leader (International, 6 person-months)

ii) Irrigation Management Specialists (International, 1.5 person-months*; National 6 person-months)

iii) Participatory Irrigation Management Specialist (International, 2.5 person months*; National 9 person-months)

74

iv) Irrigation Planning and Design Engineers (International, 1.0 person-months*; National 4 person-months)

v) Agriculture (irrigated) Specialists (International, 1.3 person-months*; National 4 person-months)

vi) Project Economists (National 2 person-months) vii) Survey Specialists (National – not specified for India) viii) Basin Planning Expert/Hydrologist (National 3 person-months) ix) Remote Sensing Specialist (International, 0.7 person-months*; National 2

person-months)

* Estimated in India, total time shared pro-rata with other countries

3. Criteria for selection of pilot schemes

154. There are over 5,000 MMI schemes in India, so it will not be possible to select pilot schemes which are representative of all types of MMI scheme. Criteria which can be used for selection of the 2 Pilot Schemes are provided in Table III.14 below. The key factors to consider in the selection of the Pilot Schemes are:

i) The responsiveness of the state to change: Responsive states are more likely to support proposed improvements.

ii) The scale of MMI in the state: States with large areas under MMI are likely to be more interested in improving water use efficiency.

iii) The degree of water scarcity: States and schemes where water is scarce (for irrigation as well as domestic, industrial and other uses) are more likely to be interested in improving WUE.

iv) General condition of scheme: It will be important to select schemes that can be operated reasonably well.

v) Reliability/security of water supply: It would be sensible to select one scheme with storage and one with run-of-the-river as the operation procedures are very different.

vi) Incidence of conjunctive use: It will be important to select both schemes based on the availability and use of groundwater. Propose one scheme with an alluvial area and one in a hard rock area.

vii) Existence and functionality of WUAs: At least one scheme should have moderately well-functioning WUAs

viii) Water charge collection rate: At least one scheme, probably both, should be setting and collecting water charges.

Table III.14: Proposed criteria for selection of pilot projects

Category Criteria Possible options Selection importance

(5-High, 1-Low)

General context

Responsiveness of State to change

Very responsive

Moderately responsive

Not responsive

4

Scale of MMI schemes in the State

5 million ha

2-5 million ha

1-2 million ha

< 1 million ha

4

Physical Agro-climate (need for irrigation)

Arid (<400mm rainfall)

Semi-arid (400-600 mm rainfall)

Humid (>600 mm rainfall)

3

Degree of water scarcity

High

Moderate

Low

No scarcity

4

75

Category Criteria Possible options Selection importance

(5-High, 1-Low)

Geology (for groundwater)

Alluvial basin

Hard rock basin

5

Size of scheme Major (> 500,000 ha)

Major (10 – 500,000 ha)

Medium (2-10,000 ha)

3

General condition of scheme

Very good (operation not constrained by physical deficiencies)

Good (operation partially constrained by physical deficiencies)

Moderate (operation noticeably constrained by physical deficiencies)

Poor (operation significantly constrained by physical deficiencies)

Very poor (not operable)

5

Extent of CAD works

CAD works completed over entire scheme

CAD works completed over more than 50% of the scheme

CAD works completed over less than 50% of the scheme

No CAD works yet started

3

Water supply

Reliability/security of surface water supply

Run-of-the-river

With storage (direct)

With storage (on upstream river system)

5

Incidence of conjunctive use

Very high (>60% of farmers use SW+GW)

High (31-60% of farmers use SW+GW)

Moderate(11-30% of farmers use SW+GW)

Low (<10% of farmers use SW+GW)

None (No, or very few farmers use SW+GW)

5

Cropping Predominant cropping pattern

Paddy (Kharif)

Paddy (Kharif and Rabi)

Wheat (Rabi)

Sugarcane

3

Main irrigation season

Kharif

Rabi

3

Cropping intensity Very high (>150%)

High (>101-150%)

Moderate (50-100%)

Low (<50%)

3

System utilisation - Ratio of Irrigation Potential Utilised (IPU) to Irrigation Potential Created (IPC)

Very high (>95 %)

High (81-95%)

Moderate (71-80%)

Low (60-70%)

Very low (<60%)

4

Institutional Existence and functionality of WUAs

WUAs formed and functioning well

WUAs formed but not functioning

WUAs not formed, not functioning

5

Financial Water charge collection rate

Very high (>90%)

High (61-90%)

Moderate (20-60%)

Low (<20%)

Not collected

5

Source: Authors

76

4. Work to be carried out 155. As discussed in the sections above a detailed analysis has been carried out in this study of the issues and possible solutions facing MMI schemes. These issues and possible solutions are summarized in Section D.7.f and Annexure V, together with proposals for action by the TA 7967-REG team. The work identified is summarised in the flow chart in Figure III.22 and comprises, inter alia, the following tasks: i) Development of a questionnaires for obtaining the required data and information; ii) Data collection, processing and analysis; iii) Walk through of the system (or representative parts thereof) to assess system

condition and performance; iv) Obtaining, analysing and reporting on remote sensing data; v) Assessment of scheme performance and recommendations for measures to improve

water use efficiency in the short, medium and long-term; Evaluation of measures taken in the short-term to improve water use efficiency

vi) Preparation of guidelines for the process of scheme performance assessment and water use efficiency improvement;

vii) Preparation of final report on the process and activities carried out. viii) The process is similar to that developed by Burt and Styles and FAO for

MASSCOTE, and (often unpublished) procedures followed by consultants when carrying out studies prior to scheme rehabilitation and modernisation (Beadle et al, 1988).

ix) The information and data to be collected will cover the areas set out in Table III.15. Rainfall, discharge, crop area, etc. data will be required for 3-5 years to enable variations in water supply and crop area to be tracked in relation to seasonal and annual variations in climate.

Figure III.22: Flow chart of procedure for identification of WUE improvement measures

Source: Authors

77

Table III.15: Outline of information and data needs for the Pilot projects

Domain Information/data needs

Legal Legal framework for water resources and irrigation development and management

Legal framework for PIM and formation of WUAs

Legal framework for local government (Panchayati Raj institutions)

Other relevant legal frameworks (relate to ground water abstraction, watershed development, Societies Act, etc.)

Relevant Government Orders

Maps and records

Maps of the system

Remote sensing images

Design drawings

Command areas per canal

Ground water maps

Waterlogging and salinity maps

Climate and Hydrology

Daily rainfall data over the catchment

Daily, monthly, seasonal and annual river flows

Daily rainfall data within the command area

Daily climatic data within the command area (temperature, wind speed, sunshine hours, etc.)

Daily ET values within the command area

Institutional Number of WUAs formed

Reports on current status of WUAs

Management Management structure

Staffing levels and capability

Training

Finances for MOM (staffing, overheads, running costs, operation, maintenance, fee income, etc.)

Water charges – rules and regulations, rates, recovery, etc.

Liaison with water users

Liaison with other water entities

Operation Guidelines/instructions/manuals on system operation processes and procedures

Storage volumes (for different uses – agriculture, domestic, industrial, etc.)

Irrigation schedules

Design cropping pattern and schedule

Daily discharge data (at intake, key control points, etc.)

Seasonal crop areas

Ground water levels ( and flows, if available)

Waterlogged and saline area maps and records

Drainage flow records

Maintenance Guidelines/instructions/manuals on maintenance processes and procedures

System condition and performance

Maintenance machinery and equipment

Annual expenditure and resources used on maintenance

Institutions Existence, role and current capabilities of relevant institutions (e.g. WALMIs, Panchayati Raj) and government agencies (e.g. Agricultural Department)

Agricultural production and marketing

Crop yields (range and averages)

Crop production

Marketing opportunities

Crop pricing

Crop and farm budgets, farm income

Source: Authors

156. The consultants should work closely with WRD/ID staff. This is for four main reasons: (i) to benefit from the knowledge held by the WRD/ID; (ii) to ensure that the approach is understood by WRD/ID staff; (iii) to benefit from suggestions for improvement from WRD/ID staff; (iv) to generate a sense of ownership of the approach by the WRD/ID. 157. It is intended that the work on the pilot schemes will provide a robust analytical framework which structures the data to be collected and how it will be processed and

78

analysed. The process will: (i) identify areas of poor performance and the factors which influence or constrain performance: (ii) identify the work and resources (finance, human resources, etc.) required to address these performance constraints, and (iii) will assess the relative costs and benefits of different interventions in order to identify priority actions. These priority actions will be based on key criteria, including the cost, ease of implementation, speed of implementation (short-term, long-term), cost effectiveness and longevity of the impacts.

F. Benchmarking

158. Benchmarking can be used to compare the performance of one irrigation schemes with another. By identifying best practice irrigation schemes which form the benchmark for other schemes senior irrigation managers have a valuable for raising the performance of all schemes (Figure III.23). As can be seen from the definition given in Box III.3 benchmarking is intended as a long term programme to improve performance against achievable targets.

Figure III.23: Benchmarking – comparative performance against best practice

Source: Burton, 2010

159. A number of benchmarking activities have been carried out since the concept was promoted in the irrigation and drainage sector in the late 1990s/early 2000s (ANCID, 2000; Malano and Burton, 2001; Malano et al; 2004). The ICID formed a Task Force to develop the concept, with early contributions from India and institutionalising of the process in Maharashtra (GoM, 2008). The Indian chapter of INPIM has suggested indicators for benchmarking and the World Bank is currently supporting the development of a web site for benchmarking the performance of Water Users’ Associations (http://wua-india.org/about.html). 160. Benchmarking relies on identifying the key processes which transform the inputs into the desired outputs and impacts (Figure III.24). As noted in the sections above the identification of these processes and their relative impact on the outputs and outcomes is

A

B

Performance before

benchmarking

Irrigation and drainage

system

Performance

gap

AB

Performance after

benchmarking

Irrigation and drainage

system

Performance

gap

Gap analysis and

implementation of

action plan

“Best practice”

performance“Best practice”

performance

Performance gap

narrowed, removed or

overtaken

Box III.3: Benchmarking definition

Benchmarking can be defined as:

“A systematic process for securing continual improvement through comparison with relevant and achievable internal or external norms and standards”

Source: (Malano and Burton, 2001)

http://wua-india.org/about.html

79

crucial to the benchmarking process. Setting the boundaries is also important, is it to be limited to the physical system, to the scheme, or to the wider environment? Once the boundaries and processes are defined appropriate indicators can be identified and data collected. Figure III.24: Identification of key processes in an irrigation and drainage scheme

Source: Burton, 2010

161. Another key part of the process is the identification of descriptors which will enable comparison of like-with-like schemes (Box III.4). These “descriptors” as identified by Burton and Malano (2001) can be adapted to form the basis for the MMI typology described in preceding sections. 162. If, as described in the sections above, data are being collected to assess the WUE of MMI schemes then these data can be used to benchmark performance. The better performing schemes, as assessed against the key performance indicators (KPIs), can be used as the benchmark, and their core processes studied to see where their comparative advantage is coming from. The knowledge gained can then be applied to less well performing systems in order to improve their performance (Figure III.25)

Box III.4 Descriptors for I&D schemes

Irrigable area

Drained area

Annual irrigated area

Climate

Water resources availability

Water source

Average annual rainfall

Average annual reference crop potential evapotranspiration (ETo)

Method of water abstraction

Water delivery infrastructure

Type of water distribution

Type of drainage

Predominant on-farm irrigation method

Major crops (with percentages of total irrigated area)

Average farm size

Type of irrigation system management

Type of drainage system management Source: Malano and Burton 2001.

80

Figure III.25: Identification and costing of measures to close the performance gap

Source: Authors, based on Burton, 2010

163. One of the most important developments of the benchmarking concept has been by the Water Resources Department, Government of Maharashtra, who have been benchmarking the performance of I&D schemes in the State since 2001-2 (GoM, 2008; ICID, 2004) using the guidelines prepared by the Indian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage (INCID) in 2002. The initial programme started with 84 schemes and 10 indicators, by 2007-8 this had increased to 262 schemes and 12 indicators (Table III.16). There have been some refinements to the benchmarking process over the years but the current set of indicators are set out in Table III.17. The categorization of I&D schemes has been as set out in Table III.18.

Table III.16: Development of the benchmarking programme in Maharashtra

Year Number of schemes Number of indicators

Date of report publication Major Medium Minor Total

2001-2 30 26 28 84 10 March 2003

2002-3 49 142 63 254 11 March 2004

2003-4 49 143 69 262 12 March 2005

2004-5 49 144 69 262 12 February 2006

2005-6 49 144 69 262 12 March 2007

2006-7 9 144 69 262 13 March 2008

Source: GoM, 2008

Table III.17: Indicators used in benchmarking I&D schemes in Maharashtra

No. Indicator Definition Target value/ Units

A. System performance

1. Annual irrigation water supply per unit irrigated area

Total volume of irrigation water supplied at intake Total area irrigated in all seasons

Major and Medium – 7,692 m

3/ha

Minor – 6,667 m3/ha

2. Potential created and utilised

Total potential utilised (measured crop area) Irrigation potential created

All schemes – 100%

B. Agricultural productivity

3. Output (agricultural Total value of agricultural production Rs/ha

81

No. Indicator Definition Target value/ Units

production) per unit irrigated area

Total irrigated area

4. Output (agricultural production) per unit irrigation water supply

Total value of agricultural production Total volume of irrigation water supplied

Rs/m3

C. Financial aspects

5. (a) Cost recovery ratio: Irrigation

Total water charges collected Cost of water charge collection

1.0

6. (b) Cost recovery ratio: Non-irrigation

Total water charges collected Cost of water charge collection

1.0

7. Total O&M cost per unit irrigated area

Total MOM costs for the system Total area irrigated (potential utilised)

Rs/ha Set separately for each system

8. Total O&M cost per unit volume of water supplied

Total MOM costs for the system Total volume of water supplied (all uses)

Rs/m3

9. Revenue per unit volume of water supplied

Total revenue collected Total volume of water supplied (all uses)

Rs/m3

10. (a) Assessment recovery ratio: Irrigated

Total irrigation water charges collected Total irrigation water charges due

%

11. (b) Assessment recovery ratio: Non-irrigated

Total non-irrigation water charges collected Total non-irrigation water charges due

%

D. Environmental aspects

12. Land damage index Total land damaged within the irrigable command area Total irrigable command area

%

E. Social aspects

13. Equity performance Actual area irrigated in head, middle and tail Command area in head, middle and tail

% - values for Head, Middle and Tail

Source: GoM, 2008

164. The benchmarking report details the performance for each scheme, grouping them into four groups related to their water supply for each category of major, medium and minor schemes: (i) Highly deficient; (ii) Normal; (iii) Surplus; and (iv) Abundant, and provides an overall summary for all major, medium and minor schemes (Table III.19).

Table III.18: Categorisation of I&D schemes in Maharashtra benchmarking

No. Descriptor Categories

1. Type of water control Fixed proportional division; Manual control; Automatic control. Manual control schemes are considered

2. Method of allocation and distribution of water

Supply-orientated arranged-demand; on-demand

3. Water availability Abundant to scarce Highly deficit to abundant schemes are considered

4. Water source Surface water; Groundwater; Surface water + Groundwater Surface water schemes are included

5. Size of scheme Major; Medium; Minor All sizes are considered

Source: GoM, 2008

82

165. The analysis is relatively difficult to follow as there are a large number of schemes, so further thought may be required on how to present the data. One obvious route forward is to put the data on the web site and allow the user to compare performance of similar schemes, another is to provide scores for each of the indicators such that the performance of each scheme can be added up and compared with other the scores from other similar schemes. In addition the analysis tends to compare performance with previous years and with the state targets. This has its place, but little is said about which the best are performing systems which might be used as examples of best practice. 166. Nevertheless the report represents an important milestone in performance management of I&D systems and has leaded the way for other States in this regard.

Table III.19: Range of values for benchmarking indicators, Maharashtra 2006-7

No. Indicator Units Major Medium Minor Remarks

A. System performance

1. Annual irrigation water supply per unit irrigated area

m3/ha 10,977 7,362 7,399 Similar figures to

previous years, not a great deal of difference

2. Potential created and utilised

- 0.91 0.65 0.89 Marked improvement over the years, from 0.46, 0.38, and 0.51 in 2002-3

B. Agricultural productivity

3. Output (agricultural production) per unit irrigated area

kg/ha n/a n/a n/a Data not provided – various crops

4. Output (agricultural production) per unit irrigation water supply

Rs/m3

35,201 29,302 21,015 Similar figures to previous years, not a great deal of difference

C. Financial aspects

5. (a) Cost recovery ratio: Irrigation

% 1.2 0.3 0.35 Increase for major, low for medium and minor schemes over previous years

6. (b) Cost recovery ratio: Non-irrigation

% n/a n/a n/a

7. Total O&M cost per unit irrigated area

Rs/ha 1,815 2,989 1,847 Includes establishment costs

8. Total O&M cost per unit volume of water supplied

Rs/m3

0.18 0.43 0.32

9. Revenue per unit volume of water supplied

Rs/m3

0.22 0.13 0.11

10. (a) Assessment recovery ratio: Irrigated

- 0.49 0.43 0.43

11. (b) Assessment recovery ratio: Non-irrigated

- 0.84 0.82 0.75 Better ratio than for irrigation sector.

D. Environmental aspects

83

No. Indicator Units Major Medium Minor Remarks

12. Land damage index n/a n/a n/a

E. Social aspects

13. Equity performance n/a n/a n/a Scheme specific

Source: GoM, 2008

84

IV. UPDATING DPR GUIDELINES

A. Overview

167. Presently MMI projects in India are funded from the outlay provided under the FYPs after investigation, techno-economic formulation and approval by the Planning Commission for inclusion under the plans and fund clearance. Two programmes of MOWR are in force, AIBP and CAD&WM for development and management of existing irrigation projects; New irrigation projects and extension, renovation and modernization (ERM) of the existing projects is being done under ERM component of AIBP and development of on-farm works and other activities relating to enhancing production and productivity of the project commands are executed under CAD&WM programme. Guidelines for preparation of ‘detailed project reports’ (DPRs) were first evolved in 1980 and were last revised in 201041. State Governments submit proposals in the form of DPRs to CWC for clearance, CWC is entrusted with the responsibility of examination of the technical and economic feasibility of the projects and the concerned ministries issue prior ‘no-objection’ to the provisions concerning them. A ‘Technical Advisory Committee’ (TAC) examines the clearances and approves the project proposals before recommending these to the Planning Commission for fund clearance. States implement these projects on release of funds.

B. Contents of the existing guidelines and review of the current approach

168. The guidelines dealing with modernization include schemes requiring extension, renovation (and also restoration/rehabilitation) and modernization (ERM) of components of the existing project to optimize the benefits in view of the deficiencies experienced in operation & maintenance of the project over the past 25 years or more and based on technological advancements made till date; this also includes deterioration of the system owing to lack of maintenance. These guidelines cover detailed review of water availability, design flood, cropping pattern, water demand, operation and safety concerns of dams, head-works, water control and conveyance/distribution system, conjunctive use and drainage aspects, strengthening agricultural support services, involvement of beneficiaries and associations for sustainability of the schemes. The objective is to improve the existing head-works, canals; command area works to address the deficiencies experienced in operation and maintenance so as to derive optimum benefits for the present day irrigated agriculture. 169. These guidelines are generally engineering centric and do not deal with management and other multi-disciplinary aspects including participation of beneficiaries, which are considered necessary to enhance WUE and performance of the schemes. Besides, these guidelines consider continuation of the ‘Business as usual approach’ considering ‘command development and management’ as a discrete component of irrigation conveyance and distribution. Planning Commission has directed to take up development of CAD works simultaneously with development of canals and distribution networks in case of new and ERM projects. Present guidelines include a (i) checklist, (ii) salient features, and (iii) chapters on hydrology, reservoir operation, structures to be modified, cropping pattern and crop water requirements, demand tables, experimentation on estimation of losses (seepage, evaporation, transpiration), improvements required in the canal system, water management practices, construction programme, cost estimates and economic feasibility through benefit-cost ratios etc.

41 GOI (2010), Guidelines for Preparation of Detailed Project Reports of Irrigation and Multipurpose Projects,

Governmnet of India, Ministry of Water Resources, Governmnet of India, New Delhi, India.

85

170. The objective of a CAD&WM project is to bridge the gap between irrigation potential creation (at canal outlet) and its utilization (in the farmer’s fields) through systematically improved land, water and crop management for sustainable optimum agricultural production & productivity of irrigated commands of major and medium irrigation projects and to improve socio-economic condition of the farmers though integration of various activities related to irrigated agriculture. Organized scientific planning and development of each outlet command is envisaged under the programme through systematic topographical and soil surveys, adopting soil & climate reliant cropping patterns, consolidating land holdings for economical farming practices; levelling and shaping each farm to suit crops grown and easing extension services; linking each farm with canal outlet through field channels; streamlining farm inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides etc.; provide research and extension services to support advanced high yielding agriculture with due emphasis in providing drains and roads to each farm, market, storage and other infrastructure. The approach adopted at inception of the programme was integrated management of on-farm practices assuming that sufficient water would be available for the designed cropping patterns at the farm outlet. Coordinated efforts of all multi-disciplinary departments were planned in an integrated manner to ensure equitable and efficient delivery of water under irrigation Acts. All Irrigation Acts provide recording of water requirements and deliveries at each control and outlet. The 2010-guidelines for CAD&WM programme include (i) a checklist, salient features with more emphasis on canal alignment and sections, and (iii) chapters on water availability, status of conveyance system, micro level infra-structure development of the command area, status of on-farm water management system, crops and cropping patterns, technical details of works carried out and balance works, participatory approach to implement the programme, agricultural and extension facilities. Annexure-V.7 and VII respectively provide more details CAD&WM programme and guidelines of CAD&WM programme. 171. Two other schemes of MOWR viz. ‘repair, renovation and restoration’ (RRR) of water bodies and ‘Artificial Recharge to Ground Water’ are also in force. These schemes are not directly relevant to management of existing MMI schemes; however, the potentials of integrating a large number of ponds, tanks and natural lakes within MMI command to supplement supplies in case of first programme and supplementing ground water supplies through conjunctive use should be explored to increase water use efficiency.

172. Deficiencies of the existing guidelines: NWUEISP considers restructuring the problem based on the issues faced by the project and the associated concerns, diagnosis of the causes, suggesting available solutions, and accordingly formulating the DPR guidelines in short term context based on prioritized solutions. The guidelines for NWUEISP would thus consider both development and management aspects of the problem. The approach considered in the existing guidelines concentrates on development alone. Following specific deficiencies are inherent in the present guidelines:

Guidelines developed in 1980 were evolved when water scarcity was not a real issue, infrastructure and canal systems were relatively new and were functioning well, environmental concerns were not known, multi-disciplinary staff within CADAs performed well. A number of constraints have emerged since then, requiring reform needs. 2010 guidelines do not cover all such reform requirements.

Framework for NWUEISP assumes vulnerable constrains to be taken up on priority. The guidelines on modernization (ERM) of projects thus requires identification of deficiencies in existing irrigation systems considering suggested mechanism or tools to identify the deficiencies and considering the available options to the reforms. Vulnerable constrains to be taken up on priority. Present guidelines consider

86

extension, restoration/renovation and modernization of the project in one go, which may not be a cost effective solution. Fiscal constraints limit this objective.

CAD&WM programme as originally conceived has undergone number of changes. Multi-disciplinary role of CADAs has weakened under the current circumstances. CAD&WM programme needs a number of changes if it has to continue in the present day circumstances to pace up activities. Continuity of the CAD&WM programme has to be ensured through NWUEISP. Desirably CADAs should work under IDs.

Section 19 of the 2010 guidelines on ‘water management and maintenance refers to review of existing O&M distribution, and broad information on PIM empowerment and functions. It is silent on role of agencies in empowering PIM programmes.

Status on progress of activities within AIBP and CAD&WM programme varies from project to project. The framework of NWUEISP needs to be flexible to accommodate different level of progress made so far, particularly, CAD&WM programme.

C. Purpose and need for up-dating guideline

173. DSDAP study recommended identifying challenges and prioritized mechanism to abate each challenge in six different areas viz. basin level, conveyance and distributary level, on-farm, crop management, PIM level, R&D, monitoring and evaluation. A matrix of the concerns and solutions and related study requirements (Annexure VII) provides an exhaustive list of challenges that need be addressed at basin, project, conveyance & distribution, field application, crop management, marketing issues, drainage issues and management issues. Each issue needs evaluating specific solution and a study in this regard need be included in the DPRs. This list also highlights the fact that dealing with these challenges would be almost impossible unless various agencies dealing with MMI act in unison thus suggesting institutional realignment as a compulsion before reform initiative in the States. 174. NWUEISP envisages combining the management aspects of modernisation programme and the development and management aspects of the CAD&WM programme from head-works of the main-canal to management of crops in each field suggesting integrating the roles of IDs and CADAs. Since CAD&WM programme is designed to complete all micro level infrastructure development before pull-out, IDs in association with WALMIs need to play some additional roles on continuation of the extension services after CADA pull-out. With no one in the saddle at present, IDs now-on are required to play a nodal role of development and management of the irrigation commands of MMI projects. NWUEISP thus would altogether require a new set of guidelines especially as the programme is envisaged to cover 20% enhancement in current water use efficiencies of the over-all project during 12th FYP and blow it up to optimized efficiencies as and when IWRM implementation is initiated in the State. The programmes and thus guidelines are to consider both development and management aspects of the reform process as well as have to be flexible enough to implement prioritized components necessary to enhance current efficiencies because of fiscal crunch. Provisions of the NWP, NWM and the directives of the 12th FYP Agenda are also quite compelling in formulating this approach to the reform process and consequential approach to frame the structure of the guidelines. 175. Institutional Realignment - Present institutional set up in States is designed to suit irrigation infrastructure development and supply oriented services. Management of MMI schemes requires an altogether different set up dealing with allocations and entitlements to meet demand oriented services. During the development phase of an MMI project, IDs, CADAs and WALMIs have a different set of roles to play. These change completely when management phase begins. Participatory associations are dependent on the coordinated efforts of these organizations, which is lacking at present. During management phase scarcity of water coupled with increased pressure of

87

population growth and increasing demands of other water use are likely to create conflict of interest in coming days. This necessitates the allocating agencies (presently IDs at basin level) to be independent, transparent and judicious in performing their allocation functions under regulatory authorities. Irrigation department being custodian of water are also a major user of water. While priorities on other water use have been assigned through policy statements, these get hardly implemented when the allocator himself is a major user of water. The allocation process needs to be fair, transparent and judicious under a regulatory control. It is only possible if the water assessment and allocation institutional functions are performed by organization other than those using water. IDs/WRDs, CADAS and WALMIs are also required to function in unison at the command level. Details on realigning the institutions are described in detail in Annexure V.1.

D. Approach to the structure of the proposed guidelines

176. The key concern of MoWR is how to assess the performance of an irrigation system in terms of water use efficiency and other allied indices and how best the performance including WUE be improved for a large number of projects in the short term context, say within 12th Plan period. Present 2010-guidelines consider modernizing (ERM) irrigation projects in their totality through AIBP initiative. CAD&WM programme is concentrating more on on-farm micro infrastructure development and is constrained to take up works above outlets. It is also constrained to take up on-farm and crop management initiatives for want of staff and liaison with other departments (WALMIs, Agriculture and ground water). Though CADAs took lead in formalizing PIM programmes in States, effective functioning of the associations cannot be ensured unless IDs assure releases at prominent control points. Thus coordination of IDs, WALMIs and CADAs is considered crucial for initiating management initiatives. CAD&WM programme is central to management functions, it would be desirable to restructure its programme functions through NWUEISP (when it functions under IDs) considering management objectives of the project operations from main canal to crop management in every filed. 177. The approach to NWUEISP guidelines for the proposed programme would be: (i) IDs act as nodal agencies, CADAs function under IDs, WALMIs provide full support throughout including extension services. This will ensure: (i) efficient use of multi-disciplinary staff under CADAs, (ii) additional WALMIs support on extension services to the associations (directly or through NGOs/experts), (iii) paced up CADA activities, both outside and inside of their jurisdictions (through joint efforts of three organizations), (iv) pushing through NWUEISP through RAP and mapping, and (v) evaluating performance while implementing the programme.

178. Many suggest that the FAO approach using RAP and MASSCOTE tools help in quick identification of the constraints and exploring cost effective options that help gradual increase in efficiencies. Yet some others believe e-leaf approach to quickly map the spatial and temporal characteristics of the command information and its status would help in providing larger and quicker information on canal performance. The points favouring RAP-MASSCOTE approach include its systematic step wise procedure to map the system performance. The points against this approach are that it is canal oriented approach and does not necessarily include on-farm performance where more losses take place. Also some believe that the RAP-MASSCOTE approach does not consider social, political and institutional aspects into consideration. This has been discussed earlier part of the report. Guidelines should include this approach to identify the deficiencies of the system.

88

E. Purpose of updating guidelines

179. A number of challenges are confronting the water sector. DSDAP study recommended identifying challenges and suggesting prioritized mechanism to abate each challenge in six different areas viz. basin level, conveyance and distributary level, on-farm, crop management, PIM level, R&D, monitoring and evaluation. A matrix of the concerns and solutions and related study requirements is given in detail in Annexure VII. The information is compiled in terms of challenges that need be addressed at basin and project level, conveyance and distribution level, field application level, crop management and marketing issues, drainage issues and management issues. Challenges faced by each project differ and solutions will also vary. Accordingly, the study requirements for each concern and the corresponding provisions will also vary. Existing guidelines consider standardized set of components, activities, design features and thus are rigid stereo-typed guidelines. In this context the structure of the NWUEISP would need be quite different from those of existing guidelines.

F. Updating present guidelines

180. Updating 2010-guidelines should follow a systematic and a structured approach considered in the NWUEISP framework considering RAP and mapping procedure described earlier. Both development and management aspects are to be included. Guidelines for NWUEISP require inclusion of common issues, possible solutions and likely studies to be taken up from both developmental and management angle considering cost effective solutions. 181. The existing 2010-guidelines for development of DPRs for different categories of the schemes compile general engineering oriented solutions of the physical project functions and tries to restore the project functions. These are necessary. However, the NWUEISP requirements for DPR also include, addressing the key concerns and providing prioritized solutions to the key concerns. Key concerns vary in every MMI project. DPR of a NWUEISP cannot be generic but specifically tailored project, region and need specific reports to address the vulnerable issues faced by the project. In this regard, guidelines for new, ERM and CAD&WM projects need a review if these are to be applied to NWUEISP projects. Each project has its own set of issues and constraints. Standardization of the issues and possible solutions as in case of present guidelines is not feasible nor is necessary. Some of the commonly observed issues in MMI projects in India, possible solutions and required studies need reflection in DPRs.

182. An attempt is made in Annexure VII to update the existing guidelines in respect of common issues faced by MMI projects in India. For each issue, possible solutions, likely studies to be taken up, expected outcome, reliance to NWUEISP and DPR requirements are listed. Three categories of the coverage are listed for new, ERM and CAD&WM projects; these include existing guidelines either: (i) do not cover/ do not require, or (ii) partially covered or (iii) fully covered. Partially covered contents of DPR provisions may refer to coverage of data and other information relating the concern but not the specific concern and the details of specific requirements of addressing the issues are not listed. Salient features of these categories of the projects are, however adequately covered. As may be seen from the Annexure VII most of the concerns are not adequately answered in the present DPR because of inherent nature of the three types of DPR being development oriented rather than management oriented. To this effect, it is desirable that an altogether new set of guidelines be prepared for NWUEISP projects. The framework of the new guidelines could be evolved through pilot studies.

89

V. WORKING GROUP STATE AND NATIONAL LEVEL CONSULTATIONS

A. Introduction

183. The involvement of state governments in India for the implementation of the National Water Mission is contingent on understanding state-specific problems. For this purpose, initially two state-level workshops were organized. The first was held in in Chandigarh on 5 June 2013 and the second in Hyderabad on 25 June 2013.These workshops were designed to involve senior level officials as well as mid-level officials from the water resources departments of various states. Northern states were represented in the Chandigarh workshop; southern states participated in the Hyderabad workshop. A meeting of the working group and state representatives chaired by Secretary, MoWR was held on 19th march 2014, where in the findings of the study were deliberated upon observations of the participants undertaken.

B. Setting the context

184. The purpose of the workshops was two-fold: first, they were needed to ascertain the views, opinions and concerns of water resources officials to understand the challenges that states were facing. Secondly, the workshops had to help build confidence among state officials that the National Water Mission would indeed be run on a mission mode, with clear targets, assigned responsibilities, and adequate support to state governments to implement the programmes. Therefore, the workshops were organized against the backdrop of four key questions:

i) Do you believe that the National Water Mission and its constituent aims and

incentives have been structured in a manner, which would be conducive to

improving water management within your state?

ii) What specific aspects, which might be unique to your state, should be considered

for the implementation of the NWM?

iii) Is the target of 20% improvement in WUE a realistic one for your state? Could

more be achieved?

iv) What is the benchmark/baseline that you would apply for the 20% increase in

WUE?

185. These questions were designed to elicit honest reactions from the participants at the outset of the workshop. The challenge of running a workshop with participants from many different states is that there would be the danger of not winning their confidence unless participants had the opportunity to share their skepticism and concerns at the very beginning. If, instead, participants felt that a one-size-fits-all approach was being adopted, they would not engage in the discussions actively.

C. Focused group discussions: interventions at various levels of the irrigation system

186. Following from the general discussions, it was necessary to organize discussion groups around specific thematic areas, such as on strengthening irrigation institutions, improving irrigation management practices, improvements in water data and usable information for resource management, interventions needed for on-farm management, and support for participatory irrigation management. The thematic sets of questions were similar to the necessary interventions identified in Dhingra and Sen (2012) and in this

90

report. The success of the workshops depended on the specificity of the questions posed to state officials as well as that of the answers. 187. With around 50 persons expected in each consultation, five breakout groups were proposed with 8-10 participants in each. Members of the ADB team were appointed as facilitators while each breakout group had to identify a rapporteur from within its membership. It was also important to have a mix of participants. Therefore, officials from the same state were divided into different groups. Similarly, officials with similar backgrounds were, to an extent, positioned in different groups. This was necessary to ensure that officials understood each other’s problems. Thus, irrigation officials could learn from those involved in PIM activities or on- specialists in on-farm management could benefit from those involved in data collection and analysis. Thus, the five thematic groups were:

(i) Irrigation institutional interventions, including integrated role of WRD/ID, CADAs and

WALMIs, etc.

(ii) Irrigation management interventions, including performance benchmarking, training

(in management not just engineering practices), constraints in implementing planned

actions, changes needed for improving water delivery, etc.

(iii) On-farm interventions, including storage and conveyance, crop diversification, crop-

water budgeting, service delivery and contractual arrangements, etc.

(iv) Participatory irrigation management interventions, including role and capacity

building of WUAs, ISF earnings, NIMF contributions, etc.

(v) Data, monitoring and evaluation, including basin level interventions, inter-sectoral

demand and entitlements, inter-state issues, and R&D

188. These five themes capture all of the main areas of attention in the NWUEI-SP study. But they are grouped in a way that extends from what WRDs could do in-house, what needs to be done in the field, how to involve other stakeholders, and how to consider the wider basin-level impacts. The last two are also in line with other goals of the NWM. These are also issues with rising degrees of difficulty. In the minimum, WRDs/IDs have to reform their internal management processes. Only then would they be ready to offer genuine service delivery improvements at the farm level or make PIM/IMT a legitimate and effective partnership. Understanding issues at a basin/inter-state level would be the hardest task.

D. Chandigarh workshop

189. Much of the discussion in this workshop focused on the broader questions of whether the target of 20% increase in water use efficiency was realistic or not, how could a baseline be established quickly, and how the central government could help in the implementation of the National Water Mission. 190. Senior officials felt that achieving the target of 20% efficiency improvement might be challenging but could be possible at a project level. Participants in the workshop were supportive of establishing a baseline quickly but recommended appropriate selection of representative samples at each stage of a canal system. Moreover, they wanted separate measurements of large and small canal systems and for different agro-climatic zones. Once a definition of WUE had been agreed (preferably crop productivity per unit of water supplied), it had to be uniformly applied across the country. Participants also recognized that measurements of WUE had to be undertaken on a continuous basis. Although not all WALMIs were functioning well, some were already involved in WUE assessments, and they could be leveraged to establish baselines using the sampling

91

method. Data generated from the canal system could be further triangulated using remote sensing and GIS technologies.

191. Participants had several suggestions on the crucial steps needed to improve WUE by 20%. The most important among them was increased financial resources dedicated to operations and maintenance of canal systems. Another issue that needed a lot of attention was raising awareness among farmers and creating incentives to voluntarily diversify cropping choices and practices. Thirdly, water user associations had to be supported, such as with financial incentives from the National Irrigation Management Fund. Fourthly, micro-irrigation systems had to be deployed more widely. And groundwater recharge had to become a priority for irrigation departments, WUAs and farmers. This meant that the conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water needed more attention at the farm level. The price differential between the two water sources was one major disincentive. If irrigation service fees were retained by the WUAs, it could be one way to encourage improved conjunctive management by the community. Finally, an inter-departmental committee or group was necessary to develop a common methodology for assessing WUE and, subsequently, appraising performance. 192. The support of the central government was, of course, vital in the case of financial resources, such as for O&M, strengthening groundwater departments, and modernizing irrigation systems. Support from the Ministry of Water Resources was also needed to bolster participatory irrigation management, training of WUAs, making WALMIs multi-disciplinary and more research oriented, and awarding incentives to ID staff that help implement PIM in their states. Further, central funds and other resources could be directed to research into newer crop varieties, as well as mass awareness campaigns to encourage water efficient practices.

E. Hyderabad workshop

193. Senior officials from Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka emphasized that, while a baseline for WUE had to be established, it was also important to understand state-specific challenges. For this purpose, there had to be improved coordination with other departments. Many water resources departments were still functioning primarily as irrigation departments, focused more on a supply-side and engineering-focused approach to irrigation. But the pursuit of an integrated approach to water management had to continue within state borders. Officials were skeptical about applying basin level water management practices. That said, states could learn from each with regard to institutional (strengthening WALMIs), technological (using telemetry and automated systems), and process (farmer-centric, multi-disciplinary) innovations in WUE. 194. On institutional interventions, participants recommended that IDs could be the nodal agency but the CADAs had to be included within them. Any institutional reform had to be undertaken based on the principles of integrated water resources management.

195. For improvements in irrigation management, participants emphasized the need for using state of the art measurement and control structures for water auditing, and coordinating with the agricultural department. Participants also concurred with the recommendations from Chandigarh with regard to involving stakeholders in sharing information and promoting PIM. They also recommended considering public private partnerships for the O&M of irrigation systems. 196. There was a lot of discussion on data and information requirements for improving WUE. Participants suggested creating a dedicated wing within the water resources departments for data collection, processing, assessments, and IT-enabled information dissemination. In order to establish baselines quickly, the main data requirements were

92

real-time rainfall, temperature, water levels and flow, water released and utilised, land use land cover, crops and cropping patterns, soil types etc. Moreover, whatever processes were established, it was necessary to standardise them to ensure uniformity in data collection and analysis. 197. The conjunctive use of groundwater and surface water was particularly a priority for on-farm interventions. For this purpose, groundwater mapping was necessary to understand variations in space and time, extraction and recharge rates, the quality of water pumps and availability of power availability, quality of water, etc. Moreover, the use of improved measurement devices could support the uptake of approaches focused on water balance and crop water budgeting. Extension services through farm schools and information dissemination about land leveling, improved cropping practices and results from pilot projects could further support WUE improvements at the field level.

198. Participants recognized that PIM institutions had to be multi-disciplinary and financially sustainable. For this, regular workshops and training by and for WALMIs were needed, PIM institutions had to be audited, and meetings of PIM institutions organized to share best practices. Perhaps most importantly, the inputs of farmers and WUAs were necessary in order to redesign PIM functions and allocation appropriate resources.

F. Overall recommendations (issues and constraints)

199. The analysis contained in this report and the national and state-wide consultations have revealed a number of common areas of concern as well as the possible solutions. There is broad consensus across a range of stakeholders that: (a) irrigation institutions have to become more focused on service delivery; (b) irrigation systems require more interventions in O&M and continuous performance monitoring; (c) outreach to farmers and WUAs is necessary for improving on-farm practices, cropping patterns, and conjunctive use of surface and ground water; (d) modern technology has to be combined with standardized data collection and analysis practices; and (e) strengthening WALMIs and providing resources and training to WUAs are the first steps towards making PIM more effective. 200. If the necessary interventions are now well known, what are the main constraints and who would be responsible for reducing them? The table below outlines five main sets of constraints and suggests the level of government where they could be targeted most effectively. Either interventions can be handled by states alone or they need inter-state coordination or national frameworks; and either the main hurdles will be financial or institutional, or related technical and capacity limitations. This is also a useful way to understand the kind of support that the central and state governments could provide as well as the role of donor agencies through pilot projects.

Table V.1: Key constraints and levels of intervention identified at regional

workshops

Constraints Actions needing mainly state-level

interventions

Actions needing inter-state/national

support

Policy/political Review policy of providing free electrical power

Mandate recycling and reuse of water

Regulating groundwater use

Review AIBP guidelines

Financial Resources needed for O&M Resources needed for modernizing irrigation systems

Repairing old structures, lining of canals

NIMF (by transferring money to WUAs) could incentivize farmers to

93

Constraints Actions needing mainly state-level

interventions

Actions needing inter-state/national

support

construct field channels

Institutional Make IDs the nodal agency (include CADAs within it)

Develop separate wings for data and information, PIM, training, research, etc.

Inter-departmental coordination needed (agriculture, irrigation, groundwater, industry)

Involve universities, WALMIs, ICAR, etc.

Create PIM bodies at a block level

Involve private sector in PPPs for O&M

WALMIs need strengthening and require central resources to bolster capacity

Create platforms for multi-stakeholder consultations and expertise

Technical Remote sensing and GIS complemented by on-the-ground assessments of WUE

Scientifically identify sample areas (agro-climatic zones, upstream versus downstream, cropping patterns)

Establish robust data measurement, storage and processing systems

Use ITES to collect and disseminate information

Inform farmers about rainfall, canal water discharge, reservoir levels through SMS and other dissemination services

Rapid assessment of baseline WUE

Determine indicators for assessing WUE

Develop pilot projects for various aspects of interventions to achieve 20% improvement in WUE

Support the uptake of effective cropping practices, such as SRI, AWD, etc.

Support research on soil analysis, nutrient mix, drought/flood resistant crop varieties

Map water resources using GIS and groundwater models

Capacity Training programmes for ID employees

Create farmer field schools

Educating field officials on service delivery and winning the confidence of farmers in a given social context

Training of WUAs

Workshops to share best practices across states

G. National level meeting

201. A meeting of the Working Group and State level consultations was held in New Delhi on 19th March, 2014. The meeting was chaired by the Secretary (Water Resources) and attended by Working Group members and representatives from Central and State Government agencies. A presentation was made by the study team on the proposals for the NWUEISP and the findings of the study. Following discussion on the presentation and issues raised the working group proposed that the draft final report be accepted by the Working Group subject to final revisions by the study team. The presentation, minutes of the meeting, list of participants and the matrix of comments and replies, are provided in Volume 2, Chapter VIII, Appendix VIII.1 to VIII.3. The recommendations of the Inter-departmental working group and State representatives and the replies of the ADB consultants are also reproduced in section VII of this report.

94

VI. STRATEGY FOR A NATIONAL WATER USE EFFICIENCY IMPROVEMENT SUPPORT PROGRAM

A. Introduction

202. This chapter summarizes the approach proposed for the National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP). This program will be supported by the ADB, other IFIs and the Government of India working in partnership with state governments. The draft NWUEISP Concept Paper is provided in ADB format in Volume 3.

B. Rational and objectives

203. The National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (the Program) will support the National Water Mission (NWM) and the 12th Five Year Plan (FYP) reform agendas aimed at improving water use efficiency and agricultural production on major and medium (MMI) schemes in India. The program, administered through central government, will support States in implementing the 12th Five Year Plan’s reform agenda of a “paradigm” shift in the way that irrigation schemes are managed operated and maintained. This paradigm shift requires that Irrigation Department (IDs) “move away from a narrow engineering-construction-centric approach to a more multi-disciplinary, participatory management approach for MMI schemes, with a focus on command area development and a sustained effort at improving water use efficiency42”. 204. The program will support both physical and non-physical (management/ institutional) initiatives focussed on improving the performance and water use efficiency of MMI schemes. Physical infrastructure will be upgraded/ modernized to improve the ability to convey, control and measure irrigation water, management will be strengthened to improve the planning, delivery and monitoring of irrigation water and institutions will be strengthened to better support and implement participatory irrigation management.

C. Components

205. The proposed components of the Support Program relate to the challenges and proposals highlighted in the NWM Comprehensive Mission Document and the 12th Fiver Year Plan: (i) Reform of Irrigation Departments and CADAs (ii) Reform of WALMIs (iii) Re-engagement with participatory irrigation management (PIM) (iv) Reform of the CAD&WM program (v) Upgrading and modernization of I&D system infrastructure for improved operation (vi) Modernization of on-farm and in-field irrigation processes (vii) Improved water use efficiency through conjunctive use of surface and groundwater

resources

206. The support proposed under these broad categories includes:

Upgrading and modernization of physical infrastructure to provide enhanced control and measurement of irrigation water

training and capacity building, for the ID and for associated institutions including WALMIs, universities and NGOs (particularly those associated with PIM)

42

Para 5.5, 12th

Five Year Plan, Planning Commission, Government of India

95

modernisation of management information systems, including greater use of ITES, MIS and DSS

development of performance management processes and procedures, including rapid appraisal of scheme performance and benchmarking

introduction of modern asset management and maintenance procedures

strengthening linkages between the ID and water users through PIM and introduction of service delivery contracts

strengthening the CAD&WM program to speed up surveys and to increase the understanding, knowledge and skills in relation to modern irrigation technologies, including micro-irrigation, efficient surface irrigation methods, use of buried pipes for water distribution, on-farm storage, etc.

studies, including to develop better understanding and guidelines related to the use and management of water at the on-farm level, conjunctive use and management of surface and groundwater, etc.

Pilot trials of new approaches, including management of schemes based on conjunctive use and management of surface and groundwater, and supporting WUAs with employment of paid O&M staff.

Table VI.1: Identified needs and proposed National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program activities


Resources required

Outputs/Outcomes

1. Reform of the Irrigation Department and CADAs, including:

Redefine roles and functions

Appointment of a new cadre of staff

Training of new and existing staff in water resources and irrigation manage-ment

Revised human resource manage-ment procedures

Modernised scheduling procedures

Introduction of performance manage-ment

Introduction of modern

Development of training programs for modern approaches to water resources and irrigation management. To include structured overseas training programs (such as at IHE-UNESCO in Delft) as well as capacity building of national and state institutions to provide training for ID staff in water resources and irrigation management (e.g. short 3 month intensive programs)

Exchange programs between states

Study tours to other states/countries (for WRM, IWM, PIM)

International and national TA (to assess training needs and identify training opportunities)

Identification of international and national education/training institutes/ universities

Scholarship program for ID staff from selected states

Scholarship programs for university/training institute staff from selected states (to build long term capacity in WRM and IWM)

Host countries with good examples of WRM, IWM, PIM

More knowledgeable and skilled ID personnel

More knowledgeable and skilled teaching/training staff

96


Resources required

Outputs/Outcomes

asset manage-ment procedures

Funds for state exchange programs

Senior management strategic leadership program


International or national course on strategic leadership

Senior managers knowledgeable about strategic leadership, including change management

Senior management able to lead change and reform in the ID

Development of performance management systems for MMI schemes

Application of Rapid Performance Assessment (RPA) procedures (developed under TA 7967-REG)


State Government RPA Team

Senior and middle level managers monitoring and evaluating individual scheme performance

MMI schemes benchmarked, best practice schemes and performance gaps identified

Less well performing schemes supported and improved

Review of current scheduling processes and procedures on MMI schemes (in participating states) and recommendations for improvement, together with guidelines for implementation


Updated scheduling procedures which match supply to demand

Improved service delivery – more reliable, adequate and timely irrigation water supply

GW mapped in the commands and combined SW-GW scheduling

Modernising of ID’s data collection, processing and analysis processes and procedures incorporating ITES.


ITES equipment and software

Reliable, timely and accurate data and information for system management and performance monitoring

Trials to test procedures for volumetric water allocation, including water entitlements


Funds for installation of control and measuring structures

Funds for

Water allocated and charged on a volumetric basis

Increased performance

Increased transparency and accountability

Increased ISF

97


Resources required

Outputs/Outcomes

training of ID and WUA personnel, mass awareness campaign, etc.

income

Development of standard service contracts between the ID and water users


Pilot schemes

Agreed set of rules between ID and water users on levels of service to be provided and ISF payments to be made

Improved service delivery

Transparent fee setting to match MOM needs

ID held accountable for service delivery, water users held accountable for ISF payment

Introduction of asset management planning (AMP) procedures for I&D infrastructure


Pilot schemes

Asset management plans prepared for each MMI scheme, with associated identification of level of service to be provided and service fees to be charged

Value of assets and costs of maintenance, repair and replacement identified, together with valuation of lost production for different levels of maintenance funding

Funding matches maintenance needs

2. Reform of WALMIs , including:

Appointment of new staff

Creation of a permanent cadre of skilled trainers and researchers

Revised staffing

Development of training programs for modern approaches to water resources and irrigation management. To include structured overseas training programs (such as at IHE-UNESCO in Delft)

Study tours to countries (for WRM, IWM, PIM)

Exchange and collaboration programs between WALMIs

Linkages with partner organisations in other countries

Scholarship program for selected states and selected WALMI personnel

Funds to support exchange/ collaboration programs

WALMIs capable of training ID, CADA and WUA personnel in water management

98


Resources required

Outputs/Outcomes

levels and procedures

Creation of regional/ district training centres and/or field training programs

Capacity building in water resources and irrigation management

Capacity building in PIM

Liaison with other agencies/universities

Enhanced functions-support command extension services

3. Re-engagement with participatory irrigation management (PIM), including:

Revising PIM Acts

Creating specialist PIM Cells within the ID

Awareness raising and training of ID staff

Formation or re-formation of WUAs

Awareness raising amongst water users

Training of WUA management, particularly in operation and main-tenance

Setting and collecting ISF for sustainable MOM

Supporting WUAs to employ executive staff (treasurers and water masters)

Support for revision of PIM Acts International and national TA

PIM Acts revised to be less prescriptive and more suited to community management approaches

Support for selected states to form PIM Cells


PIM Cells established in the ID which can then form and support WUAs

National WUA Capacity Building Program for NGOs

National TA from established NGOs (such as DSC in Gujarat)

State NGO capacity in PIM and WUA formation and support built to support state programs on PIM

Pilot trials for WUAs to employ staff

Selected functioning WUAs

National TA

Demonstration of the value of WUAs having paid staff to carry out key O&M functions

99


Resources required

Outputs/Outcomes

Participatory M&E

4. Reform of the CAD&WM program, including:

Revised organisational framework and structures

Revised procedures

Revised objectives and functions

Modern surveying techniques

Increasing the pace of the programme

Strengthening Warabandi

Carry out study on improved on-farm and irrigation technologies, including shift to micro-irrigation (sprinkler/drip), on-farm storage, buried pipes, border strip, etc.in canal commands

Support for possible PPP on diversification

National TA from established water management institutions and NGOs

Private sector partner

Faster coverage of CAD activities

Shift to micro-irrigation wherever feasible

Improved on-farm water use efficiency through improved distribution and application

5. Upgrading and modernization of I&D system infrastructure for improved operation.

Targeted physical works to improve the operability of MMI schemes, specifically in relation to conveyance, control and measurement of irrigation water (works to include desilting, repair/replacement of old and installation of new control structures and installation of measuring structures).

Installation of modern control systems (automatic gates, remote control, telemetry, etc.)

International and national TA (to develop NWUEISP guidelines and advise on modern control systems)

State RPA teams

Improved levels of control and measurement, allowing closer alignment of planned and actual schedules of water delivery

Improved capacity of canals to convey planned discharges

Real-time operation of canal systems

Improved levels of service to water users, matching demand and supply

6. Modernisation of on-farm and in-field irrigation processes:

Introduction of modern irrigation application techniques (micro-irrigation, land levelling, etc.)

Irrigation scheduling

Water conservation approaches (SRI, AWD, etc.)

Conjunctive use of surface and ground water

Detailed study of how water is managed at the moment at the on-farm


NGOs/ Private sector involvement

Knowledge of how irrigation water is currently used at the on-farm level

Recommendations and guidelines for improving water management at on-farm levels

Detailed study of how farmers use surface and groundwater conjunctively


Knowledge of conjunctive use of SW and GW at the on-farm level

Recommendations and guidelines for improving conjunctive use at the on-farm level together with at the main system level (i.e. allowance for conjunctive use in

100


Resources required

Outputs/Outcomes

resources main system scheduling)

7. Improved water use efficiency through conjunctive use of surface and groundwater resources

Support to establish pilot schemes where surface and groundwater can be managed conjunctively, including:

GW mapping

Identification of current conjunctive use

Opportunities for future conjunctive use

Options for GW recharge

WUA participation conjunctive use management


Collaboration between ID and GW Board

Funds for mapping, etc.

Functioning and active WUAs

Surface and groundwater resources managed in an integrated manner

WRM – Water resources management; IWM – Irrigation water management; PIM – Participatory irrigation management; AMP – Asset management planning; CADA – Command Area Development Authority

101

VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

207. This study has highlighted the wide range of issues constraining the performance of MMI schemes throughout the water supply chain from the watershed to the crop root zone. These issues cover several domains - technical, social, economic, legal, political and environmental – with solutions to specific issues requiring action in a mix of these domains. Improving the performance of the PIM program, for example, requires changes to the legal and institutional framework for establishing WUAs, changing attitudes within the ID, building trust and a sense of ownership amongst water users, and raising funds for system management, operation and maintenance. 208. Better management lies at the heart of any endeavours to improve the situation. Hitherto the government and the Irrigation Department have focused on the construction of new irrigation systems to increase much needed agricultural production and livelihood security for the rural community. With increasing pressure on available water supplies, as emphasised in the 12th FYP, there is a need to focus on better management of constructed irrigation and drainage schemes, making them more efficient and productive, particularly in relation to their water use. Madhya Pradesh provides a valuable example of how significant improvements in agricultural production are possible with mainly management interventions. In 2011-12 the irrigated area in MP was doubled, from 8 lakh ha to 16 lakh ha, by senior WRD management setting and closely monitoring performance targets, delegating responsibility to middle management to take decisions which would contribute to enhancing performance and rewarding good performance. The procedures were refined and the performance improvement consolidated in 2012-13 resulting in a total irrigated area of just over 20 lakh ha. 209. Good management requires good information based on reliable and accurate data - the 12th FYP has highlighted the need for improved data collection, processing and analysis. These data need to be used by management to understand the performance of irrigation and drainage schemes and to improve such performance where it is found to be inadequate, with benchmarking being used to identify gaps between best practice and less well performing schemes. For this reason this study has emphasised the importance of performance assessment and benchmarking as a basic management tool, it provides understanding of current performance (“where we are now”) with identification of desirable and achievable performance (“where we want to be”) and, through gap analysis, with actions required to achieve these desired levels of performance (“how we plan to get there”). 210. It is recommended that the follow-on project (TA 7967-REG: Innovations for More Food with Less Water – Task 2) develop standardized procedures for rapid performance assessment appraisal of MMI schemes which will enable states to assess the current status of their MMI schemes. Such assessment will act as a baseline against which to measure improvements in performance of each and every MMI scheme over the coming years. 211. The proposals made herein for the National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program (NWUEISP), as detailed in the draft Concept Paper provided in Volume 3, are intended to support the NWM and 12th FYP reform agendas through discrete activities which enable reform-minded states to initiated reforms, test and establish new processes and procedures through pilot studies, strengthen their management information and decision making systems and build mature working relationships with water users.

102

212. The findings of the report were discussed and accepted by an Inter-departmental Working Group and State level representatives during a meeting held on 19th March 2014. The recommendations of the Inter-departmental working group and State representatives and the replies of the ADB consultants are reported in table VII.1. The general suggestions/comments of the Inter-departmental working group and state representatives would be considered during implementation of future phases of the project.

Table VII.1: Matrix of comments and replies

(On the recommendations made during the Inter-departmental Working Group and the State level consultations on the National Water Use Efficiency Implementation Support Programme, held at Shram

Shakti Bhawan, New Delhi on 19th

March 2014)

Recommendations Replies/ Action Taken

Secretary, MOWR

i) Rapid Project Appraisal (RPA) is to be raised

by the study team or by the States where Pilots Projects are being undertaken up.

ii) Cost curve is devised by the agencies having

insufficient regard to the Indian systems and mechanism of working. ADB could modify the Cost curve.

iii) Desalination (in the WRG slide) is too

expensive and is not a solution at present, cost is now reducing; may not be an option for industry and agriculture sectors

iv) The cost effectiveness term used in 2030

WRG slide is vague and does not truly reflect the Indian scenario. The term should be used with a caution. (2030 WRG cost curve).

v) The information used in the slides on potential

irrigation development in States should use up to date data of the Planning Commission.

vi) Recharging and rainwater harvesting is a no-

no option. No addition to GW that is why we do not go in for underground reservoirs. Underground water is like bursting oil on exploration by farmers; a characteristic is underground water may move in different directions and also has resulted into increased use in MMI from shallow aquifers. (on gw slide)

i) The study team is aiming to develop a RPA

approach that can be used to identify scheme specific targeted interventions, which include both engineering and non-engineering interventions. RAP would help in reducing the time normally required to assess the irrigation scheme performance and modernization requirement.

ii) The cost curve was developed in a study carried

out by the 2030 Water Resources Group in 2009 (Report title “Charting our water future: Economic frameworks to inform decision-making”). The curve is shown to demonstrate the principle of relating the cost of an intervention to its effectiveness in addressing the perceived gap between the requirement and availability of water resources. The ADB was not involved in the study. This aspect is now deleted from the report.

iii) Indeed, as the 2030 WRG cost curve shows,

desalination is an expensive option for obtaining freshwater. Even in the UK it is considered too expensive. Agreed, at present it is only viable in countries such as the Middle East with scarce water resources but also significant financial resources.

iv) Agreed, the slide is shown to demonstrate the

concept of linking the cost to the effectiveness of the intervention. The slide and the relevant portions in the report are now removed.

v) Agreed, the information has been updated using

latest available Planning Commission data. vi) Groundwater recharge is used in some countries,

such as the USA, to good effect. However it needs good understanding and modelling of the aquifers. Control on ground water would be required initially through participatory efforts of WUAs on maintain levels within safe zones and modelling in the long run.

103

vii) Will there be any funding from inter-linking angle.

viii) What could be the limitations of ADB’s support

versus 12th

FYP’s targets

vii) Not envisaged at this stage. viii) Limitations may be related to the timelines as

preparation of an ADB financed program may take at least 1.5 years. So the program may support both 12 and part of the13 FYP.

Chairman, CWC

i) Overall program is in line with objective of

NWM and 12 FYP. Effectiveness of any enhancement and readiness of the program will depend upon willingness and readiness of the states. Capacity development and awareness generation should be the two primary components within any efficiency enhancement programme. Key issue in planning is to understand what is needed to make the system performance optimum. The importance of bringing innovation in the planning and management process, such as using portfolio project level approach and strengthening the coordination with the agriculture extension departments. IDs should lean away the farmers from unrealistic practices.

ii) Canals should be efficient and should be

developed to serve the intended purpose, rather than being thought of as groundwater recharge systems. There is also a need to map the relationship between the surface and ground water system.

i) Agree, the program is designed to ensure that it is

the States that propose and design their MMI scheme modernization plan, involvement of the CWC is to provide technical support for planning and design, and sharing of knowledge and experience, both from the international context but also within India and between States.

ii) Fully agree.

Advisor (C&M), NWM, MOWR

i) Whether lining of the canal system is an

option which may reduce volume of ground water recharge and conjunctive use, though the research team has advocated conjunctive use to improve the WUE of major and medium projects. Diverted water when taken into the account may bring in benefit to a large number of farmers, which means additional area can be brought under cultivation.

ii) Capacity building and training of the WRD/ID

is important

i) It is clarified that the lining of the canals is

advocated in the crucial reaches of the canals, where there is excessive seepage/leakage, where losses are beyond the conjunctive use requirements and that this should be determined through modelling of the reaches. In lower order of canals lining may be effective as the losses per unit of discharge are higher. Also lining of minor canals would help WUAs to move water quickly down the minor, which would benefit the tail end.

ii) Fully agree, the report advocates for significant

training and capacity building of WRD/ID staff, particularly in the use of modern technology (ITES) and to complement WUA development.

Adviser (Technical), NWM & Member WG

i) The issue on definition of the WUE should be settled.

ii) Revision of the DPR guidelines to be included

in the report.

i) Section III-C of the main report and chapter IV of

Volume II cover detailed review of the approaches on defining WUE concept and the mechanism for quick assessment of WUE.

ii) Section IV of the main report and Chapter VII of Volume II covers this aspect.

Joint Advisor, Planning Commission

i. ADB support is too little as compared to the targets fixed by the 12th Five year Plan

i. Secretary (MOWR) opined that ADB may not be

able to provide fund to achieve the full target of

104

agenda for ERM (extension, renovation and modernisation) of irrigation projects. 12

th FYP

has provision of 2 million ha to be covered under ERM by the end of 12

th FYP but only 3

lakh ha is proposed to be covered under program. We should straightaway go in for meeting the targets.

ERM and suggested that the targets achieved should commensurate with the present allocations of funds. ADB further clarified that ADB support will always remain marginal compared to the total requirement but if strategically used it can provide strong support to achieving national plans and programs. In the context of the NWEISP it could for instance help states to leverage funds set up under 12 FYP water programme such as National Irrigation Management Fund (NIMF) etc. by supporting them in implementing water agenda and fulfilling criteria to leverage these funds.

Representative from MOA

i) Effective Rainfall is to be taken up in water balance and crop management. Increasing application efficiency and creation of secondary storage structures, particularly at the tail-ends of the canal system need to be considered to increase the water use efficiency of the MMI systems. ICAR has developed some of the very good local water conservation technologies which should be considered. There is need to integrate all sources of water within the command.

i) Agreed and noted. Baseline WUE benchmarks

and performance indicators can guide which local techniques could be more effective. Scientific analysis is needed for judicious integration of all resources within the command including ponds, tanks, groundwater, off line storages with the canal water. Coordination of the departments on these issues is envisaged.

Representative from ICAR

i) Instead of a generalized target of 20%, a state specific improvement target can be adopted for WUE improvement as the conditions in the states and individual schemes vary.

ii) Many specific kinds of technologies are

developed by ICAR regional centres, which can be adopted. These technologies refer to specific management issues in the commands and regions. Management issues are dominant in the NWUEISP and should include issues like promoting night irrigation, improved scheduling, adequate fertilizer use to avoid lynching to deep groundwater. Other small interventions may include creation of secondary water storages, use of sprinkler, drip, etc. The interventions should be location specific.

iii) In canal systems we need high frequency of

water supply and thus the canals should be redesigned to their roles.

i) The figure of 20% is an average figure for the

country. Project specific targets for the WUE improvement are envisaged under RPA and proposals prepared accordingly. Different parts of an irrigation system could have different physical status and aging of canal systems so rehabilitation work would remain an integral component of any modernization programme.

ii) Noted and agreed, new technologies and

practices need to be taken up. The role of ADB is to raise awareness and would prefer to work on a ‘finance plus’ mode, where capacity building, institutional development and working directly with farmers would be promoted. The low cost highly effective management interventions having high beneficial impacts would be adopted. Experience gained in Madhya Pradesh has demonstrated that strong leadership, use of modern technology and empowerment of WRD staff and WUAs can also have a measureable impact on the performance of the irrigation systems and agricultural productivity.

iii) Yes we agree.

Director General (NWDA)

i) Concept is acceptable and concentrates on

management issues. The crux lies in its implementation.

i) Agreed.

Representative from World Bank

i) Canal systems should be efficient. This should

i) Program concept advocates improving the

105

be our main concern. ii) There should be certain sensitive issues,

which need collective approach.

performance of the canal systems through coordination of physical and management interventions issues.

ii) Agreed.

Representative from WALMTARI, Andhra Pradesh

i) Under different restructuring projects of the World Bank pilot projects are being undertaken. Rather than starting fresh pilots it could be better if one could learn from the existing projects and then leapfrog.

ii) Largely the management comes first. Assured

and reliable water supply to farmers, promotion of volumetric supply, promotion of solar powered water saving technologies could be some options, but delivery should be based on crop water requirements (demand mode). Most of these measures are required to improve water and land productivity as well as improved land reclamation efforts.

iii) WALMIs in the states can bring management

changes.

i) Agreed that experience from past and existing

projects, such as the World Bank funded Water Sector Restructuring Projects, should be incorporated in any project design. In the context of this program pilot projects (or studies) are required to develop some of the thinking set out in the report, particularly in relation to practical approaches for Rapid Performance Assessment (RPA).

ii) Agreed. In fact RPA is to be designed to take care

of the issues concerning the project and available options to address the concerned issues. This aspect is proposed to be further examined under the pilots.

iii) Agreed, this is exactly what is envisaged under

the programme.

Representative from WALMI, Gujarat

i) Measures to address the issues should be

replicable. Also ground water reserve is difficult to assess.

i) Agreed. Rapid Performance Assessment and

baseline WUE bench mark studies will examine these issues and based on these studies possible options could be explored.

Principal Secretary (Maharashtra)

i) What are the criteria for selection of pilots? ii) It is important to give farmers the right to

choose their cropping pattern and the issue of water entitlements for farmers as two critical issues which would affect WUE in MMI.

iii) Importance of training and capacity building

for ID/WRD staff is also a critical concern. How WUAs and IDs implement reforms needs to be critically evaluated and established.

i) The Pilots are identified based on broad selection

criteria in consultation with MOWR, CWC and the state governments. The intention of these pilot studies is to test out some of the recommendations of the report, such as Rapid Performance Assessment procedures and the use of remote sensing for performance assessment. Secretary MoWR opined that the pilot projects should be chosen given the diverse agro-geo-climatic regions of the country.

ii) Fully agree, experience of schemes such as

Waghad in Maharashtra show the benefits of freeing up the cropping pattern, combined with participatory management of the scheme. Also agree that water entitlements are important and help farmers plan their cropping patterns.

iii) Fully agree, a great deal more needs to be done

to build the capacity of the WRD/ID staff, as well as support, training and capacity building for WUAs and water users. The report emphasizes the central importance of WRD/ID training and capacity building.

106

Representative from Punjab

i) Rehabilitation of the age-old canal systems in Punjab is required to raise WUE. Ensuring benchmarks for WUE should be state/project and location specific.

ii) What is the advantage of ADB funding over

NABARD funding?

i) Agreed that in some cases rehabilitation will be

required, but the focus of this program is to improve the performance of irrigation systems through both physical and management interventions. It is agreed that WUE benchmark are to be location and project specific.

ii) ADB representative clarified that ADB funding are in principle cheaper than NARBARD and come with the finance plus element like capacity building, support for soft component such as participatory irrigation management, technical assistance etc. ADB representative also clarified that ADB financing is not appropriate and ADB is not interested to finance routine/standard project which are easy for the states to design and implement. States should consider ADB financing for projects that are innovative/challenging to design and implement as ADB is well placed to provide necessary support and guidance.

Representative from Haryana

i) Water scarcity is the key issue in Haryana, which has predominance of small and marginal farmer land holdings. Affordability of water saving technologies is a challenge, for which PIM is an effective intervention. People still use field to field flood irrigation. Importance of field channels is the key to improving WUE.

i) The main emphasis of the 12

th FYP agenda is on

these aspects. These aspects have been effectively taken care of in the programme concept.

Representative from Tamilnadu

i) Irrigation is being looked after by PHE, Canal area is looked after by MI department and CADAs is looked after by Agriculture Department. There is a need for bringing the attitudinal change among the departments.

ii) Solar powered water saving technologies and

PIM to increase WUE are already practiced in the state.

i) Agreed, departmental realignment and

cooperation to support the programme is required if higher efficiencies are to be achieved. Program concept lays emphasis on coordination among various departments

ii) Noted. This could be one option under the

program depending upon its cost effectiveness.

Representative from WALMI, Uttar Pradesh

i) Increased inflow has resulted in saving water

through PIM. This has been demonstrated in the WB restructuring project on Sharda Sahayak Canal. Ramganga canal system is now being taken up for modernization. Water is provided free. Holdings are small. Attitudinal change among the staff in the irrigation department for better management of the canal system is required.

i) Agreed. The very purpose of the NWUEISP is to

save water through efficient use, encourage coordination of institutions, recover ISF to promote NIMF and provide capacity building of farmers and functionaries. Integration of various organizations dealing with these aspects would definitely promote the cause.

Representative from Jharkhand

i) Water underneath ground is moving; major

amount of water is in the hard rock; integrated water management (conjunctive use) is required. The issue is - how do we implement it?

i) Conjunctive use is very much envisaged in the

NWEUISP. It is also a suggestion of the 12th FYP

plan agenda. Its implementation is not difficult. Strengthening piezometer network, data collation on water levels and coordination of IDs, and WUAs can realistically implement conjunctive use to begin with. Later this can be improved through

107

ii) Frequent construction of outlets over

conveyance and distribution channels has reduced WUE. Water saving technologies can effectively increase WUE.

iii) States should be members of the proposed

PTCU in the Centre.

modelling.

ii) Redesigning and modernizing of the outlets and field channels is included as a component of RPA.

iii) Agreed. This is proposed with the establishment

of a Program Steering Committee (PSC) on which participating states will have representatives.

Representative from Rajasthan

i) Use of water saved through improved WUE

may not be shared for other purpose. It should be used to increase the command area.

ii) Enforcing the cropping pattern is a challenge. iii) WALMI at Kota needs to be strengthened.

i) How best the water saved can be utilized would

depend upon the location where it is saved. Normally the water saved in the commands is either through reduced supplies or ground water reserve. It is for the State Governmnets to decide how best the water saved is allocated.

ii) This relates to the earlier point made by the PS, Maharashtra. Freeing up the cropping pattern can be beneficial, but needs agreement with the water users (through their WUAs).

iii) We agree. In fact strengthening of all WALMIs is included in the 12

th FYP Agenda and is very much

the recommendation of the NWUEISP.

Chairman, CWC

i) ADB program might have a bouquet of

interventions that the states and individual projects may choose from based on their location-specific conditions. In that way lop-sided development would be avoided and a more holistic growth could be envisaged.

ii) The Chairman suggested that the draft final

report of the NWUEISP be accepted subject to incorporation of the observations/suggestions of the inter-departmental working group and the state representatives. Chairman also suggested moving forward to next step of the study, i.e. formulation of the project subject to approval of GOI.

i) Indeed agree that any interventions need to be

coordinated to optimise the beneficial impacts. Some interventions will be common in projects carried out by different states, the role of the PTCU is to assist States in identifying and selecting relevant interventions.

ii) Acknowledged. ADB will submit final report and

move forward as suggested.

108

REFERENCES AND READING MATERIAL

Abernethy, C.L. 1986. Performance measurement in canal water management: A discussion, ODI/IIMI Irrigation management Network Paper 86/2d, Overseas Development Institute, London.

Amarasinghe, U.A., Sharma, B.R., Aloysius, N., Scott, C.; Smakhtin, V. and de Fraiture, C. 2004. Spatial variation in water supply and demand across river basins in India. Research Report 83, International Water Management Institute, Colombo.

Amarasinghe, U.A., Shah T., Turral, H. and Anand, B.K. 2007. India’s water future to 2025-2050: Business-as-usual scenario and deviations. Research Report 123, International Water Management Institute, Colombo.

ANCID (2000) 1998/99 Australian Irrigation Water Provider – Benchmarking Report. Australian National Committee on Irrigation and Drainage, Victoria, Australia.

Barrett Purcell & Associates (1999) Determining a framework, terms and definitions for water use efficiency in irrigation. Report to Land and Water Resources Research and Development Corporation, September 1999. 26p. Land & Water Australia, www.lwa.gov.au

Beadle A.D., Burton M.A., Smout I.K. and Snell M.J., (1988). Integration of engineering, institutional and social requirements into rehabilitation design - A case study from Nepal. Irrigation and Drainage Systems, Volume 2, Nr 1.

Bos, M.G. and J. Nugteren. 1974. On irrigation efficiencies. ILRI Publication Nr. 19, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement (ILRI), Wageningen, The Netherlands.

Bos, M.G. 1985. Summary of ICID definitions on irrigation efficiency, ICID Bulletin, Vol.34, No.1, January.

Bos, M.G., D.H. Murray-Rust, D.J.Merrey, H.G. Johnson and W.B. Snellen. 1993. Methodologies for assessing performance or irrigation and drainage management. Paper presented at the Workshop of the Working Group on Irrigation and Drainage Performance, ICID 15th International Congress, The Hague, The Netherlands

Bos, M.G., Murray-rust, D.H., Merrey, D.J., Johnson, H.G. and Snellen, W.B. 1994. Methodologies for assessing performance of irrigation and drainage management. Irrigation and Drainage Systems, Vol. 7, Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands

Bos, M.G., Burton M.A. and Molden, D. (2005) Irrigation and Drainage Performance Assessment: Practical Guidelines. CABI Publishing, Wallingford, United Kingdom

Burton, Martin. 2010. Irrigation management: Principles and practices. CAB International. Wallingford, United Kingdom.

Burton, Martin A., Rahul Sen, Simon Gordon-Walker, Anand Jalakam, and Arunabha Ghosh (2011) National Water Resources Framework Study: Research Report Submitted to the Planning Commission for the 12th Five Year Plan, September, New Delhi: Council on Energy, Environment and Water and 2030 Water Resources Group, pp. i-584. http://ceew.in/pdf/CEEW-WRG12Sep11.pdf

Burton, Martin A., Rahul Sen, Simon Gordon-Walker, and Arunabha Ghosh (2011) National Water Resources Framework Study: Roadmaps for Reforms, October, New Delhi: Council on Energy, Environment and Water and 2030 Water Resources Group, pp. i-68. http://ceew.in/pdf/CEEW-WRG10Oct11.pdf

Burton, Martin, Smith, Laurence and Roux, Julienne. (2008) Toolkit for monitoring and evaluation of agricultural water management projects. Agricultural and Rural Development Division (ARD), World Bank, Washington.

Burton M.A., Kingdom W.D. and Welch J.W. (1996). Strategic investment planning for irrigation - The "Asset Management" approach. Irrigation and Drainage Systems, Vol. 10, pp.207-226, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Netherlands.

CEPIS. 1989. Donald M. Tate, Principles of water use efficiency

http://ceew.in/pdf/CEEW-WRG12Sep11.pdf

http://ceew.in/pdf/CEEW-WRG10Oct11.pdf

109

Chambers, Robert. (1988) Managing canal irrigation: Practical analysis from South Asia. Cambridge University Press, United Kingdom.

CWC. 2010. Summary report on water use efficiency (WUE) studies for 30 irrigation projects. Performance Overview and Management Improvement Organisation (POMIO), Central Water Commission, Government of India, New Delhi, January.

Dhingra A.S. & Sen Rahul (2012). Sector Study on Development of Synthesis and Draft Action Plan for Improving water Use efficiency of irrigated Agriculture in Selected Indian States. Asian Development Bank Project no. RSC C-13535(IND) and RSC C-13696 (IND)

European Commission. 2004. Project Cycle Management Guidelines, Vol.1. European Commission, Brussels, March. Available at http://ec.europa.eu/comm/europeaid/qsm/documents/pcm_manual_2004_en.pdf

Fairweather, Helen, Nick Austin, Meredith Hope. 2003. Water use efficiency: An information package, Irrigation Insights No.5, Land and Water Australia, Canberra, Australia

FAO, 2008. Modernization strategy for irrigation management in Almatti Systems – KJBNL, Karnataka, India. Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations, Rome, June.

FAO. 1999. Modern Water Control and Management Practices in Irrigation: Impact on Performance by C.M. Burt and S.W. Styles, FAO Water Report No. 19, Rome, 224 pp.

GOI. 2012. National Water Policy, Government of India, New Delhi GoM. 2008. Report on benchmarking of irrigation projects in Maharashtra, 2006-7. Water

Resources Department, Government of Maharashtra, March. Huppert, Walter and Urban, Klaus. (1998) Analysing service provision: Instruments for

development cooperation illustrated by examples from irrigation. GTZ publication No.263, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), GmbH, Eschborn, Germany.

ICID. 2004. Benchmarking of irrigation and drainage projects, Task Force Report, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi, September

ICID. 1978. Standards for the calculation of irrigation efficiencies. Bulletin 27, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, New Delhi, India.

IWRS, 2004. Efficiency of Water Resources System, Theme Paper, Indian Water Resources Society, New Delhi.

JNKVV (2012). Annual Progress Report, 2011-12, Department of Soil and Water Engineering, Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya College of Agricultural Engineering, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, for the Madhya Pradesh Water Sector Restructuring Project, Water.

Mao Zhi. 1989. Identification of causes of poor performance of a typical large-sized irrigation scheme in South China. ODI/IIMI Irrigation management Network Paper 89/1b, Overseas Development Institute, London, June.

Malano, H., Burton, M. and Makin, I. (2004) Benchmarking performance in the irrigation and drainage sector: A tool for change. In: Special Issue: Benchmarking in the Irrigation and Drainage Sector. Irrigation and Drainage 53 (2). New York: Wiley, June

Malano, Hector and Burton, Martin (2001). Guidelines for benchmarking performance in the irrigation and drainage sector. IPTRID Secretariat, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN, Rome.

Malano, H.M., P.J.M. van Hofwegen. 1999. Management of Irrigation and Drainage Systems - A Service Approach; IHE Monograph 3, Balkema Publishers Rotterdam/Brookfield.

Merriam, J.L., M.N.Shearer and C.M.Burt. 1983. Evaluating irrigation systems and practices. In Design and operation of farm irrigation systems, M.E. Jensen (Ed.). ASAE Monograph No.3, American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

http://ec.europa.eu/comm/europeaid/qsm/documents/pcm_manual_2004_en.pdf

110

Merriam, J.L. and J. Keller. 1978. Farm irrigation system evaluation: A guide to management. Utah State University, Logan, Utah.

Molden, David. Accounting for water use and productivity. SWIM Paper No.1, International Water Management Institute, Colombo.

Molden, D.J., Sakthivadivel, R., Perry, C.J., de Fraiture, C. and Kloezen, W. 1998. Indicators for comparing performance of irrigated agricultural systems. Research report 20, International Water Management Institute, Colombo.

Mohan, S.S. and S. Dasgupta. 2004. The 21st century: Asian becomes urban. Economic and Political Weekly, 15 January, 40 (3), pp 213-23.

Murray-Rust, D.H. and Snellen, W.B. 1993. Irrigation system performance assessment and diagnosis. Joint IIMI/ILRI/IHEE Publication, International Irrigation Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka

NLWRA (National Land & Water Resources Audit) (2001). Australian Water Resources Assessment 2000. Natural Heritage Trust.

NWM. 2011. Comprehensive Mission Document, National Water Mission under National Action Plan for Climate change, Government of India, New Delhi, April

NWUEISP. 2013. Note on measures to improve water use efficiency and categorization of MMI schemes, Scoping Study for a National Water Use Efficiency Improvement Support Program, Delhi, January.

ORGCC. 2011. Provisional Population Totals Paper 1 of 2011, India Series 1. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India, Government of India, Ministry of Home Affairs

Plusquellec, H., Burt, C.M. and Wolter, H.W. 1994. Modern water control in irrigation: Concepts, issues and applications. World Bank Technical Paper No. 246, Irrigation and Drainage Series, World Bank, Washington D.C.

Shah, Tushaar. 2009. Taming the anarchy: Groundwater governance in South Asia. Resources for the Future/International Water Management Institute, Washington D.C. and Colombo.

Small, L.E. and Svendsen, M. (1992) A framework for assessing irrigation performance. IFPRI Working Papers on Irrigation Performance No.1. International Food Policy Research Institute, Washington, D.C., August.

UN. 2002. World population prospects: The 2002 revision. United Nations Population Division, Population database (http://esa.un.org.unpp/)

Verma, Shilip and Sanjiv J. Phansalkar. 2007. India’s water future 2050: Potential deviations from “Business as Usual”. International Journal of Rural Management, 3 (1), pp. 149-179, Sage Publications, Los Angeles/London/New Delhi/Singapore.

http://esa.un.org.unpp/

Documents

ADBnwm.gov.in/sites/default/files/study_research/ADB- 1st...Bank (ADB), by a team comprising of Arnaud Cauchois1, Harish Kumar Varma2, Martin A Burton3, and Amarjit S. Dhingra4. The